Calcium phosphate nanocomposite particles for in vitro imaging and encapsulated chemotherapeutic drug delivery to cancer cells

Application of sphingolipid-based nanocarriers in drug delivery: an overview

Sphingolipids (SL) are well recognized for their cell signaling through extracellular and intracellular pathways. Based on chemistry different types of SL are biosynthesized in mammalian cells and have specific function in cellular activity. SL has an ampiphilic structure with have hydrophobic body attached to the polar head enables their use as a drug delivery agent in the form of nanocarriers. SL-based liposomes can improve the solubility of lipophilic drugs through host and drug complexes and are more stable than conventional liposomal formulations. Preclinical studies of SL nanocarriers are reported on topical delivery, oral delivery, ocular delivery, chemotherapeutic delivery, cardiovascular delivery and Alzheimer's disease. The commercial challenges and patents related to SL nanoformulations are highlighted in this article.

Calcium Orthophosphate (CaPO4) Containing Composites for Biomedical Applications: Formulations, Properties, and Applications

The goal of this review is to present a wide range of hybrid formulations and composites containing calcium orthophosphates (abbreviated as CaPO4) that are suitable for use in biomedical applications and currently on the market. The bioactive, biocompatible, and osteoconductive properties of various CaPO4-based formulations make them valuable in the rapidly developing field of biomedical research, both in vitro and in vivo. Due to the brittleness of CaPO4, it is essential to combine the desired osteologic properties of ceramic CaPO4 with those of other compounds to create novel, multifunctional bone graft biomaterials. Consequently, this analysis offers a thorough overview of the hybrid formulations and CaPO4-based composites that are currently known. To do this, a comprehensive search of the literature on the subject was carried out in all significant databases to extract pertinent papers. There have been many formulations found with different material compositions, production methods, structural and bioactive features, and in vitro and in vivo properties. When these formulations contain additional biofunctional ingredients, such as drugs, proteins, enzymes, or antibacterial agents, they offer improved biomedical applications. Moreover, a lot of these formulations allow cell loading and promote the development of smart formulations based on CaPO4. This evaluation also discusses basic problems and scientific difficulties that call for more investigation and advancements. It also indicates perspectives for the future.

CCK Receptor Inhibition Reduces Pancreatic Tumor Fibrosis and Promotes Nanoparticle Delivery

The poor prognosis for pancreatic ductal adenocarcinoma (PDAC) patients is due in part to the highly fibrotic nature of the tumors that impedes delivery of therapeutics, including nanoparticles (NPs). Our prior studies demonstrated that proglumide, a cholecystokinin receptor (CCKR) antagonist, reduced fibrosis pervading PanIN lesions in mice. Here, we further detail how the reduced fibrosis elicited by proglumide achieves the normalization of the desmoplastic tumor microenvironment (TME) and improves nanoparticle uptake. One week following the orthotopic injection of PDAC cells, mice were randomized to normal or proglumide-treated water for 3-6 weeks. Tumors were analyzed ex vivo for fibrosis, vascularity, stellate cell activation, vascular patency, and nanoparticle distribution. The histological staining and three-dimensional imaging of tumors each indicated a reduction in stromal collagen in proglumide-treated mice. Proglumide treatment increased tumor vascularity and decreased the activation of cancer-associated fibroblasts (CAFs). Additionally, PANC-1 cells with the shRNA-mediated knockdown of the CCK2 receptor showed an even greater reduction in collagen, indicating the CCK2 receptors on tumor cells contribute to the desmoplastic TME. Proglumide-mediated reduction in fibrosis also led to functional changes in the TME as evidenced by the enhanced intra-tumoral distribution of small (<12 nm) Rhodamine-loaded nanoparticles. The documented in vivo, tumor cell-intrinsic anti-fibrotic effects of CCK2R blockade in both an immunocompetent syngeneic murine PDAC model as well as a human PDAC xenograft model demonstrates that CCK2R antagonists, such as proglumide, can improve the delivery of nano-encapsulated therapeutics or imaging agents to pancreatic tumors.

Engineered Lipidic Nanomaterials Inspired by Sphingomyelin Metabolism for Cancer Therapy

Sphingomyelin (SM) and its metabolites are crucial regulators of tumor cell growth, differentiation, senescence, and programmed cell death. With the rise in lipid-based nanomaterials, engineered lipidic nanomaterials inspired by SM metabolism, corresponding lipid targeting, and signaling activation have made fascinating advances in cancer therapeutic processes. In this review, we first described the specific pathways of SM metabolism and the roles of their associated bioactive molecules in mediating cell survival or death. We next summarized the advantages and specific applications of SM metabolism-based lipidic nanomaterials in specific cancer therapies. Finally, we discussed the challenges and perspectives of this emerging and promising SM metabolism-based nanomaterials research area.

Current Development in Biomaterials-Hydroxyapatite and Bioglass for Applications in Biomedical Field: A Review

Inorganic biomaterials, including different types of metals and ceramics are widely used in various fields due to their biocompatibility, bioactivity, and bioresorbable capacity. In recent years, biomaterials have been used in biomedical and biological applications. Calcium phosphate (CaPs) compounds are gaining importance in the field of biomaterials used as a standalone material or in more complex structures, especially for bone substitutes and drug delivery systems. The use of multiple dopants into the structure of CaPs compounds can significantly improve their in vivo and in vitro activity. Among the general information included in the Introduction section, in the first section of this review paper, the authors provided a background on the development of hydroxyapatite, methods of synthesis, and its applications. The advantages of using different ions and co-ions for substitution into the hydroxyapatite lattice and their influence on physicochemical, antibacterial, and biological properties of hydroxyapatite are also presented in this section of the review paper. Larry Hench's 45S5 Bioglass®, commercially named 45S5, was the first bioactive glass that revealed a chemical bond with bone, highlighting the potential of this biomaterial to be widely used in biomedicine for bone regeneration. The second section of this article is focused on the development and current products based on 45S5 Bioglass®, covering the historical evolution, importance of the sintering method, hybrid bioglass composites, and applications. To overcome the limitations of the original biomaterials, studies were performed to combine hydroxyapatite and 45S5 Bioglass® into new composites used for their high bioactivity and improved properties. This particular type of combined hydroxyapatite/bioglass biomaterial is discussed in the last section of this review paper.

Antisense Oligonucleotide Therapy for the Nervous System: From Bench to Bedside with Emphasis on Pediatric Neurology

Antisense oligonucleotides (ASOs) are disease-modifying agents affecting protein-coding and noncoding ribonucleic acids. Depending on the chemical modification and the location of hybridization, ASOs are able to reduce the level of toxic proteins, increase the level of functional protein, or modify the structure of impaired protein to improve function. There are multiple challenges in delivering ASOs to their site of action. Chemical modifications in the phosphodiester bond, nucleotide sugar, and nucleobase can increase structural thermodynamic stability and prevent ASO degradation. Furthermore, different particles, including viral vectors, conjugated peptides, conjugated antibodies, and nanocarriers, may improve ASO delivery. To date, six ASOs have been approved by the US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) in three neurological disorders: spinal muscular atrophy, Duchenne muscular dystrophy, and polyneuropathy caused by hereditary transthyretin amyloidosis. Ongoing preclinical and clinical studies are assessing the safety and efficacy of ASOs in multiple genetic and acquired neurological conditions. The current review provides an update on underlying mechanisms, design, chemical modifications, and delivery of ASOs. The administration of FDA-approved ASOs in neurological disorders is described, and current evidence on the safety and efficacy of ASOs in other neurological conditions, including pediatric neurological disorders, is reviewed.

Drug Molecular Immobilization and Photofunctionalization of Calcium Phosphates for Exploring Theranostic Functions

Theranostics (bifunction of therapeutics and diagnostics) has attracted increasing attention due to its efficiency that can reduce the physical and financial burden on patients. One of the promising materials for theranostics is calcium phosphate (CP) and it is biocompatible and can be functionalized not only with drug molecules but also with rare earth ions to show photoluminescence that is necessary for the diagnostic purpose. Such the CP-based hybrids are formed in vivo by interacting between functional groups of organic molecules and inorganic ions. It is of great importance to elucidate the interaction of CP with the photofunctional species and the drug molecules to clarify the relationship between the existing state and function. Well-designed photofunctional CPs will contribute to biomedical fields as highly-functional ormultifunctional theranostic materials at the nanoscales. In this review, we describe the hybridization between CPs and heterogeneous species, mainly focusing on europium(III) ion and methylene blue molecule as the representative photofunctional species for theranostics applications.

Various defects in graphene: a review

Pristine graphene has been considered one of the most promising materials because of its excellent physical and chemical properties. However, various defects in graphene produced during synthesis or fabrication hinder its performance for applications such as electronic devices, transparent electrodes, and spintronic devices. Due to its intrinsic bandgap and nonmagnetic nature, it cannot be used in nanoelectronics or spintronics. Intrinsic and extrinsic defects are ultimately introduced to tailor electronic and magnetic properties and take advantage of their hidden potential. This article emphasizes the current advancement of intrinsic and extrinsic defects in graphene for potential applications. We also discuss the limitations and outlook for such defects in graphene.

Hard, Soft, and Hard-and-Soft Drug Delivery Carriers Based on CaCO3 and Alginate Biomaterials: Synthesis, Properties, Pharmaceutical Applications

Because free therapeutic drug molecules often have adverse effects on normal tissues, deliver scanty drug concentrations and exhibit a potentially low efficacy at pathological sites, various drug carriers have been developed for preclinical and clinical trials. Their physicochemical and toxicological properties are the subject of extensive research. Inorganic calcium carbonate particles are promising candidates as drug delivery carriers owning to their hardness, porous internal structure, high surface area, distinctive pH-sensitivity, low degradability, etc, while soft organic alginate hydrogels are also widely used because of their special advantages such as a high hydration, bio-adhesiveness, and non-antigenicity. Here, we review these two distinct substances as well as hybrid structures encompassing both types of carriers. Methods of their synthesis, fundamental properties and mechanisms of formation, and their respective applications are described. Furthermore, we summarize and compare similarities versus differences taking into account unique advantages and disadvantages of these drug delivery carriers. Moreover, rational combination of both carrier types due to their performance complementarity (yin-&yang properties: in general, yin is referred to for definiteness as hard, and yang is broadly taken as soft) is proposed to be used in the so-called hybrid carriers endowing them with even more advanced properties envisioned to be attractive for designing new drug delivery systems.

Hydroxyapatite Nanoparticles in Drug Delivery: Physicochemistry and Applications

Hydroxyapatite (HAP) has been the gold standard in the biomedical field due to its composition and similarity to human bone. Properties such as shape, size, morphology, and ionic substitution can be tailored through the use of different synthesis techniques and compounds. Regardless of the ability to determine its physicochemical properties, a conclusion for the correlation with the biological response it is yet to be found. Hence, a special focus on the most desirable properties for an appropriate biological response needs to be addressed. This review provides an overview of the fundamental properties of hydroxyapatite nanoparticles and the characterization of physicochemical properties involved in their biological response and role as a drug delivery system. A summary of the main chemical properties and applications of hydroxyapatite, the advantages of using nanoparticles, and the influence of shape, size, functional group, morphology, and crystalline phase in the biological response is presented. A special emphasis was placed on the analysis of chemical and physical interactions of the nanoparticles and the cargo, which was explained through the use of spectroscopic and physical techniques such as FTIR, Raman, XRD, SEM, DLS, and BET. We discuss the properties tailored for hydroxyapatite nanoparticles for a specific biomolecule based on the compilation of studies performed on proteins, peptides, drugs, and genetic material.

Emerging indocyanine green-integrated nanocarriers for multimodal cancer therapy: a review

Nanotechnology is a branch of science dealing with the development of new types of nanomaterials by several methods. In the biomedical field, nanotechnology is widely used in the form of nanotherapeutics. Therefore, the current biomedical research pays much attention to nanotechnology for the development of efficient cancer treatment. Indocyanine green (ICG) is a near-infrared tricarbocyanine dye approved by the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) for human clinical use. ICG is a biologically safe photosensitizer and it can kill tumor cells by producing singlet oxygen species and photothermal heat upon NIR irradiation. ICG has some limitations such as easy aggregation, rapid aqueous degradation, and a short half-life. To address these limitations, ICG is further formulated with nanoparticles. Therefore, ICG is integrated with organic nanomaterials (polymers, micelles, liposomes, dendrimers and protein), inorganic nanomaterials (magnetic, gold, mesoporous, calcium, and LDH based), and hybrid nanomaterials. The combination of ICG with nanomaterials provides highly efficient therapeutic effects. Nowadays, ICG is used for various biomedical applications, especially in cancer therapeutics. In this review, we mainly focus on ICG-based combined cancer nanotherapeutics for advanced cancer treatment.

Metallic nanoparticles as drug delivery system for the treatment of cancer

INTRODUCTION

The targeted delivery of anticancer agents to tumor is a major challenge because most of the drugs show off-target effect resulting in nonspecific cell death. Multifunctionalized metallic nanoparticles (NPs) are explored as new carrier system in the era of cancer therapeutics. Researchers investigated the potential of metallic NPs to target tumor cells by active and passive mechanisms, thereby reducing off-target effects of anticancer agents. Moreover, photocatalytic activity of upconversion nanoparticles (UCNPs) and the enhanced permeation and retention (EPR) effect have also gained wide potential in cancer treatment. Recent advancement in the field of nanotechnology highlights their potency for cancer therapy.

AREAS COVERED

This review summarizes the types of gold and silver metallic NPs with targeting mechanisms and their potentiality in cancer therapy.

EXPERT OPINION

Recent advances in the field of nanotechnology for cancer therapy offer high specificity and targeting efficiency. Targeting tumor cells through mechanistic pathways using metallic NPs for the disruption/alteration of molecular profile and survival rate of the tumor cells has led to an effective approach for cancer therapeutics. This alteration in the survival rate of the tumor cells might decrease the proliferation thereby resulting in more efficient management in the treatment of cancer.

Aptamer-Targeted Calcium Phosphosilicate Nanoparticles for Effective Imaging of Pancreatic and Prostate Cancer

Purpose

Accurate tumor identification and staging can be difficult. Aptamer-targeted indocyanine green (ICG)-nanoparticles can enhance near-infrared fluorescent imaging of pancreatic and prostate tumors and could improve early cancer detection. This project explored whether calcium-phosphosilicate nanoparticles, also known as NanoJackets (NJs), that were bioconjugated with a tumor-specific targeting DNA aptamer could improve the non-invasive detection of pancreatic and prostate tumors.

Methods

Using in vivo near-infrared optical imaging and ex vivo fluorescence analysis, DNA aptamer-targeted ICG-loaded NJs were compared to untargeted NJs for detection of tumors.

Results

Nanoparticles were bioconjugated with the DNA aptamer AP1153, which binds to the CCK-B receptor (CCKBR). Aptamer bioconjugated NJs were not significantly increased in size compared with unconjugated nanoparticles. AP1153-ICG-NJ accumulation in orthotopic pancreatic tumors peaked at 18 h post-injection and the ICG signal was cleared by 36 h with no evidence on uptake by non-tumor tissues. Ex vivo tumor imaging confirmed the aptamer-targeted NJs accumulated to higher levels than untargeted NJs, were not taken up by normal pancreas, exited from the tumor vasculature, and were well-dispersed throughout pancreatic and prostate tumors despite extensive fibrosis. Specificity for AP1153-NJ binding to the CCK-B receptor on pancreatic tumor cells was confirmed by pre-treating tumor-bearing mice with the CCK receptor antagonist proglumide. Proglumide pre-treatment reduced the in vivo tumoral accumulation of AP1153-NJs to levels comparable to that of untargeted NJs.

Conclusion

Through specific interactions with CCK-B receptors, tumor-targeted nanoparticles containing either ICG or rhodamine WT were well distributed throughout the matrix of both pancreatic and prostate tumors. Tumor-targeted NJs carrying various imaging agents can enhance tumor detection.

Selenium-doped calcium phosphate biomineral reverses multidrug resistance to enhance bone tumor chemotherapy

The construction of a functional drug delivery system to reverse the multidrug resistance (MDR) of bone tumors in cases of failed chemotherapy remains a challenge. Herein, we demonstrate a selenium-doped calcium phosphate (Se-CaP) biomineral with high biocompatibility, biodegradability and pH-sensitive drug release properties. Se-CaP may not only serve as an effective drug-carrier to enhance the uptake of doxorubicin (DOX), but may also synchronously induce caspases-mediated apoptosis of osteosarcoma by generating intracellular reactive oxygen species (ROS). Furthermore, in vitro and in vivo studies obviously demonstrate that Se-CaP can reverse the MDR of osteosarcoma by down-regulating the expression of MDR-related ABC (ATP binding cassette) transporters proteins (ABCB1 and ABCC1). Finally, DOX-loaded Se-CaP can significantly inhibit DOX-resistant MG63 (MG63/DXR) tumor growth in nude mice. Considering its biomimetic chemical properties, the Se-CaP biomineral, with the multiple functions mentioned above, could be a promising candidate for treating bone tumors with MDR characteristics.

Biomineralization: An Opportunity and Challenge of Nanoparticle Drug Delivery Systems for Cancer Therapy

Biomineralization is a common process in organisms to produce hard biomaterials by combining inorganic ions with biomacromolecules. Multifunctional nanoplatforms are developed based on the mechanism of biomineralization in many biomedical applications. In the past few years, biomineralization-based nanoparticle drug delivery systems for the cancer treatment have gained a lot of research attention due to the advantages including simple preparation, good biocompatibility, degradability, easy modification, versatility, and targeting. In this review, the research trends of biomineralization-based nanoparticle drug delivery systems and their applications in cancer therapy are summarized. This work aims to promote future researches on cancer therapy based on biomineralization. Rational design of nanoparticle drug delivery systems can overcome the bottleneck in the clinical transformation of nanomaterials. At the same time, biomineralization has also provided new research ideas for cancer treatment, i.e., targeted therapy, which has significantly better performance.

Chemical Vapour Deposition of Graphene-Synthesis, Characterisation, and Applications: A Review

Graphene as the 2D material with extraordinary properties has attracted the interest of research communities to master the synthesis of this remarkable material at a large scale without sacrificing the quality. Although Top-Down and Bottom-Up approaches produce graphene of different quality, chemical vapour deposition (CVD) stands as the most promising technique. This review details the leading CVD methods for graphene growth, including hot-wall, cold-wall and plasma-enhanced CVD. The role of process conditions and growth substrates on the nucleation and growth of graphene film are thoroughly discussed. The essential characterisation techniques in the study of CVD-grown graphene are reported, highlighting the characteristics of a sample which can be extracted from those techniques. This review also offers a brief overview of the applications to which CVD-grown graphene is well-suited, drawing particular attention to its potential in the sectors of energy and electronic devices.

Hydroxyapatite as a biomaterial - a gift that keeps on giving

The synthetic analogue to biogenic apatite, hydroxyapatite (HA) has a number of physicochemical properties that make it an attractive candidate for diagnosis, treatment of disease and augmentation of biological tissues. Here we describe some of the recent studies on HA, which may provide bases for a number of new medical applications. The content of this review is divided to different medical application modes utilizing HA, including tissue engineering, medical implants, controlled drug delivery, gene therapies, cancer therapies and bioimaging. A number of advantages of HA over other biomaterials emerge from this discourse, including (i) biocompatibility, (ii) bioactivity, (iii) relatively simple synthesis protocols for the fabrication of nanoparticles with specific sizes and shapes, (iv) smart response to environmental stimuli, (v) facile functionalization and surface modification through noncovalent interactions, and (vi) the capacity for being simultaneously loaded with a wide range of therapeutic agents and switched to bioimaging modalities for uses in theranostics. A special section is dedicated to analysis of the safety of particulate HA as a component of parenterally administrable medications. It is concluded that despite the fact that many benefits come with the usage of HA, its deficiencies and potential side effects must be addressed before the translation to the clinical domain is pursued. Although HA has been known in the biomaterials world as the exemplar of safety, this safety proves to be the function of size, morphology, surface ligands and other structural and compositional parameters defining the particles. For this reason, each HA, especially when it comes in a novel structural form, must be treated anew from the safety research angle before being allowed to enter the clinical stage.

Recognition Sites for Cancer-targeting Drug Delivery Systems

BACKGROUND

Target-homing drug delivery systems are now gaining significant attention for use as novel therapeutic approaches in antitumor targeting for cancer therapy. Numerous targeted drug delivery systems have been designed to improve the targeting effects because these systems can display a range of favorable properties, thus, providing suitable characteristics for clinical applicability of anticancer drugs, such as increasing the solubility, and improving the drug distribution at target sites. The majority of these targeting systems are designed with respect to differences between cancerous and normal tissues, for instance, the low pH of tumor tissues or overexpressed receptors on tumor cell membranes. Due to the growing number of targeting possibilities, it is important to know the tumor-specific recognition strategies for designing novel, targeted, drug delivery systems. Herein, we identify and summarize literature pertaining to various recognition sites for optimizing the design of targeted drug delivery systems to augment current chemotherapeutic approaches.

OBJECTIVE

This review focuses on the identification of the recognition sites for developing targeted drug delivery systems for use in cancer therapeutics.

METHODS

We have reviewed and compiled cancer-specific recognition sites and their abnormal characteristics within tumor tissues (low pH, high glutathione, targetable receptors, etc.), tumor cells (receptor overexpression or tumor cell membrane changes) and tumor cell organelles (nuclear and endoplasmic reticular dysregulation) utilizing existing scientific literature. Moreover, we have highlighted the design of some targeted drug delivery systems that can be used as homing tools for these recognition sites.

RESULTS AND CONCLUSION

Targeted drug delivery systems are a promising therapeutic approach for tumor chemotherapy. Additional research focused on finding novel recognition sites, and subsequent development of targeting moieties for use with drug delivery systems will aid in the evaluation and clinical application of new and improved chemotherapeutics.

Green Synthesis of Zeolite/Fe2O3 Nanocomposites: Toxicity & Cell Proliferation Assays and Application as a Smart Iron Nanofertilizer

Purpose

The aim of this study was to prepare zeolite/iron (III) oxide nanocomposites (zeolite/Fe₂O₃-NCs) as a smart fertilizer to improve crop yield and soil productivity.

Methods

Zeolite/Fe₂O₃-NCs were successfully produced by loading of Fe₂O₃-NPs onto the zeolite surface using a quick green precipitation method. The production of zeolite/Fe₂O₃ nanocomposites was performed under a mild condition using environmentally friendly raw materials as a new green chemistry method. The product was characterized using several techniques such as near and far Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy (FT-IR), powder X-ray diffraction (PXRD), energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (EDX), scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and transmission electron microscopy (TEM).

Results

The results confirmed the formation of Fe₂O₃-NPs with mean particle sizes of 1.45, 2.19, and 2.20 nm on the surface of the zeolite per amount of 4, 7 and 12 wt% Fe₂O₃-NPs, respectively. Such results indicated that the size of the Fe₂O₃-NPs did not significantly change when Fe amounts increased from 7 to 12 wt% for the zeolite/Fe₂O₃-NCs. In terms of medical applications, in vitro cell studies demonstrated that zeolites and zeolite/Fe₂O₃-NCs were generally non-toxic to human fibroblast cells and significantly pernicious to human malignant melanoma cells. From MTS cytotoxicity assays, the concentration of Fe₂O₃ within the zeolite/Fe₂O₃-NCs that was effective at inhibiting the growth of malignant melanoma cells by 50% (the IC50 value) was ~14.9 wt%. The three types of nanocomposites were further tested as an iron smart nanofertilizer for the slow-release of iron ions.

Conclusion

Advantages of this project include the production of non-toxic nanocomposites as a smart fertilizer to develop crops while the reaction involves the use of commercial and natural materials as low-cost raw materials with low energy usage due to a mild reaction condition, as well as the use of an environmentally friendly solvent (water) with no toxic residues.

Biomimetic Mineralization-Based CRISPR/Cas9 Ribonucleoprotein Nanoparticles for Gene Editing

Delivery of the CRISPR/Cas9 ribonucleoprotein (RNP) complex has provided an alternative strategy for the regulation of CRISPR functions, offering a transient and DNA-free means for genomic editing. Chemical methods of delivering the RNPs via nanocomplexes have the potential to address these delivery problems for efficiency, safety, and packaging capacity. Here, we developed a biomimetic mineralization-mediated strategy for efficient DNA-free genome editing by using CRISPR/Cas9 RNPs. We found that the RNPs have the ability to form the biomimetic mineralized RNP nanoparticles (Bm-RNP NPs) quickly in situ and can be effectively delivered into the fungal protoplast cells. Biomimetic mineralization can maintain the natural function of Cas9 protein and protect the sgRNA activity. At the same time, the encapsulated RNPs can be effectively released into the cytoplasm, and the Sytalone dehydratase (SDH) gene can be edited in a targeted manner. Except for phenotypic defects, molecular detections indicated that the delivery of Bm-RNP NPs achieved 20% genomic editing for Magnaporthe oryzae compared to RNPs alone. Moreover, the Bm-RNP NP-mediated editing of the SDH gene significantly affects the appressorium-mediated penetration and invasive growth in M. oryzae. Our system has the advantages of being cheap, fast, and effective, without the traditional transformation process, suggesting the potential application of this DNA-free gene-editing strategy in different organisms.

Photodynamic Therapy Based on Graphene and MXene in Cancer Theranostics

Cancer is one of the leading causes of death in the world. Therefore, the development of new advanced and targeted strategies in cancer research for early diagnosis and treatment has become essential to improve diagnosis outcomes and reduce therapy side effects. Graphene and more recently, MXene, are the main representatives of the family of two-dimensional (2D) materials and are widely studied as multimodal nanoplatforms for cancer diagnostics and treatment, in particular leveraging their potentialities as photodynamic therapeutic agents. Indeed, due to their irreplaceable physicochemical properties, they are virtuous allies for photodynamic therapy (PDT) in combination with bioimaging, photothermal therapy, as well as drug and gene delivery. In this review, the rapidly progressing literature related to the use of these promising 2D materials for cancer theranostics is described in detail, highlighting all their possible future advances in PDT.

Nanoparticle- and Nanoporous-Membrane-Mediated Delivery of Therapeutics

Pharmaceutical particulates and membranes possess promising prospects for delivering drugs and bioactive molecules with the potential to improve drug delivery strategies like sustained and controlled release. For example, inorganic-based nanoparticles such as silica-, titanium-, zirconia-, calcium-, and carbon-based nanomaterials with dimensions smaller than 100 nm have been extensively developed for biomedical applications. Furthermore, inorganic nanoparticles possess magnetic, optical, and electrical properties, which make them suitable for various therapeutic applications including targeting, diagnosis, and drug delivery. Their properties may also be tuned by controlling different parameters, e.g., particle size, shape, surface functionalization, and interactions among them. In a similar fashion, membranes have several functions which are useful in sensing, sorting, imaging, separating, and releasing bioactive or drug molecules. Engineered membranes have been developed for their usage in controlled drug delivery devices. The latest advancement in the technology is therefore made possible to regulate the physico-chemical properties of the membrane pores, which enables the control of drug delivery. The current review aims to highlight the role of both pharmaceutical particulates and membranes over the last fifteen years based on their preparation method, size, shape, surface functionalization, and drug delivery potential.

Degradability and Clearance of Inorganic Nanoparticles for Biomedical Applications

Inorganic nanoparticles with tunable and diverse properties hold tremendous potential in the field of nanomedicine, while having non-negligible toxicity concerns in healthy tissues/organs that have resulted in their restricted clinical translation to date. In the past decade, the emergence of biodegradable or clearable inorganic nanoparticles has made it possible to completely solve this long-standing conundrum. A comprehensive understanding of the design of these inorganic nanoparticles with their metabolic performance in the body is of crucial importance to advance clinical trials and expand their biological applications in disease diagnosis. Here, a diverse variety of biodegradable or clearable inorganic nanoparticles regarding considerations of the size, morphology, surface chemistry, and doping strategy are highlighted. Their pharmacokinetics, pathways of metabolism in the body, and time required for excretion are discussed. Some inorganic materials intrinsically responsive to various conditions in the tumor microenvironment are also introduced. Finally, an overview of the encountered challenges is provided along with an outlook for applying these inorganic nanoparticles toward future clinical translations.

Polyetherimide Foams Filled with Low Content of Graphene Nanoplatelets Prepared by scCO₂ Dissolution

Polyetherimide (PEI) foams with graphene nanoplatelets (GnP) were prepared by supercritical carbon dioxide (scCO₂) dissolution. Foam precursors were prepared by melt-mixing PEI with variable amounts of ultrasonicated GnP (0.1⁻2.0 wt %) and foamed by one-step scCO₂ foaming. While the addition of GnP did not significantly modify the cellular structure of the foams, melt-mixing and foaming induced a better dispersion of GnP throughout the foams. There were minor changes in the degradation behaviour of the foams with adding GnP. Although the residue resulting from burning increased with augmenting the amount of GnP, foams showed a slight acceleration in their primary stages of degradation with increasing GnP content. A clear increasing trend was observed for the normalized storage modulus of the foams with incrementing density. The electrical conductivity of the foams significantly improved by approximately six orders of magnitude with only adding 1.5 wt % of GnP, related to an improved dispersion of GnP through a combination of ultrasonication, melt-mixing and one-step foaming, leading to the formation of a more effective GnP conductive network. As a result of their final combined properties, PEI-GnP foams could find use in applications such as electrostatic discharge (ESD) or electromagnetic interference (EMI) shielding.

Origin of Room-Temperature Ferromagnetism in Hydrogenated Epitaxial Graphene on Silicon Carbide

The discovery of room-temperature ferromagnetism of hydrogenated epitaxial graphene on silicon carbide challenges for a fundamental understanding of this long-range phenomenon. Carbon allotropes with their dispersive electron states at the Fermi level and a small spin-orbit coupling are not an obvious candidate for ferromagnetism. Here we show that the origin of ferromagnetism in hydrogenated epitaxial graphene with a relatively high Curie temperature (>300 K) lies in the formation of curved specific carbon site regions in the graphene layer, induced by the underlying Si-dangling bonds and by the hydrogen bonding. Hydrogen adsorption is therefore more favourable at only one sublattice site, resulting in a localized state at the Fermi energy that can be attributed to a pseudo-Landau level splitting. This n = 0 level forms a spin-polarized narrow band at the Fermi energy leading to a high Curie temperature and larger magnetic moment can be achieved due to the presence of Si dangling bonds underneath the hydrogenated graphene layer.

Effective systemic siRNA delivery using dual-layer protected long-circulating nanohydrogel containing an inorganic core

PEG-dex-dopa nanohydrogel containing a CaP/siRNA core could achieve extended circulation with reduced RES accumulation, resulting in increased tumor accumulation.

Nanomedicine for anticancer and antimicrobial treatment: an overview

Nanoparticle-based treatment has become a potential therapeutic approach. The nanosize of these particles provides them with unique physicochemical properties and enhances their interaction with the biological system. Nanomaterials have the potential to overcome some of the major issues in the clinical world which may include cancer treatment and may be utilised to resolve the major problem of drug resistance in infection control. These particles are being used to improve present therapeutics by virtue of their shape, size and diverse intrinsic as well as chemical properties. The authors have discussed the use of nanoparticles in cancer treatment, infections caused by multidrug-resistant microbial strains and biofilm inhibition along with the detailed description of the current status of nanomaterials in the field of medicine.

Novel glucosylceramide synthase inhibitor based prodrug copolymer micelles for delivery of anticancer agents

In order to improve the efficacy of chemotherapy for cancers, we have developed a novel prodrug micellar formulation to co-deliver ceramide-generating anticancer agents and ceramide degradation inhibitor (PPMP). The prodrug nanocarrier is based on a well-defined POEG-b-PPPMP diblock copolymer. The hydrophilic block of POEG-b-PPPMP is POEG, and the hydrophobic block is composed of a number of PPMP units, which could work synergistically with loaded anticancer drugs. POEG-b-PPPMP was readily synthesized via a one-step reversible addition-fragment transfer (RAFT) polymerization from a PPMP monomer. The newly synthesized polymers were self-assembled into micelles and served as a carrier for several hydrophobic anticancer drugs including DOX, PTX and C6-ceramide. POEG-b-PPPMP prodrug polymer exhibited intrinsic antitumor activity in vitro and in vivo. In addition, POEG-b-PPPMP prodrug polymer was comparable to free PPMP in selectively enhancing the production of pro-apoptotic ceramide species as well as down-regulating the mRNA expression of GCS. DOX-loaded POEG-b-PPPMP micelles exhibited an excellent stability of 42 days at 4 °C. Moreover, DOX loaded in POEG-b-PPPMP micelles showed higher levels of cytotoxicity than DOX loaded in a pharmacologically inert polymer (POEG-b-POM) and Doxil formulation in several tumor cell lines. Consistently, in a 4T1.2 murine breast cancer model, the tumor inhibition followed the order of DOX/POEG-b-PPPMP > DOX/POEG-b-POM ≥ Doxil > POEG-b-PPPMP > POEG-b-POM. Our data suggest that POEG-b-PPPMP micelles are a promising dual-functional carrier that warrants more studies in the future.

Functional biomimetic nanoparticles for drug delivery and theranostic applications in cancer treatment

Nanotechnology has been extensively utilized in the design and development of powerful strategies for drug delivery and cancer theranostic. Nanoplatforms as a drug delivery system have many advantages such as in vivo imaging, combined drug delivery, extended circulation time, and systemic controlled release. The functional biomimetic drug delivery could be realized by incorporating stimuli-responsive (pH, temperature, redox potential, etc.) properties into the nanocarrier system, allowing them to bypass biological barriers and arrive at the targeted area. In this review, we discuss the role of internal stimuli-responsive nanocarrier system for imaging and drug delivery in cancer therapy. The development of internal stimuli-responsive nanoparticles is highlighted for precision drug delivery applications, with a particular focus on in vivo imaging, drug release performance, and therapeutic benefits.

Porous Inorganic Carriers Based on Silica, Calcium Carbonate and Calcium Phosphate for Controlled/Modulated Drug Delivery: Fresh Outlook and Future Perspectives

Porous inorganic nanostructured materials are widely used nowadays as drug delivery carriers due to their adventurous features: suitable architecture, large surface area and stability in the biological fluids. Among the different types of inorganic porous materials, silica, calcium carbonate, and calcium phosphate have received significant attention in the last decade. The use of porous inorganic materials as drug carriers for cancer therapy, gene delivery etc. has the potential to improve the life expectancy of the patients affected by the disease. The main goal of this review is to provide general information on the current state of the art of synthesis of the inorganic porous particles based on silica, calcium carbonate and calcium phosphate. Special focus is dedicated to the loading capacity, controllable release of drugs under internal biological stimuli (e.g., pH, redox, enzymes) and external noninvasive stimuli (e.g., light, magnetic field, and ultrasound). Moreover, the diverse compounds to deliver with silica, calcium carbonate and calcium phosphate particles, ranging from the commercial drugs to genetic materials are also discussed.

Non-covalent control of spin-state in metal-organic complex by positioning on N-doped graphene

Nitrogen doping of graphene significantly affects its chemical properties, which is particularly important in molecular sensing and electrocatalysis applications. However, detailed insight into interaction between N-dopant and molecules at the atomic scale is currently lacking. Here we demonstrate control over the spin state of a single iron(II) phthalocyanine molecule by its positioning on N-doped graphene. The spin transition was driven by weak intermixing between orbitals with z-component of N-dopant (pz of N-dopant) and molecule (dxz, dyz, dz2) with subsequent reordering of the Fe d-orbitals. The transition was accompanied by an electron density redistribution within the molecule, sensed by atomic force microscopy with CO-functionalized tip. This demonstrates the unique capability of the high-resolution imaging technique to discriminate between different spin states of single molecules. Moreover, we present a method for triggering spin state transitions and tuning the electronic properties of molecules through weak non-covalent interaction with suitably functionalized graphene.

pH-responsive Drug Delivery Systems

Acidic microenvironments exist in selected organs, tissues, and subcellular compartments, as well as in many dysregulated pathological states. A continuous effort has been made to harness the unique acidic properties of biological tissues for site-specific delivery of drugs. Various pH-responsive drug delivery systems have been designed and developed with improved spatio-temporal control of payload delivery with enhanced efficacy. This chapter will focus on the recent advances in the development of pH-sensitive materials, mechanisms of payload release, and pH-triggered drug targeting in various biomedical applications.

In Vitro Uptake of Hydroxyapatite Nanoparticles and Their Effect on Osteogenic Differentiation of Human Mesenchymal Stem Cells

There have been many applications in biomedical fields based on hydroxyapatite nanoparticles (HA NPs) over the past decades. However, the biocompatibility of HANPs is affected by exposure dose, particle size, and the way of contact with cells. The objective of this study is to investigate the effect of HA NPs with different sizes on osteogenesis using human mesenchymal stem cells (hMSCs). Three different-sized HA NPs (~50, ~100, and ~150 nm, resp.) were synthesized to study the cytotoxicity, cellular uptake, and effect on osteogenic differentiation of hMSCs. The results clearly showed that each size of HA NPs had dose-dependent cytotoxicity on hMSCs. It was found that HA NPs could be uptaken into hMSCs. The osteogenic differentiation of hMSCs was evaluated through alkaline phosphatase (ALP) activity measurement, ALP staining, immunofluorescent staining for osteopontin (OPN), and real-time polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR) examination. As expected, HA NPs of all sizes could promote the differentiation of hMSCs towards osteoblast lineage. Among the three sizes, smaller-sized HA NPs (~50 and ~100 nm) appeared to be more effective in stimulating osteogenic differentiation of hMSCs.

Hollow mesoporous hydroxyapatite nanostructures; smart nanocarriers with high drug loading and controlled releasing features

We report the development of effective drug loaded nanocarriers to combat multidrug resistant infection especially in case of osteomyelitis. The hollow mesoporous hydroxyapatite nanoparticles (hmHANPs) and solid/non-hollow hydroxyapatite nanoparticles (sHANPs) were synthesized by core-shell and co-precipitation techniques respectively. High encapsulation of the drug (ciprofloxacin) was observed in hmHANPs as compared to sHANPs, which may be due to the hollow porous structure of hmHANPs. These nanoparticles were characterized by scanning electron microscope (FESEM), N₂ adsorption/desorption, Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR), X-ray diffraction (XRD) and Thermogravimetric analysis (TGA). Approximately 80% of the encapsulated drug was released at pH 4.5 within 5 days in case of hmHANPs while at pH 7.4, a sustained drug release profile was obtained and only 48.73% of the drug was released after 9 days. The results of kinetic drug release revealed that drug loaded hmHANPs showed fickian diffusion and anomalous drug diffusion mechanism at pH 4.5 and 7.4 respectively. Owing to their porous structure and high drug loading capacity, hmHANPs showed enhanced antibacterial activity against Staphylococcus aureus and Escherichia coli (drug resistant strains of osteomyelitis) in comparison to that with sHANPs. In addition, hmHANPs showed a pH sensitive drug release profile, high surface area (105.33 m²/g) with increased pore volume (0.533 cm³/g) and superior antimicrobial activity against osteomyelitis as compared to sHANPs.

Calcium-based biomaterials for diagnosis, treatment, and theranostics

Calcium-based biomaterials with good biosafety and bio-absorbability are promising for biomedical applications such as diagnosis, treatment, and theranostics.

Bias induced ferromagnetism and half-metallicity in graphene nano-ribbons

Towards spin selective electronics made of three coordinated carbon atoms, here we computationally propose robust and reversibly bias driven evolution of pristine undoped graphene nano-ribbons(GNR) into ferromagnetic-semiconductor, metal or a half metal, irrespective of their edge configurations. The evolution is a result of a rare ferromagnetic(FM) order emerging among nearest neighbouring(n-n) sites, in positively biased regions in their in-homogeneous bias unit-cells, in attempt to cooperatively minimise on-site Coulomb repulsion and kinetic energy, while maximising localization of electrons at the positively biased sites. The phenomenon appears to be a general property of in-homogeneously biased Coulomb correlated bipartite systems. Consequences are particularly rich in zigzag edged graphene nano-ribbons(ZGNR) due to the contest of bias driven n-n FM order and the inter-edge antiferromagnetic order inherent to ZGNRs, leading to systematic closing of gap for one of the spins, amounting to bias controlled unmissable opening of window for FM-semiconducting and half-metallic transport.

Preparation of chitosan‑silicon dioxide/BCSG1‑siRNA nanoparticles to enhance therapeutic efficacy in breast cancer cells

Breast cancer is one of the most serious diseases, posing threats to women's physical and mental health. Gene therapy has been gradually regarded as an important part of tumor therapeutics. In the present study, the breast cancer‑specific gene 1‑small interference RNA (BCSG1‑siRNA) plasmid was designed, then encapsulated by chitosan‑silicon dioxide nanometer carriers. The results demonstrated a successful encapsulation of BCSG1‑siRNA in chitosan‑silicon dioxide nanoparticles (encapsulation efficiency exceeded 90%). BCSG1‑siRNA was released slowly (the release rate was almost 30% after 24 h). The cytotoxic effect on MCF‑7 cells was enhanced by increasing the concentration of nanoparticle (the proliferation rate was reduced to 13.4±5.3% and apoptosis rate was increased to 71.5±6.8%). Therefore, the materials presented in the current study acted as successful gene carriers and exhibited significant antitumor effects in breast cancer cells.

The Advent of Indium Selenide: Synthesis, Electronic Properties, Ambient Stability and Applications

Among the various two-dimensional semiconductors, indium selenide has recently triggered the interest of scientific community, due to its band gap matching the visible region of the electromagnetic spectrum, with subsequent potential applications in optoelectronics and especially in photodetection. In this feature article, we discuss the main issues in the synthesis, the ambient stability and the application capabilities of this novel class of two-dimensional semiconductors, by evidencing open challenges and pitfalls. In particular, we evidence how the growth of single crystals with reduced amount of Se vacancies is crucial in the road map for the exploitation of indium selenide in technology through ambient-stable nanodevices with outstanding values of both mobility of charge carriers and ON/OFF ratio. The surface chemical reactivity of the InSe surface, as well as applications in the fields of broadband photodetection, flexible electronics and solar energy conversion are also discussed.

Biomineral Nano-Theranostic agent for Magnetic Resonance Image Guided, Augmented Radiofrequency Ablation of Liver Tumor

Theranostic nanoparticles based on biocompatible mineral compositions can significantly improve the translational potential of image guided cancer nano-therapy. Here, we report development of a single-phase calcium phosphate biomineral nanoparticle (nCP) with dual-mode magnetic resonance contrast (T1-T2) together with radiofrequency (RF) mediated thermal response suitable for image-guided RF ablation of cancer. The nanoparticles (NP) are engineered to provide dual MR contrast by an optimized doping concentration (4.1 at%) of paramagnetic ion, Fe³⁺, which also renders lossy dielectric character for nCP leading to thermal response under RF exposure. In vivo compatibility and dual-mode MR contrast are demonstrated in healthy rat models. MRI and T2 mapping suggest hepatobiliary clearance by ~96 hours. MRI guided intratumoral injection in subcutaneous rat glioma and orthotopic liver tumor models provide clear visualization of NP in MRI which also helps in quantifying NP distribution within tumor. Furthermore, by utilising RF mediated thermal response, NP treated tumor could be ablated using clinically approved RF ablation system (10 W,13.3 GHz). Real-time in vivo thermal imaging exhibits 119 ± 10% increase in temperature change (ΔT) for NP treated orthotopic liver tumor (ΔT = 51.5 ± 2 °C), compared to untreated healthy liver control (ΔT = 21.5 ± 2 °C). In effect, we demonstrate a promising nano-biomineral theranostic agent for dual-mode MRI combined with radiofrequency ablation of solid tumors.

Fabrication of Calcium Phosphate-Based Nanocomposites Incorporating DNA Origami, Gold Nanorods, and Anticancer Drugs for Biomedical Applications

DNA origami is designed by folding DNA strands at the nanoscale with arbitrary control. Due to its inherent biological nature, DNA origami is used in drug delivery for enhancement of synergism and multidrug resistance inhibition, cancer diagnosis, and many other biomedical applications, where it shows great potential. However, the inherent instability and low payload capacity of DNA origami restrict its biomedical applications. Here, this paper reports the fabrication of an advanced biocompatible nano-in-nanocomposite, which protects DNA origami from degradation and facilities drug loading. The DNA origami, gold nanorods, and molecular targeted drugs are co-incorporated into pH responsive calcium phosphate [Ca₃ (PO₄ )₂ ] nanoparticles. Subsequently, a thin layer of phospholipid is coated onto the Ca₃ (PO₄ )₂ nanoparticle to offer better biocompatibility. The fabricated nanocomposite shows high drug loading capacity, good biocompatibility, and a photothermal and pH-responsive payload release profile and it fully protects DNA origami from degradation. The codelivery of DNA origami with cancer drugs synergistically induces cancer cell apoptosis, reduces the multidrug resistance, and enhances the targeted killing efficiency toward human epidermal growth factor receptor 2 positive cells. This nanocomposite is foreseen to open new horizons for a variety of clinical and biomedical applications.