Slip-stacked perylenediimides as an alternative strategy for high efficiency nonfullerene acceptors in organic photovoltaics

Loosely Bounded Exciton with Enhanced Delocalization Capability Boosting Efficiency of Organic Solar Cells

In organic solar cells (OSCs), electron acceptors have undergone multiple updates, from the initial fullerene derivatives, to the later acceptor-donor-acceptor type non-fullerene acceptors (NFAs), and now to Y-series NFAs, based on which efficiencies have reached over 19%. However, the key property responsible for further improved efficiency from molecular structure design is remained unclear. Herein, the material properties are comprehensively scanned by selecting PC71BM, IT-4F, and L8-BO as the representatives for different development stages of acceptors. For comparison, asymmetric acceptor of BTP-H5 with desired loosely bounded excitons is designed and synthesized. It's identified that the reduction of intrinsically exciton binding energy (Eb) and the enhancement of exciton delocalization capability act as the key roles in boosting the performance. Notably, 100 meV reduction in Eb has been observed from PC71BM to BTP-H5, correspondingly, electron-hole pair distance of BTP-H5 is almost two times over PC71BM. As a result, efficiency is improved from 40% of S-Q limit for PC71BM-based OSC to 60% for BTP-H5-based one, which achieves an efficiency of 19.07%, among the highest values for binary OSCs. This work reveals the confirmed function of exciton delocalization capability quantitatively in pushing the efficiency of OSCs, thus providing an enlightenment for future molecular design.

Sculpting photoproducts with DNA origami

Natural light-harvesting systems spatially organize densely packed dyes in different configurations to either transport excitons or convert them into charge photoproducts, with high efficiency. In contrast, artificial photosystems like organic solar cells and light-emitting diodes lack this fine structural control, limiting their efficiency. Thus, biomimetic multi-dye systems are needed to organize dyes with the sub-nanometer spatial control required to sculpt resulting photoproducts. Here, we synthesize 11 distinct perylene diimide (PDI) dimers integrated into DNA origami nanostructures and identify dimer architectures that offer discrete control over exciton transport versus charge separation. The large structural-space and site-tunability of origami uniquely provides controlled PDI dimer packing to form distinct excimer photoproducts, which are sensitive to interdye configurations. In the future, this platform enables large-scale programmed assembly of dyes mimicking natural systems to sculpt distinct photophysical products needed for a broad range of optoelectronic devices, including solar energy converters and quantum information processors.

Efficient Photocatalytic Cleavage of Lignin Models by a Soluble Perylene Diimide/Carbon Nitride S-Scheme Heterojunction

3,4,9,10-Perylenetetracarboxylic dianhydride (PDI) is one of the best n-type organic semiconductors and an ideal light-driven catalyst for lignin depolymerization. However, the charge localization effect and the excessively strong intermolecular aggregation trend in PDI result in rapid electron-hole (e- -h+ ) recombination, which limits photocatalytic performance. Herein, polymeric carbon nitride/polyhedral oligomeric silsesquioxane PDI (p-CN/P-PDI) S-scheme heterojunction photocatalyst was prepared by the solvent evaporation-deposition method for C-C bond selective cleavage of lignin β-O-4 model. Based on the material characterization results, the synergic role of polyhedral oligomeric silsesquioxane (POSS) and S-scheme heterojunction maintains appropriate aggregation domains, achieves better solar light utilization, faster charge-transfer efficiency, and greater redox capacity. Notably, the 3 % p-CN/P-PDI heterostructure exhibits a remarkable enhancement in cleavage conversion efficiency, achieving approximately 16.42 and 2.57 times higher conversion rates compared to polyhedral oligomeric silsesquioxane modified PDI (POSS-PDI) and polymeric carbon nitride (p-CN), respectively.

Effect of perylene assembly shapes on photoelectrochemical properties and ultrasensitive biosensing behaviors toward dopamine

In this study, a photoelectrochemical (PEC) sensor based on perylene diimide derivatives (PDIs) was developed for the ultrasensitive quantification of dopamine (DA). PDIs were able to form self-assembled semiconductor nanostructures by strong π-π stacking, suitable for photoactive substances. Moreover, the shape of the PDI significantly affected the PEC properties of these nanostructures. The results showed that amino PDI with two-dimensional (2D) wrinkled layered nanostructures exhibited superior PEC properties relative to one-dimensional (1D) nanorods and fiber-based nanostructures (methyl and carboxyl PDIs). Based on these results, a mechanism for PEC sensor action was then proposed. The presence of 2D amino-PDI resulted in accelerated charge separation and transport. Furthermore, dopamine acted as effective electron donor to cause an increase in photocurrent. The as-obtained sensor was then used to detect small molecules like DA. A blue light optimized sensor at an applied potential of 0.7 V showed a detection limit of 1.67 nM with a wide linear range of 5 nM to 10 μM. On the other hand, the sensor presented acceptable reliability in determining DA in real samples. A recovery rate between 97.99 and 101.0% was obtained. Overall, controlling the morphology of semiconductors can influence PEC performance, which is a useful finding for the future development of PEC sensors.

Influence of Al2O3 Overlayers on Intermolecular Interactions between Metal Oxide Bound Molecules

Intermolecular interactions on inorganic substrates can have a critical impact on the electrochemical and photophysical properties of the materials and subsequent performance in hybrid electronics. Critical to the intentional formation or inhibition of these processes is controlling interactions between molecules on a surface. In this report, we investigated the impact of surface loading and atomic-layer-deposited Al₂O₃ overlayers on the intermolecular interactions of a ZrO₂-bound anthracene derivative as probed by the photophysical properties of the interface. While surface loading density had no impact on the absorption spectra of the films, there was an increase in excimer features with surface loading as observed by both emission and transient absorption. The addition of ALD overlayers of Al₂O₃ resulted in a decrease in excimer formation, but the emission and transient absorption spectra were still dominated by excimer features. These results suggest that ALD may provide a post-surface loading means of influencing such intermolecular interactions.

Size-Tunable Semiconducting 2D Nanorectangles from Conjugated Polyenyne Homopolymer Synthesized via Cascade Metathesis and Metallotropy Polymerization

Size-tunable semiconducting two-dimensional (2D) nanosheets from conjugated homopolymers are promising materials for easy access to optoelectronic applications, but it has been challenging due to the low solubility of conjugated homopolymers. Herein, we report size-tunable and uniform semiconducting 2D nanorectangles via living crystallization-driven self-assembly (CDSA) of a fully conjugated polyenyne homopolymer prepared by cascade metathesis and metallotropy (M&M) polymerization. The resulting polyenyne with enhanced solubility successfully underwent living CDSA via biaxial growth mechanism, thereby producing 2D nanorectangles with sizes precisely tuned from 0.1 to 3.0 μm² with narrow dispersity mostly less than 1.1 and low aspect ratios less than 3.1. Furthermore, living CDSA produced complex 2D block comicelles with different heights from various degrees of polymerization (DPs) of unimers. Based on diffraction analyses and DFT calculations, we proposed an interdigitating packing model with an orthorhombic crystal lattice of semiconducting 2D nanorectangles.

Controlling Molecular Orientation of Small Molecular Dopant-Free Hole-Transport Materials: Toward Efficient and Stable Perovskite Solar Cells

Perovskite solar cells (PSCs) have great potential for future application. However, the commercialization of PSCs is limited by the prohibitively expensive and doped hole-transport materials (HTMs). In this regard, small molecular dopant-free HTMs are promising alternatives because of their low cost and high efficiency. However, these HTMs still have a lot of space for making further progress in both efficiency and stability. This review firstly provides outlining analyses about the important roles of molecular orientation when further enhancements in device efficiency and stability are concerned. Then, currently studied strategies to control molecular orientation in small molecular HTMs are presented. Finally, we propose an outlook aiming to obtain optimized molecular orientation in a cost-effective way.

The Multiplicity of π-π Interactions of Fused-Ring Electron Acceptor Polymorphs on the Exciton Migration and Charge Transport

Efficient long-range exciton migration and charge transport are the key parameters for organic photovoltaic materials, which strongly depend on the molecular stacking modes. Herein, we extracted the stacked structures of the archetype fused-ring electron acceptor molecule, ITIC, based on the information on four polymorphic crystals and investigated the relationship between molecular stacking modes and exciton migration/charge transport properties through the intermolecular Coulomb coupling and charge transfer integral calculation. Experimentally, the thin film texture is crystallized through a post-annealing treatment through grazing-incidence wide-angle X-ray scattering (GIWAXS) measurements, which lead to the enhanced exciton migration through exciton-exciton annihilation in the femtosecond transient absorption (fs-TA) measurements. This work demonstrates the relationship between the molecular arrangement and the exciton migration and electron transport and highlights the significance of optimizing molecular stacking for the development of high-performance electron acceptor materials.

Molecular Design and Crystal Chemistry of Polyfluorinated Naphthalene-bis-phenylhydrazimides with Superior Thermal and Polymorphic Stability and High Solution Processability

Naphthalene tetracarboxylic diimides (NDIs) are highly promising air-stable n-type molecular semiconductor candidates for flexible and cost-effective organic solar cells and thermoelectrics. Nonetheless, thermal and polymorphic stabilities of environmentally stable NDIs in the low-to-medium temperature regime (<300 °C) remain challenging properties. Structural, thermal, spectroscopic, and computational features of polyfluorinated NDI-based molecular solids (with up to 14 F atoms per NDI molecule) are discussed upon increasing the fluorination level. Slip-stacked arrangement of the NDI cores with suitable π-π stacking and systematically short interplanar distances (<3.2 Å) are found. All these materials exhibit superior thermal stability (up to 260 °C or above) and thermal expansion coefficients indicating a response compatible with flexible polymeric substrates. Optical bandgaps increase from 2.78 to 2.93 eV with fluorination, while LUMO energy levels decrease down to -4.37 eV, as shown per DFT calculations. The compounds exhibit excellent solubility of 30 mg mL^-1 in 1,4-dioxane and DMF.

Connecting the dots for fundamental understanding of structure-photophysics-property relationships of COFs, MOFs, and perovskites using a Multiparticle Holstein Formalism

Photoactive organic and hybrid organic-inorganic materials such as conjugated polymers, covalent organic frameworks (COFs), metal-organic frameworks (MOFs), and layered perovskites, display intriguing photophysical signatures upon interaction with light. Elucidating structure-photophysics-property relationships across a broad range of functional materials is nontrivial and requires our fundamental understanding of the intricate interplay among excitons (electron-hole pair), polarons (charges), bipolarons, phonons (vibrations), inter-layer stacking interactions, and different forms of structural and conformational defects. In parallel with electronic structure modeling and data-driven science that are actively pursued to successfully accelerate materials discovery, an accurate, computationally inexpensive, and physically-motivated theoretical model, which consistently makes quantitative connections with conceptually complicated experimental observations, is equally important. Within this context, the first part of this perspective highlights a unified theoretical framework in which the electronic coupling as well as the local coupling between the electronic and nuclear degrees of freedom can be efficiently described for a broad range of quasiparticles with similarly structured Holstein-style vibronic Hamiltonians. The second part of this perspective discusses excitonic and polaronic photophysical signatures in polymers, COFs, MOFs, and perovskites, and attempts to bridge the gap between different research fields using a common theoretical construct - the Multiparticle Holstein Formalism. We envision that the synergistic integration of state-of-the-art computational approaches with the Multiparticle Holstein Formalism will help identify and establish new, transformative design strategies that will guide the synthesis and characterization of next-generation energy materials optimized for a broad range of optoelectronic, spintronic, and photonic applications.

Development of non-fullerene electron acceptors for efficient organic photovoltaics

Compared to fullerene based electron acceptors, n-type organic semiconductors, so-called non-fullerene acceptors (NFAs), possess some distinct advantages, such as readily tuning of optical absorption and electronic energy levels, strong absorption in the visible region and good morphological stability for flexible electronic devices. The design and synthesis of new NFAs have enabled the power conversion efficiencies (PCEs) of organic photovoltaic (OPV) devices to increase to around 19%. This review summarises the important breakthroughs that have contributed to this progress, focusing on three classes of NFAs, i.e. perylene diimide (PDI), diketopyrrolopyrrole (DPP) and acceptor–donor–acceptor (A-D-A) based NFAs. Specifically, the PCEs of PDI, DPP, and A-D-A series based non-fullerene OPVs have been reported up to 11%, 13% and 19%, respectively. Structure–property relationships of representative NFAs and their impact on OPV performances are discussed. Finally, we consider the remaining challenges and promising directions for achieving high-performing NFAs.

Perylene Diimide-Fused Dithiophenepyrroles with Different End Groups as Acceptors for Organic Photovoltaics

In this study, we synthesized four new A-DA'D-A acceptors (where A and D represent acceptor and donor chemical units) incorporating perylene diimide units (A') as their core structures and presenting various modes of halogenation and substitution of the functional groups at their end groups (A). In these acceptors, by fusing dithiophenepyrrole (DTP) moieties (D) to the helical perylene diimide dimer (hPDI) to form fused-hPDI (FhPDI) cores, we could increase the D/A' oscillator strength in the cores and, thus, the intensity of intramolecular charge transfer (ICT), thereby enhancing the intensity of the absorption bands. With four different end group units─IC2F, IC2Cl, IO2F, and IO2Cl─tested, each of these acceptor molecules exhibited different optical characteristics. Among all of these systems, the organic photovoltaic device incorporating the polymer PCE10 blended with the acceptor FhPDI-IC2F (1:1.1 wt %) had the highest power conversion efficiency (PCE) of 9.0%; the optimal PCEs of PCE10:FhPDI-IO2F, PCE10:FhPDI-IO2Cl, and PCE10:FhPDI-IC2Cl (1:1.1 wt %) devices were 5.2, 4.7, and 7.7%, respectively. The relatively high PCE of the PCE10:FhPDI-IC2F device resulted primarily from the higher absorption coefficients of the FhPDI-IC2F acceptor, lower energy loss, and more efficient charge transfer; the FhPDI-IC2F system experienced a lower degree of geminate recombination─as a result of improved delocalization of π-electrons along the acceptor unit─relative to that of the other three acceptors systems. Thus, altering the end groups of multichromophoric PDI units can increase the PCEs of devices incorporating PDI-derived materials and might also be a new pathway for the creation of other valuable fused-ring derivatives.

High mobility and ON/OFF ratio of solution-processable p-channel OFETs from arylacetylene end-capped alkoxyphenanthrenes

New arylacetylene end-capped alkoxyphenanthrenes were synthesized and demonstrated as the best active layer for solution-processable p -channel organic field-effect transistors. The alkoxy chain embedded compounds exhibited enhanced solubility and induced non-covalent interactions resulting in effective molecular packing. The 'Lewis soft' heteroatoms direct the most stable conformation with dihedral angles possible for molecular interactions, and energy levels. DFT studies supported the finetuning of FMOs, with high HOMO levels ~-5.2 eV ensuring a low barrier for charge injection. OFET devices exhibited a maximum charge carrier mobility up to 1.30 cm 2 /Vs with the highest ON/OFF ratio of 10 7 . The strong π-π interactions and the crystallinity of the films are well supported by GIXRD and SEM analysis.

Evaluation of 1 H-NMR Spectroscopy-Based Quantification Methods of the Supramolecular Aggregation of a Molecular Photosensitizer

The supramolecular dimerization of a ruthenium polypyridyl precursor of a well-developed family of hydrogen evolving photocatalysts via π-π-interactions of the polyheteroaromatic bridging ligand was quantified with concentration dependent ¹ H-NMR-spectroscopy. The data sets were analyzed with different calculation and fit methods. A comparison between the results of direct calculation, linear and nonlinear approaches showed that the application of a global nonlinear fit procedure yields the best results. The presented methods are also applicable for dimerization processes in solution of other molecular moieties.

Slip-Stacked J-Aggregate Materials for Organic Solar Cells and Photodetectors

Dye-dye interactions affect the optical and electronic properties in organic semiconductor films of light harvesting and detecting optoelectronic applications. This review elaborates how to tailor these properties of organic semiconductors for organic solar cells (OSCs) and organic photodiodes (OPDs). While these devices rely on similar materials, the demands for their optical properties are rather different, the former requiring a broad absorption spectrum spanning from the UV over visible up to the near-infrared region and the latter an ultra-narrow absorption spectrum at a specific, targeted wavelength. In order to design organic semiconductors satisfying these demands, fundamental insights on the relationship of optical properties are provided depending on molecular packing arrangement and the resultant electronic coupling thereof. Based on recent advancements in the theoretical understanding of intermolecular interactions between slip-stacked dyes, distinguishing classical J-aggregates with predominant long-range Coulomb coupling from charge transfer (CT)-mediated or -coupled J-aggregates, whose red-shifts are primarily governed by short-range orbital interactions, is suggested. Within this framework, the relationship between aggregate structure and functional properties of representative classes of dye aggregates is analyzed for the most advanced OSCs and wavelength-selective OPDs, providing important insights into the rational design of thin-film optoelectronic materials.

Functional Chirality: From Small Molecules to Supramolecular Assemblies

Many structures in nature look symmetric, but this is not completely accurate, because absolute symmetry is close to death. Chirality (handedness) is one form of living asymmetry. Chirality has been extensively investigated at different levels. Many rules were coined in attempts made for many decades to have control over the selection of handedness that seems to easily occur in nature. It is certain that if good control is realized on chirality, the roads will be ultimately open towards numerous developments in pharmaceutical, technological, and industrial applications. This tutorial review presents a report on chirality from single molecules to supramolecular assemblies. The realized functions are still in their infancy and have been scarcely converted into actual applications. This review provides an overview for starters in the chirality field of research on concepts, common methodologies, and outstanding accomplishments. It starts with an introductory section on the definitions and classifications of chirality at the different levels of molecular complexity, followed by highlighting the importance of chirality in biological systems and the different means of realizing chirality and its inversion in solid and solution-based systems at molecular and supramolecular levels. Chirality-relevant important findings and (bio-)technological applications are also reported accordingly.

Progress in perylene diimides for organic solar cell applications

This paper summarizes the application of PDI molecules in organic solar cells in recent years, detailing the strategies and approaches of molecular design and their application effects.

Novel quad-rotor-shaped photovoltaic materials: first example of fused-ring non-fullerene acceptors with proficient photovoltaic properties for high-performance solar cells

Development of novel materials for organic solar cells is a booming area of current research. Fused-ring electron accepters are the potential agents of revolution in organic photovoltaic devices and revealing high efficiency in organic solar cells. This study highlights the novel quad-rotor-shaped molecules as first example of efficient fused-ring non-fullerene acceptor materials with proficient photovoltaic parameters for their utilization in high-performance organic solar cells. First time, eight quad-rotor-shaped fused-ring electron accepters (QRFR-1-QRFR-8) are developed via modulating end-caps of experimentally synthesized (BFTT-TN) molecule (QRFR). Optoelectronic properties of proposed molecules are determined using frontier molecular orbitals (FMO), UV-Visible, density of state (DOS), overlap DOS (ODOS), transition density matrix (TDM) heat maps, open circuit voltage (V_oc), binding energies (E_b), reorganization energy of electron (λ_e), hole (λ_h), charge transfer analysis, and compared with reference QRFR. All proposed fused-ring electron accepters disclose less energy gap and λ_max in near IR region than QRFR after end-capped engineering. Highest V_oc with respect to HOMO_PM6-LUMO_acceptor is found 1.66 V in QRFR-6 than QRFR (1.63 V). E_b values of QRFR-1-QRFR-8 are found better and comparable with QRFR. The λ_e is found smaller than QRFR in all molecules except QRFR-5. The proposed quad-rotor-shaped molecules exhibit proficient photovoltaic features and can serve as best candidate for organic solar cells when blended with PM6 film. This study not only enlightens the researchers to use end-capped reforms as effective tactic for designing materials, but also provides novel quad-rotor-shaped materials to experimentalist for synthesis and their usage in future application of organic solar cells.

Synthesis, luminescence, and excited-state absorption properties of disubstituted perylene diimide derivatives modified at bay region

Three A-π-A or D-π-D perylene diimide (PDI) derivatives with varied groups on π-conjugate were synthesized and characterized. The photophysical properties of these compounds were systematically studied by spectral experiments and density functional theory calculations. All compounds displayed intense absorption bands at 300-800 nm wavelengths. However, diverse groups on the π-conjugate influenced the UV-vis absorption. Electron-withdrawing groups on PDI-2 caused a slight red shift at the 350-400 nm wavelength and a blue shift after 400 nm wavelength. At the same time, the electron-donating substituents on PDI-3 caused an obvious red shift of this band. These PDI derivatives exhibited emission in solution at room temperature (λ_em  = 500-850 nm). The quantum yield of PDI-3 decreased, while the electron-donating substituents were introduced to the π-conjugated motifs. However, the quantum yield of PDI-2 increased when electron-withdrawing substituents were introduced to the π-conjugated motifs. In addition, PDI-1 and PDI-2 exhibited broad triplet transient absorption in the visible region. These photophysical properties could help us to understand the relationship between structure and photophysical properties of perylene diimide derivatives and exploit more original perylene diimide-based optical functional materials.

Photophysics of Perylene Diimide Dianions and Their Application in Photoredox Catalysis

The two‐electron reduced forms of perylene diimides (PDIs) are luminescent closed‐shell species whose photochemical properties seem underexplored. Our proof‐of‐concept study demonstrates that straightforward (single) excitation of PDI dianions with green photons provides an excited state that is similarly or more reducing than the much shorter‐lived excited states of PDI radical monoanions, which are typically accessible after biphotonic excitation with blue photons. Thermodynamically demanding photocatalytic reductive dehalogenations and reductive C−O bond cleavage reactions of lignin model compounds have been performed using sodium dithionite acts as a reductant, either in aqueous solution or in biphasic water–acetonitrile mixtures in the presence of a phase transfer reagent. Our work illustrates the concept of multi‐electron reduction of a photocatalyst by a sacrificial reagent prior to irradiation with low‐energy photons as a means of generating very reactive excited states.

Perylene Diimide Hexamer Based on Combination of Direct and Indirect Linkage Manners for Non-fullerene Organic Solar Cells

Perylene diimide (PDI) is one of the most intensively studied building blocks for the construction of non-fullerene acceptors (NFAs). In this contribution, based on combination of the direct and indirect linkage manners of PDI units at the bay position, a propeller-shaped PDI hexamer T-DPDI was designed and synthesized. The singly bonded PDI dimer DPDI and the benzene ring cored PDI trimer TPDI were synthesized for comparison. The photovoltaic performances of these three PDI derivatives were investigated using the commercially available PTB7-Th as electron donor. A best power conversion efficiency (PCE) of 6.58% was obtained for T-DPDI based organic solar cells (OSCs), which is higher than those of DPDI and TPDI based ones. The superior photovoltaic performance of T-DPDI can be ascribed to its stronger absorption and more favorable morphology. This study presents an interesting example of improving the photovoltaic performances of PDI based NFAs by hybridizing the direct and indirect linkage manners.

n-Type Organic and Polymeric Semiconductors Based on Bithiophene Imide Derivatives

ConspectusIn the last three decades, p-type (hole-transporting) organic and polymeric semiconductors have achieved great success in terms of materials diversity and device performance, while the development of n-type (electron-transporting) analogues greatly lags behind, which is limited by the scarcity of highly electron-deficient building blocks with compact geometry and good solubility. However, such n-type semiconductors are essential due to the existence of the p-n junction and a complementary metal oxide semiconductor (CMOS)-like circuit in organic electronic devices. Among various electron-deficient building blocks, imide-functionalized arenes, such as naphthalene diimide (NDI) and perylene diimide (PDI), have been proven to be the most promising ones for developing n-type organic and polymeric semiconductors. Nevertheless, phenyl-based NDI and PDI lead to sizable steric hindrance with neighboring (hetero)arenes and a high degree of backbone distortion in the resultant semiconductors, which greatly limits their microstructural ordering and charge transport. To attenuate the steric hindrance associated with NDI and PDI, a novel imide-functionalized heteroarene, bithiophene imide (BTI), was designed; however, the BTI-based semiconductors suffer from high-lying frontier molecular orbital (FMO) energy levels as a result of their electron-rich thiophene framework and monoimide group, which is detrimental to n-type performance.In this Account, we review a series of BTI derivatives developed via various strategies, including ring fusion, thiazole substitution, fluorination, cyanation, and chalcogen substitution, and elaborate the synthesis routes designed to overcome the synthesis challenges due to their high electron deficiency. After structural optimization, these BTI derivatives can not only retain the advantages of good solubility, a planar backbone, and small steric hindrance inherited from BTI but also have greatly suppressed FMO levels. These novel building blocks enable the construction of a great number of n-type organic and polymeric semiconductors, particularly acceptor-acceptor (or all-acceptor)-type polymers, with remarkable performance in various devices, including electron mobility (μ_e) of 3.71 cm² V^-1 s^-1 in organic thin-film transistors (OTFTs), a power conversion efficiency (PCE) of 15.2% in all-polymer solar cells (all-PSCs), a PCE of 20.8% in inverted perovskite solar cells (PVSCs), electrical conductivity (σ) of 0.34 S cm^-1 and a power factor (PF) of 1.52 μW m^-1 K^-2 in self-doped diradicals, and σ of 23.3 S cm^-1 and a PF of ∼10 μW m^-1 K^-2 in molecularly n-doped polymers, all of which are among the best values in each type of device. The structure-property-device performance correlations of these n-type semiconductors are elucidated. The design strategy and synthesis of these novel BTI derivatives provide important information for developing highly electron-deficient building blocks with optimized physicochemical properties. Finally, we offer our insights into the further development of BTI derivatives and semiconductors built from them.

Symmetry-Breaking Charge Separation in Phenylene-Bridged Perylenediimide Dimers

Perylenediimides (PDIs) are important molecular building blocks that are being investigated for their applicability in optoelectronic technologies. Covalently linking multiple PDI acceptors at the 2,5,8,11 (headland) positions adjacent to the PDI carbonyl groups is reported to yield higher power conversion efficiencies in photovoltaic cells relative to PDI acceptors linked at the 1,6,7,12 (bay) positions. While the photophysical properties of PDIs linked via the bay positions have been investigated extensively, those linked at the headland positions have received far less attention. We showed previously that symmetry-breaking charge separation (SB-CS) in PDIs hold promise as a strategy for increasing photovoltaic efficiency. Here we use transient absorption and emission spectroscopies to investigate the competition between SB-CS, fluorescence, and internal conversion in three related PDI dimers linked at the headland positions with o-, m-, and p-phenylene moieties: o-PDI₂, m-PDI₂, and p-PDI₂, respectively. It is found that o-PDI₂ supports SB-CS yielding PDI^•+-PDI^•-, which is in equilibrium with the o-PDI₂ first excited state in a polar solvent (CH₂Cl₂) while m-PDI₂ and p-PDI₂ exhibit accelerated internal conversion due to the motion of the linker along with subnanosecond intersystem crossing (ISC). Electronic coupling and structural dynamics are shown to play a significant role, with o-PDI₂ being the only member of the series that exhibits significant through-bond interchromophore coupling. The pronounced o-PDI₂ steric congestion prevents the free internal rotation that leads to rapid deactivation of the excited state in the other dimers.

Imide-Functionalized Helical PAHs: A Step towards New Chiral Functional Materials

Attachment of cyclic imide groups to polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) leads to fascinating electronic and luminescence properties, with rylene diimides being a representative example. The close to unity fluorescence quantum yields and electron-acceptor properties render them suitable for application in organic electronics and photovoltaics. Recent reports show that, in line with planar PAHs, the imide functionalization has also endowed helical three-dimensional PAHs with similar beneficial photophysical properties. In this article, we have summarized the state-of-the-art research developments in the field of helicene–imide hybrid functional molecules, with a particular focus on synthesis, (chir)optical and redox properties, and applications in electronics. Additionally, we have highlighted our recent work, introducing a novel family of functional chiral molecules, namely, [n]helicene diimides, as three-dimensional relatives of rylene diimides.

Benzene Excimer and Excited Multimers: Electronic Character, Interaction Nature, and Aromaticity

In this Letter we analyze the forces involved in the formation of the benzene excimer and its electron structure, and (anti)aromatic character. We extend our study to excited states in molecular aggregates, the triplet excimer and the benzene-tricyanobenzene exciplex. Electronic wave functions are decomposed in terms of localized excitations and ion-pair configurations through diabatization, and we show that excimer (anti)aromaticity can be described as the linear combination of ground, excited, and ionic molecular states. Our analysis concludes that the benzene excimer must be characterized as antiaromatic, with weaker antiaromaticity than the molecular excited singlet. Moreover, we define a model electronic Hamiltonian for the excimer state and we use it as a building block for the extrapolation of electronic Hamiltonians in molecular aggregates. Benzene multimers present a nonuniform (anti)aromatic character, with the center of the column being antiaromatic and the edges behaving as aromatic. The implications of this work go beyond the study of the excimer, providing a general framework for the calculation and characterization of excited states in aggregates.

Unraveling the electrochemical and spectroscopic properties of neutral and negatively charged perylene tetraethylesters

A detailed investigation of the energy levels of perylene-3,4,9,10-tetracarboxylic tetraethylester as a representative compound for the whole family of perylene esters was performed. It was revealed via electrochemical measurements that one oxidation and two reductions take place. The bandgaps determined via the electrochemical approach are in good agreement with the optical bandgap obtained from the absorption spectra via a Tauc plot. In addition, absorption spectra in dependence of the electrochemical potential were the basis for extensive quantum-chemical calculations of the neutral, monoanionic, and dianionic molecules. For this purpose, calculations based on density functional theory were compared with post-Hartree–Fock methods and the CAM-B3LYP functional proved to be the most reliable choice for the calculation of absorption spectra. Furthermore, spectral features found experimentally could be reproduced with vibronic calculations and allowed to understand their origins. In particular, the two lowest energy absorption bands of the anion are not caused by absorption of two distinct electronic states, which might have been expected from vertical excitation calculations, but both states exhibit a strong vibronic progression resulting in contributions to both bands.

Highly Efficient Non-Fused-Ring Electron Acceptors Enabled by the Conformational Lock and Structural Isomerization Effects

Two novel nonfused-ring electron acceptors (N-FREAs) namely DTP-out-F and DTP-in-F, containing 2,5-difluorophenylene central core flanked with DTP blocks and end-capped with IC-2F terminals were designed and synthesized. The C-H···F noncovalent interactions between F atom of 2,5-difluorophenylene and H-3 and H-6 from DTP moiety (for DTP-in-F and DTP-out-F, respectively) locked the molecular conformation within a planar geometry. Benefiting from asymmetric nature of DTP block, the two different connection positions (2- or 7-position) of DTP to 2,5-difluorophenylene afforded the structural isomers of DTP-in-F and DTP-out-F, which affected the overall properties of these N-FREAs, especially the molecular packing behaviors. The more preferred J-aggregation and face-on packing of DTP-in-F shifted the absorption to slightly longer wavelength and provided a polymer-like extended crystal transport channels for improving the charge transport. Therefore, the power conversion efficiency (PCE) was significantly improved from 3.97% of DTP-out-F-based devices to 10.66% of DTP-in-F-based devices. These results reveal the great potential of isomerization strategy to develop high-performance N-FREAs.

The Role of the Core Attachment Positioning in Triggering Intramolecular Singlet Exciton Fission in Perylene Diimide Tetramers

Previous studies have proposed that the presence of a flexible π-bridge linker is crucial in activating intramolecular singlet exciton fission (iSEF) in multichromophoric systems. In this study, we report the photophysical properties of three analogous perylene diimide (PDI) dendritic tetramers showing flexible/twisted π-bridged structures with α- and β-substitutions and a rigid/planar structure with a β-fused ring (βC) connection to a benzodithiophene-thiophene (BDT-Th) core. The rigidity and enhanced planarity of βC lead to significant intramolecular charge transfer and triplet formation via an intersystem crossing pathway. Steady-state spectroscopic measurements reveal similar absorption and emission spectra for the α-tetramer and the parent PDI monomer. However, their fluorescence quantum yield is significantly different. The negligible fluorescence yield of the α-tetramer (0.04%) is associated with a competitive nonradiative decay pathway. Indeed, for this twisted compound in a high polar environment, a fast and efficient iSEF with a triplet quantum yield of 124% is observed. Our results show that the α-single-bond connections in the α compound are capable of interrupting the coupling among the PDI units, favoring iSEF. We propose that the formation of the double triplet (¹[TT]) state is through a superposition of singlet states known as [S₁S₀]_[TT]CT, which has been suggested previously for pentacene derivatives. Using steady-state and time-resolved spectroscopic experiments, we demonstrate that the conformational flexibility of the linker itself is necessary but not sufficient to allow iSEF. For the case of the other twisted tetramer, β, the strong π-π co-facial interactions between the adjacent PDI units in its structure lead to excimer formation. These excimer states trap the singlet excitons preventing the formation of the ¹[TT] state, thus inhibiting iSEF.

Bright Frenkel Excitons in Molecular Crystals: A Survey

We computed the optical properties of a large set of molecular crystals (∼2200 structures) composed of molecules whose lowest excited states are strongly coupled and generate wide excitonic bands. Such bands are classified in terms of their dimensionality (1-, 2-, and 3-dimensional), the position of the optically allowed state in relation with the excitonic density of states, and the presence of Davydov splitting. The survey confirms that one-dimensional aggregates are rare in molecular crystals highlighting the need to go beyond the simple low-dimensional models. Furthermore, this large set of data is used to search for technologically interesting and less common properties. For instance, we considered the largest excitonic bandwidth that is achievable within known molecular crystals and identified materials with strong super-radiant states. Finally, we explored the possibility that strong excitonic coupling can be used to generate emissive states in the near-infrared region in materials formed by molecules with bright visible absorption and we could identify the maximum allowable red shift in this material class. These insights with the associated searchable database provide practical guidelines for designing materials with interesting optical properties.

Systematic Merging of Nonfullerene Acceptor π-Extension and Tetrafluorination Strategies Affords Polymer Solar Cells with >16% Efficiency

The end-capping group (EG) is the essential electron-withdrawing component of nonfullerene acceptors (NFAs) in bulk heterojunction (BHJ) organic solar cells (OSCs). To systematically probe the impact of two frequent EG functionalization strategies, π-extension and halogenation, in A-DAD-A type NFAs, we synthesized and characterized four such NFAs: BT-BIC, LIC, L4F, and BO-L4F. To assess the relative importance of these strategies, we contrast these NFAs with the baseline acceptors, Y5 and Y6. Up to 16.6% power conversion efficiency (PCE) in binary inverted OSCs with BT-BO-L4F combining π-extension and halogenation was achieved. When these two factors are combined, the effect on optical absorption is cumulative. Single-crystal π-π stacking distances are similar for the EG strategies of π-extension. Increasing the alkyl substituent length from BT-L4F to BT-BO-L4F significantly alters the packing motif and eliminates the EG core interactions of BT-L4F. Electronic structure computations reveal some of the largest NFA π-π electronic couplings observed to date, 103.8 meV in BT-L4F and 47.5 meV in BT-BO-L4F. Computed electronic reorganization energies, 132 and 133 meV for BT-L4F and BT-BO-L4F, respectively, are also lower than Y6 (150 meV). BHJ blends show preferential π-face-on orientation, and both fluorination and π-extension increase NFA crystallinity. Femto/nanosecond transient absorption spectroscopy (fs/nsTA) and integrated photocurrent device analysis (IPDA) indicate that π-extension modifies the phase separation to enhance film ordering and carrier mobility, while fluorination suppresses unimolecular recombination. This systematic study highlights the synergistic effects of NFA π-extension and fluorination in affording efficient OSCs and provides insights into designing next-generation materials.

Langmuir-Schaefer Perylene Derivative Films: Influence of the Molecular Chemical Structure on the Supramolecular Arrangement

Since the optical and electrical properties of organic thin films devices depend on their supramolecular arrangement and the molecular chemical structure, the understanding of such characteristics is essential for the optimization of these devices. In this study, we determine the supramolecular arrangement of thin films produced using the Langmuir-Schaefer (LS) technique and explain how its supramolecular arrangement is affected by the molecular chemical structure using two perylene derivatives: bis-butylimide (BuPTCD) and bis-phenethylimide (PhPTCD). The optical absorption measurements reveal that both films grow homogeneously and indicate that the presence of H aggregates (forbidden emission) is higher for BuPTCD LS film than for PhPTCD LS film. Atomic force microscopic analysis shows that the PhPTCD LS film is rougher than the BuPTCD film. In addition, FTIR analyses indicate that both films have head-on molecular organization. XRD patterns reveal that both the BuPTCD LS film and the PhPTCD LS film are crystalline, but that crystallinity is more prevalent in the BuPTCD LS film. Thus, the results show that the difference presented in the chemical structures leads the films to have different supramolecular arrangements, with consequences for their optical properties.

π-Extended perylene diimide double-heterohelicenes as ambipolar organic semiconductors for broadband circularly polarized light detection

Despite great challenges, the development of new molecular structures with multiple and even conflicting characteristics are eagerly pursued for exploring advanced applications. To develop high-performance chiral organic semiconducting molecules, a distorted π-system is required for strong coupling with circularly polarized light (CPL), whereas planar π-stacking systems are necessary for high charge-carrier mobility. To address this dilemma, in this work, we introduce a skeleton merging approach through distortion of a perylene diimide (PDI) core with four fused heteroaromatics to form an ortho-π-extended PDI double-[7]heterohelicene. PDI double helicene inherits a high dissymmetry factor from the helicene skeleton, and the extended π-planar system concurrently maintains a high level of charge transport properties. In addition, ortho-π-extension of the PDI skeleton brings about near-infrared (NIR) light absorption and ambipolar charge transport abilities, endowing the corresponding organic phototransistors with high photoresponsivity of 450 and 120 mA W-1 in p- and n-type modes respectively, along with a high external quantum efficiency (89%) under NIR light irradiations. Remarkably, these multiple characteristics enable high-performance broadband CPL detections up to NIR spectral region with chiral organic semiconductors.

Enhanced photoreduction of water catalyzed by a cucurbit[8]uril-secured platinum dimer

A cucurbit[8]uril (CB[8])-secured platinum terpyridyl chloride dimer was used as a photosensitizer and hydrogen-evolving catalyst for the photoreduction of water. Volumes of produced hydrogen were up to 25 and 6 times larger than those obtained with the corresponding free and cucurbit[7]uril-bound platinum monomer, respectively, at equal Pt concentration. The thermodynamics of the proton-coupled electron transfer from the Pt(ii)–Pt(ii) dimer to the corresponding Pt(ii)–Pt(iii)–H hydride key intermediate, as quantified by density functional theory, suggest that CB[8] secures the Pt(ii)–Pt(ii) dimer in a particularly reactive conformation that promotes hydrogen formation.

The cucurbit[8]uril macrocycle can secure a platinum terpyridyl complex into a particularly reactive dimer that catalyzes the photoreduction of water.

Excited-State Symmetry-Breaking Charge Separation Dynamics in Multibranched Perylene Diimide Molecules

As one of the most promising nonfullerene acceptors for organic photovoltaics, perylene diimide (PDI)-based multibranched molecules with twisted or three-dimensional (3D) geometric structures have been developed, which effectively increase the power conversion efficiency (PCE) of organic solar cells. Understanding the structure-property relationships in multichromophoric molecular architectures at molecular and ultrafast time levels is a crucial step in establishing new design principles in organic electronic materials. For this, photodriven excited-state symmetry-breaking charge separation (SB-CS) of PDI-based multichromophoric acceptors has been proposed to improve the PCE by reducing the self-aggregation of the planar PDI monomer. Herein, we investigated the intramolecular excited-state SB-CS and charge recombination (CR) dynamics of two symmetric phenyl-methane-based PDI derivatives, a twist dimer PM-PDI₂ (phenyl-methane-based PDI dimer) and a 3D configuration tetramer PM-PDI₄ (phenyl-methane-based PDI tetramer), in different solvents using ultrafast femtosecond transient absorption (fs-TA) spectroscopy and quantum chemical calculations. The quantum chemical calculations and steady-state spectra show that the two PDI derivatives undergo conformational changes upon excitation, leading to their emission states that have the characteristics of partial charge-transfer (CT) exciton in all solvents. Based on the evolution of the fs-TA data, it is observed that the evolution from the CT state to SB-CS state is disfavored in a weak polar solvent, whereas clear SB-CS spectroscopic signatures of cationic and anionic PDI are observed in polar solvents. Faster CS and slower CR processes of PM-PDI₄ are observed in comparison to those of PM-PDI₂. The crowded space in the 3D structure shortens the distance between the branches, leading to a stronger electronic coupling at the lowest excited state and a larger negative Gibbs free energy change of PM-PDI₄ relative to that of PM-PDI₂, which benefits the charge separation among PDI units in PM-PDI₄. Besides, the 3D structure of PM-PDI₄ also restricts rotation to a surface crossing region between the excited state and ground state, thus inhibiting nonradiative CR process and increasing the CS state lifetime. Our results suggest that the kinetics of CS and CR processes are strongly related to the molecular geometric structure, and the excited-state symmetry breaking in the 3D structure acceptor has superior photogenerated charge and photovoltaic properties from the perspective of ultrafast dynamics.

Spherical Supramolecular Structures Constructed via Chemically Symmetric Perylene Bisimides: Beyond Columnar Assembly

Like other discotic molecules, self-assembled supramolecular structures of perylene bisimides (PBIs) are commonly limited to columnar or lamellar structures due to their distinct π-conjugated scaffolds and unique rectangular shape of perylene cores. The discovery of PBIs with supramolecular structures beyond layers and columns may expand the scope of PBI-based materials. A series of unconventional spherical packing phases in PBIs, including A15 phase, σ phase, dodecagonal quasicrystalline (DQC) phase, and body-centered cubic (BCC) phase, is reported. A strategy involving functionalization of perylene core with several polyhedral oligomeric silsesquioxane (POSS) cages achieved spherical assemblies of PBIs, instead of columnar assemblies, due to the significantly increased steric hindrance at the periphery. This strategy may also be employed for the discovery of unconventional spherical assemblies in other related discotic molecules by the introduction of similar bulky functional groups at their periphery. An unusual inverse phase transition sequence from a BCC phase to a σ phase was observed by increasing annealing temperature.

Near infrared absorption/emission perylenebisimide fluorophores with geometry relaxation-induced large Stokes shift

The dyes (P-1 and P-2) of perylenebisimide (PBI) conjugated with 2-(2-hydroxyphenyl)benzothiazole (HBT) were prepared by Sonogashira coupling reaction. The new compounds have special photophysical properties, such as near infrared absorption/emission and large Stokes shift. The UV-vis absorption (range from 651 nm to 690 nm) and emission wavelength (range from 732 nm to 756 nm) of P-1 and P-2 extend to near infrared range. Importantly, they have much larger Stokes shifts (range from 73 nm to 105 nm) compared with the conventional PBI derivatives, such as 7 (from 19 nm to 65 nm) and 9 (from 81 nm to 86 nm). TD-DFT calculation was used to rationalize UV-vis absorption, emission and especially large Stokes shift from the theoretical point of view. We found geometry relaxation of P-1 and P-2 in the excited state is an important reason for the origin of large Stokes shift besides intramolecular electron transfer (ICT).

The dyes with near infrared absorption/emission and large stokes shifts induced by geometry relaxation were prepared.

Ultrafast and Long-Range Exciton Migration through Anisotropic Coulombic Coupling in the Textured Films of Fused-Ring Electron Acceptors

The exciton migration mechanism in organic photovoltaic devices is still an ambiguity owing to the insufficient understanding of molecular arrangement on a microscopic scale. Herein, we reveal the relationship between the molecular stacking modes and exciton migration for a representative fused-ring electron acceptor, namely, ITIC. The precise molecular stacking patterns are extracted, and directional Coulombic couplings are calculated based on the information of a single-crystal structure, which proves the anisotropic character for exciton motion. The theoretical analysis results indicate ultrafast exciton migration along the head-to-tail stacking directions with maximum migration length of 330 nm in the finite lifetime of 1 ns. Experimentally, the exciton diffusion length is determined to be 183 nm by exciton-exciton annihilation measurement. This work reveals head-to-tail type intermolecular stacking induces strong anisotropic Coulombic coupling, leading to the ultrafast and long-range exciton migration in nonfullerene systems.

Differently Linked Perylene Bisimide Dimers with Various Twisting and Phase Structures for Nonfullerene All-Small-Molecule Organic Solar Cells

Nonfullerene all-small-molecule organic solar cells (NF all-SMSCs) are an important classification in the organic solar cell system. However, the application and research of NF all-SMSCs are limited due to the easy aggregation of small molecules to form large-phase domains. Perylene bisimides (PBIs) have been widely used as nonfullerene acceptors. Simply changing the link position of the PBI dimer can control the accumulation of molecules to regulate the size of the phase domain. Herein, the bay-linked, ortho-linked, and hydrazine-linked PBI dimers as nonfullerene acceptors, named as B-SdiPBI, O-SdiPBI, and H-SdiPBI, respectively, were chosen. The link position of the PBI dimer can lead to diverse molecular torsion and planarity, which affects the film-forming ability, phase separation, and thus optoelectronic properties. NF all-SMSCs based on B-SdiPBI, O-SdiPBI, and H-SdiPBI as nonfullerene acceptors and a small molecule DR3TBDTT as the donor achieve the best power conversion efficiencies of 1.93, 3.30, and 4.05%, respectively. The result is consistent with the sequence of inter-PBI twist and phase domain size of the corresponding blend films in the device. The DR3TBDTT:H-SdiPBI system has the best efficiency with the largest dihedral angle of H-SdiPBI (ψ = 90°) and an appropriate phase size (10-40 nm), whereas the smaller dihedral angle of O-SdiPBI (ψ = 86°) produces a larger phase size (20-50 nm) and the smallest dihedral angle of B-SdiPBI (ψ = 71°) gives the largest phase size (30-80 nm). This illustrates that the twist angle can effectively increase the phase separation between the acceptor and donor to obtain an effective phase size in this system. The work provides a guide for designing the acceptors and controlling phase domains of high-performance NF all-SMSCs.

Supramolecular Self-Assembly of Perylene Bisimide-Based Rigid Giant Tetrahedra

Recently, ordered structures constructed from rigid three-dimensional (3D) shaped polyhedra have been drawing general interest, with the tetrahedron being the simplest one but showing complicated assembly behaviors. Rigid tetrahedron building blocks have been shown to form quasicrystalline and crystalline phases with high packing fractions by both simulation and experiments. Nevertheless, the study of 3D tetrahedral building blocks is limited, especially in the field of supramolecular self-assembly. Here, we present an experimental study of rigid giant tetrahedral molecules constructed by attaching four bulky polyhedral oligomeric silsesquioxane (POSS) cages to a tetrahedral perylene bisimide (PBI) scaffold. Self-assembly of these giant tetrahedra is mediated by π-π interaction between the tetrahedral PBI-based scaffolds and their overall tetrahedral symmetry. A monolithic nearly centimeter-sized hexagonal supramolecular structure was observed in the giant tetrahedron with short flexible linkers between PBI and POSS cages, while a micrometer-sized crystalline helical structure formed in that with completely rigid aromatic linkers. Their significant difference in electrical conductivity could be explained by two completely different packing models of the giant tetrahedra.

Supramolecular architecture and electrical conductivity in organic semiconducting thin films

Organic thin films are an essential component of the structure of optical and electronic devices. However, the optical and electrical properties of these films depend on their supramolecular architecture, which may vary according to the techniques used to manufacture them. Here, the correlation between conductivity and supramolecular architecture was investigated. The supramolecular architecture was analyzed in terms of the molecular organization and J- or H-aggregation established during the fabrication of perylene tetracarboxylic diimide (PTCD) nanometric films. Three deposition techniques, Langmuir-Schaefer (LS), Langmuir-Blodgett (LB), and Physical Vapor Deposition (PVD), were evaluated. The UV-vis absorption spectra indicated that LS, LB, and PVD films grow homogeneously. Also, the presence of J and H aggregates was observed for all films, the H aggregates prevailing for the LB film. The FTIR measurements suggested that the molecular organization is similar for LS and LB films, with a tendency to form head-on organization onto a solid substrate. For the PVD film, the perylene macrocycles are inclined approximately 45° relative to the substrate. AFM measurements indicated a homogenous surface for all films. In terms of electrical conductivity, the highest conductivity was found for LS, followed by LB and PVD. The conductivity values were interpreted in terms of molecular organization and J- or H-aggregate formation.