Gender differences in reactive and proactive aggression

Effectiveness of Community-Based Programs on Aggressive Behavior Among Children and Adolescents: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis

Adolescent aggressive behavior has increasingly become a central issue affecting the safety of both school campuses and the broader society. Despite the existence of numerous community interventions targeting this issue, there has been a paucity of efforts to consolidate the findings on the effectiveness of community-based programs in preventing aggressive behavior. This meta-analysis sought to address this gap by reviewing and assessing the impact of community-based initiatives on reducing adolescent aggression. A thorough search was carried out on 12 electronic databases: EBSCO, ERIC, PubMed, PsycINFO, MEDLINE, EMBASE, Scopus, Web of Science, ProQuest Dissertations and Theses, the China National Knowledge, Wanfang Databases, and China Science and Technology Journal Database. Sixteen studies were finalized, and meta-analyses were performed using a random effect model on RevMan v5.4 software developed by Cochrane. The analysis encompassed 16 published studies, involving a total of 2,585 participants. The key components of existing programs for aggression reduction included providing behavioral skills and training for adolescents, employing a problem-solving approach to address behavioral issues, offering psychological treatment, and emphasizing community supervision. The results indicate a significant positive effect of community-based interventions on aggression reduction (standardized mean difference = -0.26, 95% confidence intervals [-0.39, -0.13], Z = 3.84, p < .001). The subgroup analyses revealed that the intervention's effectiveness was moderated by the duration of the intervention, its theoretical foundation, and the sample size. This study furnishes empirical evidence supporting the enhancement of policies and practices to foster community engagement in mitigating aggressive behavior.

"Weeding out" violence? Translational perspectives on the neuropsychobiological links between cannabis and aggression

Recent shifts in societal attitudes towards cannabis have led to a dramatic increase in consumption rates in many Western countries, particularly among young people. This trend has shed light on a significant link between cannabis use disorder (CUD) and pathological reactive aggression, a condition involving disproportionate aggressive and violent reactions to minor provocations. The discourse on the connection between cannabis use and aggression is frequently enmeshed in political and legal discussions, leading to a polarized understanding of the causative relationship between cannabis use and aggression. However, integrative analyses from both human and animal research indicate a complex, bidirectional interplay between cannabis misuse and pathological aggression. On the one hand, emerging research reveals a shared genetic and environmental predisposition for both cannabis use and aggression, suggesting a common underlying biological mechanism. On the other hand, there is evidence that cannabis consumption can lead to violent behaviors while also being used as a self-medication strategy to mitigate the negative emotions associated with pathological reactive aggression. This suggests that the coexistence of pathological aggression and CUD may result from overlapping vulnerabilities, potentially creating a self-perpetuating cycle where each condition exacerbates the other, escalating into externalizing and violent behaviors. This article aims to synthesize existing research on the intricate connections between these issues and propose a theoretical model to explain the neurobiological mechanisms underpinning this complex relationship.

Common Mechanisms Underlying the Effect of Angry Rumination on Reactive and Proactive Aggression: A Moderated Mediation Model

The different influencing factors and mechanisms of the two basic kinds of aggression (i.e., reactive and proactive aggression) are salient. However, they also have common influencing factors and mechanisms, which are ignored to some extent. In addition, discovering the common mechanisms is conducive to further revealing the nature and law of aggression. To address these issues, this study tested a relational model incorporating angry rumination, moral disengagement, harm aversion, reactive aggression, and proactive aggression from the perspective of aggressive motivation. A total of 1,186 undergraduate students from eight universities were recruited. The results showed that angry rumination was significantly associated with reactive and proactive aggression. Importantly, moral disengagement acted as a common mediator, and harm aversion acted as a common moderator in the effect of angry rumination on reactive and proactive aggression. Specifically, the enhancement effects of low levels of harm aversion on these relationships are due to that it could promote the effects of angry rumination on the common mediator of moral disengagement. An aggressive motivation perspective was developed to comprehensively explain the common mediating and moderating effects. The present study contributes to a greater understanding of the mechanisms of reactive and proactive aggression and how aggressive motivations shape the model of aggressive behavior. These findings support and extend current aggression theories, especially aggression motivation theories. This study could provide insights for targeted aggression prevention interventions.

The developmental characteristics of proactive and reactive aggression in late childhood: The effect of parental control

Previous research has confirmed that parental control is related to children's aggressive behavior. However, few studies have focused on proactive and reactive aggression to distinguish the different effects of parental psychological and behavioral control. Moreover, additional longitudinal evidence is needed to understand these links. In the current paper, a three-wave longitudinal study was conducted to examine the developmental characteristics of proactive and reactive aggression and the role of parental control in China. A total of 484 4th- and 7th-grade students participated at wave 1 (51.65% in 4th-grade, Mage  = 11.66 ± 1.52 years), 465 students (52.04% in 4th-grade) at wave 2, and 447 children (51.90% in 4th-grade) at wave 3. The results showed that: (1) Proactive aggression in late childhood remained stable overall, while reactive aggression displayed a clear upward trend. (2) In proactive aggression, boys and girls had a consistent developmental trend. The initial level of boys was higher than that of girls. In reactive aggression, the growth rate was inversely associated with their initial level and the initial level of boys in 7th-grade was significantly higher than that of girls. (3) Both parental psychological and behavioral control positively predicted students' reactive aggression in 4th- and 7th-grade, whereas only parental behavioral control positively predicted proactive aggression in 7th-grade students, with no gender differences.

Impulsivity and Reactive-Proactive Aggression as Mechanisms of Alcohol-Related Sexual Intimate Partner Violence Perpetration among Romantic Partners

Background: Sexual intimate partner violence (S-IPV) commonly occurs within the contexts of committed romantic relationshops. Prior research has demonstrated the existence of a robust link between alcohol use and S-IPV. Despite this, few research studies have explored the etiological underpinnings of alcohol-related S-IPV perpetration, specifically. The present study examines the role of several key factors (i.e., problematic drinking, negative and positive urgency, proactive and reactive aggression) on S-IPV perpetration. Methods: Participants were 337 heavy drinking men and women in intimate relatinships who reported perpetrating some form of IPV toward their current partner within the past-year. A moderated-mediation model was used to determine how the key study variables interacted to predict S-IPV perpetration. Results: Results indicated that problematic drinking was positively correlated with both negative urgency and positive uregency. Findings also revealed that negative urgency, positive urgency, proactive aggression, and reactive aggression were all positively related to S-IPV perpetration. The indirect relationship between problematic drinking and S-IPV perpetration was mediated by positive urgency. Additionally, a significant main effect of proactive aggression on S-IPV perpetration was also detected. Conclusions: These findings suggest that impulsivity, specifically positive urgency, and proactive aggression may be under-appreciated constructs within the existing sexual aggression literature, and future research examining these variables as mechanisms explaining the association between the alcohol and S-IPV is warranted.

Prevalence of Aggressive Behavior in Greek Elementary School Settings from Teachers' Perspectives

The present study aims to estimate the prevalence of bullying in Greek elementary schools and to study the risk factors that lead to bullying episodes. A structured questionnaire was given to 221 teachers of elementary schools and 71 kindergarten teachers from urban and rural Greek schools. They were asked to note the forms and the frequency of aggressive behaviors that they had witnessed during the school years 2020-2021 and 2021-2022, as well as the sociodemographic characteristics of the aggressive children involved. Statistical analyses of the data were conducted, and the obtained results show that specific forms of aggression are significantly correlated with gender and low academic performance. In addition, there is no form of aggressive behavior that is associated with the perpetrator's age, nationality or family status. Further, the results of the factor analysis revealed four dominant factors in the aggressive behavior observed by teachers. The forms of bullying and the prevailing factors of aggressive behavior that dominate in Greek school settings are reported in the present study. Furthermore, a novel evaluation tool for teachers could potentially be developed based on the results of the present study.

Reactive and proactive aggression in clinical adolescents with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder: The moderating role of gender and comorbidities

Aggression is well-known problem in adolescent with Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD), but the precise relation of reactive and proactive aggression by gender and comorbidities has not been characterized in this population. The aim of this study was to assess the level of reactive and proactive aggression in adolescents with ADHD and in matched non-ADHD clinical controls. The level of aggression was assessed by the Reactive and Proactive Aggression Questionnaire in 391 adolescents with ADHD and in 391 matched non-ADHD clinical controls. The selection of adolescents with ADHD was representative for a three-year-long period in Vadaskert Child Psychiatry Hospital. General Linear Model was used to assess the difference by ADHD, gender, and comorbidities on the level of reactive and proactive aggression. The presence of ADHD was associated with higher levels of reactive and proactive aggression. In girls, the effect of ADHD on reactive aggression was more profound. The presence of oppositional defiant disorder or conduct disorder in both groups resulted in higher levels of aggression. Our data suggest that adolescents with ADHD have higher level of aggressive behavior, and girls are especially vulnerable in terms of reactive aggressive behavior.

Adolescents' Attachment to Parents and Reactive-Proactive Aggression: The Mediating Role of Alexithymia

Aggressive behaviors can serve different functions, which might be understood by distinguishing between reactive (RA) and proactive (PA) aggression. Few studies were conducted on adolescents’ family precursors and emotional processes associated with RA or PA. Accordingly, the current study compared RA and PA by evaluating their association with adolescents’ attachment to parents and alexithymia. N = 453 Italian adolescents aged 15–19 years (Mage = 16.48; SD = 0.69; 33.6% males) participated in the study filling in self-report measures. Results showed that PA and RA are significantly associated and that PA was higher among males. Moreover, four mediational models were performed to assess the influence of adolescents’ attachment to mothers vs. fathers on RA or PA, considering the mediating role of alexithymia. Gender was included as a covariate. Mediational models’ results showed a direct and indirect effect, through lower alexithymia, of adolescents’ attachment to mothers and fathers on RA. Differently, only attachment to mothers showed a direct effect on PA, while attachment to fathers only an indirect effect, mediated by lower alexithymia, on PA was shown. Findings support the greater relevance of emotional processes for RA while highlighting the differential contribution of adolescents’ attachment to mothers vs. fathers upon PA. Implications are discussed, and suggestions for future research are provided.

Voxel-based morphometry and cortical thickness in combat veterans suffering from impulsive aggression

BACKGROUND

Problems with impulsive aggression occur in many forms of psychiatric dysfunction, and are a common complaint among combat veterans. The present study sought to examine the neuroanatomical correlates of combat-related impulsive aggression.

METHODS

T1-weighted magnetic resonance images were acquired from 29 male veterans with impulsive aggression and 30 non-aggressive combat controls. Subcortical volumetry was conducted with the amygdala and hippocampus and their main constituent subdivisions as regions-of-interest (ROIs) (basolateral, centromedial amygdala; head, body, tail of hippocampus). Cortical thickness measurements were extracted for the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex, orbitofrontal cortex, and anterior cingulate cortex. Within-group correlations with psychometric measures were also explored.

RESULTS

No significant group differences in cortical thickness or subcortical grey matter volumes were observed for any of the ROIs. Also, no significant correlations with any of the psychometric measures were recorded. Exploratory whole-brain analysis of cortical thickness revealed a significant group × anxiety interaction effect in a cluster located in the left lingual gyrus.

CONCLUSIONS

The current findings indicate that problems with impulsive aggression may not be directly associated with alterations in cortical thickness or amygdalar/hippocampal (sub)volumes. The observed interplay between impulsive aggression problems and anxiety-related symptoms is consistent with prior work showing the two phenomena may share the same underlying (neural) mechanisms.

Effects of violent video games on players' and observers' aggressive cognitions and aggressive behaviors

Although previous research has shown that exposure to violent video games is related to aggression, little is known about the relationship between the player's perspective (player vs. observer) and aggression. In this experimental study, we tested the short-term effects of actively playing versus passively observing the same type of video games on aggressive cognitions and aggressive behaviors. A total of 192 12-year-old children (50% girls) were randomly assigned to one of four conditions: (a) violent game player (active violent players), (b) violent game observer (passive violent observers), (c) neutral game player (active neutral players), or (d) neutral game observer (passive neutral observers). After either playing or observing the designated games, each participant completed a lexical decision task and a competitive reaction time task to measure their aggressive cognitions and behaviors. Results showed that players displayed more aggressive cognitions and behaviors than observers. Boys displayed more aggressive cognitions and behaviors than girls, but this trend was observed only in the violent game play condition. Mediational analysis suggested that aggressive cognitions partially mediated the effect of violent video games on aggressive behaviors.

The Effects of Forgiveness, Gratitude, and Self-Control on Reactive and Proactive Aggression in Bullying

The social cognitive approach to moral development posits that moral self-schemas encourage character strengths and reduce adolescents’ aggression. However, limited research has examined the influence of positive personal characteristics on proactive behaviors and reactive aggression in bullying. This study examined direct and mediational relationships between forgiveness, gratitude, self-control, and both proactive and reactive aggression in bullying. The extent to which the structural relations of this model were invariant by gender and stage of adolescence were also evaluated. Participants in this study were 1000 Mexican students, 500 early adolescents (M age = 12.36, SD = 0.77 years) and 500 middle adolescents (M age = 16.64, SD = 0.89 years), between 12 and 17 years old. Structural equation and multi-group invariance analysis were performed. Results indicate that gratitude and forgiveness are positively related to self-control. Gratitude, forgiveness, and self-control are also negatively related to reactive and proactive aggression. Forgiveness and gratitude had an indirect relationship by decreasing both proactive and reactive aggression through their positive effects on self-control. Additionally, gender moderated the relationships between variables proposed in the model, whereas stage of adolescence did not. Overall findings suggest that moral self-schemas and strengths explained both types of aggression in bullying.

Introducing a multi-variate classification method: Risky driving acceptance among different heterogeneous driver sub-cultures

INTRODUCTION

Heterogeneous driving populations with many different origins are likely to have various sub-cultures that comprise of drivers with shared driver characteristics, most likely with dissimilar traffic safety cultures. An innovative methodology in traffic safety research is introduced which is beneficial for large datasets with multiple variables, making it useful for the multi-variate classification of drivers, driving attitudes and/or (risky) driving behaviours.

METHOD

With the application of multidimensional scaling analysis (MDS), this study explores traffic safety culture in the State of Qatar using a questionnaire and investigates the similarity patterns between the questionnaire items, aiming to classify attitudes towards risky driving behaviours into themes. MDS is subsequently applied to classify drivers within a heterogeneous driving sample into sub-cultures with shared driver characteristics and different risky driving attitudes.

RESULTS

Results show that acceptance of speeding is highest among the young Arabic students and acceptance of distraction and drivers' negligence such as phone use and not wearing a seatbelt is highest among male Arab drivers. Acceptance of extreme risk-taking like intoxicated driving and red-light running is highest among South-Asian business drivers.

CONCLUSION

It is important and practical to understand risky behavioural habits among sub-cultures and thereby focussing on groups of drivers instead of individuals, because groups are easier to approach and drivers within sub-cultures are found to influence each other. By indicating which groups of drivers are most likely to perform specific risky driving themes, it is possible to target these groups and effectively emphasise certain subsets of risky driving behaviours during training or traffic safety education. Practical Applications: This study provides guidance for the improvement of driver education and targeted traffic safety awareness campaigns, intending to make changes to attitudes and habits within specific driver sub-cultures with the aim to improve traffic safety on the longer term.

Monoamine and neuroendocrine gene-sets associate with frustration-based aggression in a gender-specific manner

Investigating phenotypic heterogeneity in aggression and understanding the molecular biological basis of aggression subtypes may lead to new prevention and treatment options. In the current study, we evaluated the taxonomy of aggression and examined specific genetic mechanisms underlying aggression subtypes in healthy males and females. Confirmatory Factor Analysis (CFA) was used to replicate a recently reported three-factor model of the Reactive Proactive Questionnaire (RPQ) in healthy adults (n = 661; median age 24.0 years; 41% male). Gene-set association analysis, aggregating common genetic variants within (a combination of) three molecular pathways previously implicated in aggression, i.e. serotonergic, dopaminergic, and neuroendocrine signaling, was conducted with MAGMA software in males and females separately (total n = 395) for aggression subtypes. We replicate the three-factor CFA model of the RPQ, and found males to score significantly higher on one of these factors compared to females: proactive aggression. The genetic association analysis showed a female-specific association of genetic variation in the combined gene-set with a different factor of the RPQ; reactive aggression due to internal frustration. Both the neuroendocrine and serotonergic gene-sets contributed significantly to this association. Our genetic findings are subtype- and sex-specific, stressing the value of efforts to reduce heterogeneity in research of aggression etiology. Importantly, subtype- and sex-differences in the underlying pathophysiology of aggression suggest that optimal treatment options will have to be tailored to the individual patient. Male and female needs of intervention might differ, stressing the need for sex-specific further research of aggression. Our work highlights opportunities for sample size maximization offered by population-based studies of aggression.

Relationship Between Body Habitus and Aggression Subtypes Among Healthy Young Adults from the American Midwest

This study examined associations between body habitus and functions of aggression, in a sample of 474 college students from the Midwestern region of the United States (age range = 18-25y; 73% Caucasian). Two instruments of aggression, the Reactive-Proactive Aggression Questionnaire from Dodge & Coie 1987 (DC) and Raine et al. 2006 (RPQ) were given as self-assessments. Body habitus measures standardized by age and gender specific weight and height were collected. Subjects considered to have a large body habitus in our study had both weight and height measures above the 75th percentile. Large body habitus was positively correlated with both proactive and reactive functions of aggression among adult males but not females; however, regression analyses indicated that body habitus was most strongly and robustly associated with proactive aggression. Findings suggest that even in a healthy homogeneous population, large body size in males is associated with aggression, particularly proactive aggression including bullying rather than retaliatory aggression. The presence of a large body physique may reinforce aggressive behavioral traits acquired through life experiences and activities evoking physical dominance. Alternatively, the relationship may reflect neurological processes related to size influenced by genetic factors and hormones leading to antisocial behaviors requiring future research on the role of genes for aggression.

Adolescent Reactive and Proactive Aggression, and Bullying in Hong Kong: Prevalence, Psychosocial Correlates, and Prevention

The negative impacts of aggressive bullying behavior by adolescents on both the bullies and victims are being increasingly recognized as social and economic problems. At the same time, there are alarming trends in face-to-face and online aggression and bullying behavior in Hong Kong. Since the 1970s, prevention and intervention programs to reduce bullying behavior have been implemented in schools in Western countries; however, antibullying and antiaggression programs in Hong Kong schools only began in the 2000s. There are two ways of defining the target groups for these intervention programs. Programs using a one-factor model categorize the adolescents who exhibit bullying behavior into a single group, bullies, whereas two-factor models distinguish two subtypes of aggression: reactive and proactive aggression. The former approach is emphasized in the Restorative Whole-school Approach with Shared Concern method, which uses mediation to reduce bullying in schools. The two-factor approach differentiates adolescents' behaviors into reactive, proactive, or occurring reactive-proactive aggression based on the functions and underlying goals of their actions. Specific interventions are then designed to address the particular features and psychosocial correlates of reactive and proactive aggression. The aim is to develop the positive development attributes related to specific types of aggression and thus reduce aggressive behavior in schools.

An Item Response Theory Analysis and Further Validation of the Reactive-Proactive Aggression Questionnaire (RPQ): The Serbian Adaptation of the RPQ

The aim of this study was to further explore the psychometric properties of the Serbian adaptation of the Reactive-Proactive Aggression Questionnaire (RPQ) using item response theory to gain insight into measurement precision (information) and differential item functioning (DIF) across sexes. The sample consisted of 1,268 community-dwelling adults. Results confirmed a 2-factor structure and showed good reliabilities. Information of the reactive aggression scale covered a wider range of traits, but in the case of proactive aggression, it was limited in above-average and average levels of traits. Additionally, the impact of DIF on total scores was negligible. Furthermore, latent profile analysis showed that a clear proactive aggression profile could not be isolated, indicating that proactive aggression cooccurs with reactive aggression. However, both scales evidenced differential correlates. Reactive aggression was positively associated with anger and hostility and was negatively associated with agreeableness and forgiveness, whereas proactive aggression was positively related to indirect aggression and negatively to honesty-humility and emotionality. Taken together, although information for the proactive aggression scale is problematic, results overall support the 2-factor model of the RPQ and unbiased scale scores across sexes, and add further to the validity and cross-cultural generalizability of this scale.

Subtypes of aggression and their relation to anxiety in Barbary macaques

Human aggression can be differentiated into reactive aggression (RA), displayed in face of a real or perceived threat and associated with high levels of anxiety, and proactive aggression (PA), displayed to achieve a certain goal and linked to lower anxiety levels. To study the origins of these aggression subtypes and their relation to anxiety, we tested if both subtypes can be distinguished in a nonhuman primate species, characterized their occurrence within the study group, and examined the link between aggression subtype and anxiety. Data were collected on 29 individuals of a semi-free ranging group of Barbary macaques (Macaca sylvanus) at Affenberg Salem, Germany, via focal animal (303 hr) and event sampling (1,222 agonistic events). Using a priori definitions, each aggressive event was classified as either reactive or proactive. We found both aggression types in our study population as well as individual differences in the proportion at which they occurred. The predominant use of one subtype of aggression was linked to the individual's dominance rank, age and sex, but not related to standard behavioral and physiological measures of anxiety. Our results suggest that reactive and proactive subtypes of aggression also exist in Barbary macaques, indicating a deeper evolutionary history of these aggression types observed in humans.

Alexithymia and reactive aggression: The role of the amygdala

Past research suggests an association between reactive aggression and alexithymia, but neural mechanisms underlying this association remain unknown. Furthermore, the relationship between proactive aggression and alexithymia remains untested. This study aimed to: (1) test whether alexithymia is more related to reactive than proactive aggression; and (2) determine whether amygdala, insula, and/or anterior cingulate cortical (ACC) volume could be neurobiological mechanisms for this association. One hundred and fifty-six community males completed the Reactive-Proactive Aggression Questionnaire and the Toronto Alexithymia Scale. Amygdala, insula, and ACC volumes were assessed using MRI. Alexithymia was positively associated with reactive but not proactive aggression. Alexithymia was positively and bilaterally associated with amygdala and anterior cingulate volumes. Reactive aggression was positively associated with right amygdala volume. Controlling for right amygdala volume rendered the alexithymia-reactive aggression relationship non-significant. Results suggest that increased right amygdala volume is a common neurobiological denominator for both alexithymia and reactive aggression. Findings suggest that greater right hemisphere activation may reflect a vulnerability to negative affect, which in turn predisposes to experiencing negative emotions leading to increased aggression. Findings are among the first to explicate the nature of the alexithymia-aggression relationship, with potential clinical implications.

The Reactive-Proactive Aggression Questionnaire: Measurement Invariance and Reliability Among a School Sample of Portuguese Youths

Aggression is an important risk factor for various forms of problem behaviors in adolescence, and research has often distinguished between reactive and proactive forms of aggression. The aim of the present study was to compare the psychometric properties (i.e., structural invariance, internal consistency, and criterion validity) of the Reactive-Proactive Aggression Questionnaire (RPQ) between males and females among a mixed-gender school sample of 782 Portuguese youth (M = 15.87 years, SD = 1.72). Confirmatory factor analysis revealed that a two-factor first-order structure obtained the best fit and cross-gender measurement invariance was demonstrated after excluding item 21. The Portuguese version of the RPQ demonstrated generally adequate psychometric properties of internal consistency measured by Cronbach's alpha and omega coefficient, convergent validity, discriminant validity, criterion-related validity, and known-groups validity. Findings are discussed in terms of the use of the RPQ with male and female youths.

The role of self-serving cognitive distortions in reactive and proactive aggression

BACKGROUND

Aggression is often divided into reactive and proactive forms. Reactive aggression is typically thought to encompass 'blaming others' and 'assuming the worst', while proactive aggression relates to 'self-centeredness' and 'minimising/mislabelling'.

AIM

Our aim was to evaluate relationships between reactive and proactive aggression and cognitive distortions and to test whether changes in these cognitions relate to changes in aggression.

METHODS

A total of 151 adolescents (60% boys; mean age 15.05 years, standard deviation 1.28) were enrolled in an evidence-based intervention to reduce aggression. Due to attrition and anomalous responses, the post-intervention sample involved 80 adolescents. Correlation and linear regression analyses were used to investigate the relationship between cognitive distortions and aggression.

RESULTS

Blaming others was related to reactive aggression before the intervention, while all cognitive distortions were related to proactive aggression both pre- and post-intervention. Changes in reactive aggression were uniquely predicted by blaming others, while changes in proactive aggression were predicted by changes in cognitive distortions overall.

CONCLUSION

To our knowledge, this study is the first to show a relationship between changes in cognitive distortions and changes in aggression. Treatment of reactive aggression may benefit from focusing primarily on reducing cognitive distortions involving misattribution of blame to others. Copyright © 2017 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

The role of monoamine oxidase A in aggression: Current translational developments and future challenges

Drawing upon the recent resurgence of biological criminology, several studies have highlighted a critical role for genetic factors in the ontogeny of antisocial and violent conduct. In particular, converging lines of evidence have documented that these maladaptive manifestations of aggression are influenced by monoamine oxidase A (MAOA), the enzyme that catalyzes the degradation of brain serotonin, norepinephrine and dopamine. The interest on the link between MAOA and aggression was originally sparked by Han Brunner's discovery of a syndrome characterized by marked antisocial behaviors in male carriers of a nonsense mutation of this gene. Subsequent studies showed that MAOA allelic variants associated with low enzyme activity moderate the impact of early-life maltreatment on aggression propensity. In spite of overwhelming evidence pointing to the relationship between MAOA and aggression, the neurobiological substrates of this link remain surprisingly elusive; very little is also known about the interventions that may reduce the severity of pathological aggression in genetically predisposed subjects. Animal models offer a unique experimental tool to investigate these issues; in particular, several lines of transgenic mice harboring total or partial loss-of-function Maoa mutations have been shown to recapitulate numerous psychological and neurofunctional endophenotypes observed in humans. This review summarizes the current knowledge on the link between MAOA and aggression; in particular, we will emphasize how an integrated translational strategy coordinating clinical and preclinical research may prove critical to elucidate important aspects of the pathophysiology of aggression, and identify potential targets for its diagnosis, prevention and treatment.

Subtypes of aggressive behaviors: A developmental perspective

Aggressive behaviors in children and adolescents have undergone important conceptual and definitional modifications in the past two decades. In particular, subtypes of aggression have been proposed that separate the form and the function of the aggressive behaviors (i.e., social vs. physical aggression; reactive vs. proactive aggression). Moreover, new methodological tools have been developed to examine the developmental course of these subtypes, as well as their correlates. These conceptual and methodological innovations, in turn, have introduced new views of the development of aggressive behaviors. These “new views” contrast with more traditional perspectives about the evolution of aggressive behaviors from infancy to young adulthood, particularly with respect to the existence of individuals who begin to become aggressive by adolescence only. This article gives an overview of these definitional, conceptual, and methodological innovations. It also tries to reconcile different views about the development of aggressive behaviors from infancy through early adulthood. Theoretical and practical/clinical implications are also reviewed. The conclusion describes an integrative framework and identifies possible areas of research for the future.

Depression and Self-Rated Health Among Rural Women Who Experienced Adolescent Dating Abuse: A Mixed Methods Study

This study used mixed methods to examine the experiences and health of rural, young adult women (N = 100) who self-reported past experience of physical, emotional and verbal, sexual, and relational abuse in adolescent dating relationships. Few studies have examined the lasting health ramifications of adolescent dating abuse adolescent dating abuse in rural populations, and almost no mixed methods studies have explored adolescent dating abuse. Participants completed questionnaires on demographics, relationship behaviors, and mental health symptoms. A subsample (n = 10) of participants also completed semi-structured, in-depth interviews with the primary investigator. Results suggest that depressive symptoms and self-rating of health in these women are associated with particular kinds and severity of abusive experiences, and that adolescent dating abuse has ramifications for health and development beyond the duration of the original relationship. Self-rated health (SRH) was inversely associated with abusive behaviors in the relationship, whereas depressive symptoms were positively correlated with such behaviors. Self-rated health was also negatively correlated with depressive symptoms. The results of this study represent an important step toward establishing lifetime health risks posed by adolescent dating abuse.

Gender differences in the correlates of reactive aggression

The main aim of the present study was to examine the relationships between four psychopathy dimensions (Interpersonal Manipulation, Callous Affect, Erratic Lifestyle, and Antisocial Behaviour) as well as childhood exposure to violence and reactive aggression in men and women. Participants were a sample of working adults (N = 319) recruited from the University of Security in Poznan. Results indicated that reactive aggression among males formed significant associations with Erratic Lifestyle, Interpersonal Manipulation, and childhood exposure to violence. Only one variable, Erratic Lifestyle, was a significant correlate of reactive aggression in females. These findings are discussed in light of theory and previous research findings.

Links of justice and rejection sensitivity with aggression in childhood and adolescence

Individual differences in justice sensitivity and rejection sensitivity have been linked to differences in aggressive behavior in adults. However, there is little research studying this association in children and adolescents and considering the two constructs in combination. We assessed justice sensitivity from the victim, observer, and perpetrator perspective as well as anxious and angry rejection sensitivity and linked both constructs to different forms (physical, relational), and functions (proactive, reactive) of self-reported aggression and to teacher- and parent-rated aggression in N = 1,489 9- to 19-year olds in Germany. Victim sensitivity and both angry and anxious rejection sensitivity showed positive correlations with all forms and functions of aggression. Angry rejection sensitivity also correlated positively with teacher-rated aggression. Perpetrator sensitivity was negatively correlated with all aggression measures, and observer sensitivity also correlated negatively with all aggression measures except for a positive correlation with reactive aggression. Path models considering the sensitivity facets in combination and controlling for age and gender showed that higher victim justice sensitivity predicted higher aggression on all measures. Higher perpetrator sensitivity predicted lower physical, relational, proactive, and reactive aggression. Higher observer sensitivity predicted lower teacher-rated aggression. Angry rejection sensitivity predicted higher proactive and reactive aggression, whereas anxious rejection sensitivity did not make an additional contribution to the prediction of aggression. The findings are discussed in terms of social information processing models of aggression in childhood and adolescence.

Relations between key executive functions and aggression in childhood

The present study examined relationships between three key executive functions (working memory, inhibition, and mental set-shifting) and multiple types of aggression in a general population sample of 9-year-old children. One hundred and forty-eight children completed a battery of executive function tasks and were rated on aggression by their primary teachers. All executive function (EF) composites were related to a composite measure of aggression. Working memory (WM) was most consistently related to the different types of aggression (overt, relational, reactive, and proactive), whereas inhibition and mental set-shifting only were related to relational and reactive aggression, respectively. Specificity in relations (studied as independent contributions) was generally low with the exception of the relation between WM and relational aggression. Taken together, our results highlight the roles of WM and relational aggression in EF-aggression relations in middle childhood.

Proactive and reactive sibling aggression and adjustment in adolescence

Existing research on aggression tends to narrowly focus on peers; less is known about sibling aggression, most likely due to its historical acceptance. Aggression is characterized by its forms (i.e., physical vs. social or relational aggression) and its functions (i.e., the motivations behind the aggressive act and categorized as proactive vs. reactive aggression). We use data from a two-wave study of middle (n = 197; M age = 12.63 years at Wave 1) and older (n = 159; M age = 16.50 years at Wave 1) adolescents to assess the extent to which proactive and reactive functions of sibling aggression make unique or conditional contributions to adolescent adjustment (i.e., depression, delinquency, and substance use). We find that proactive sibling aggression increases risk for problem substance use and delinquent behavior, reactive sibling aggression increases risk for depressed mood and delinquent behavior, and such results are observed even with statistical adjustments for sociodemographic and family variables, stressful life events, and prior adjustment. Few conditional effects of proactive or reactive sibling aggression by sex or grade are observed; yet, for all three outcomes, the harmful effects of reactive sibling aggression are strongest among adolescents who report low levels of proactive sibling aggression. The results speak to the importance of understanding the proactive and reactive functions of sibling aggressive behaviors for adolescent adjustment.

[Female conduct disorders]

The last few years have seen much research on girls with conduct disorder (CD). This article summarizes the gender-specific data regarding prevalence, differences with respect to symptomatology (e.g., subtypes of aggression, callous-unemotional (cu)-traits), and it presents data on the autonomic and neuroendocrine stress system as well as genetic, neurocognitive, and neuroimaging data. Differences in the impact of environmental factors on boys and girls for the development of CD are discussed. Taken together, the data indicate that there is great overlap in symptomatology, personality traits, and neurobiological aberrations in girls and boys with CD. Since fewer girls than boys exhibit CD symptomatology, further investigations on CD in girls might help to identify resilience factors that could improve future therapeutic interventions.

Towards a biopsychological understanding of costly punishment: the role of basal cortisol

Recent findings have documented a negative relation of basal endogenous cortisol and aggression after a provocation (i.e., reactive aggression) in humans. We build on these findings and investigated the relation of endogenous cortisol and reactive aggression in a social dilemma situation, that is, costly punishment of individuals who did not appropriately contribute to a common group project. Specifically, we predicted that basal cortisol is negatively related to costly punishment of uncooperative individuals. In the present study, basal cortisol was assessed prior to a public goods game with the option to punish other group members. In line with previous research on reactive aggression and basal cortisol, we found that basal cortisol was indeed negatively related to costly punishment. The findings are important for understanding costly punishment because this tendency has been documented as a possible basis for the evolution of cooperation.

"It was pretty scary": the theme of fear in young adult women's descriptions of a history of adolescent dating abuse

The mental health impact of abusive adolescent dating relationships has not been well described, but fear related to abuse has been reported. We elaborate the theme of fear in women's descriptions of a history of adolescent dating abuse. A sample of community-based women, ages 19-34, who experienced an abusive dating relationship during adolescence (ages 11-20) was used. Data were analyzed via thematic analysis. Fear was a consistent and resonant theme. Three types of fear were identified: fear for self, fear for other relationships, and fearful expectation. These results offer important insights into the impact of abusive adolescent relationships on women's mental health.

Gender Differences in Predictors of Self-Reported Physical Aggression: Exploring Theoretically Relevant Dimensions among Adolescents from Santiago, Chile

Research findings remain unclear on whether different factors predict aggression for adolescent men and women. Given that aggression research is rarely conducted with Latin American populations, the current study used multiple imputation and linear regression to assess gender differences in levels and predictors of self-reported physical aggression among a community sample of young (ages 11 through 17) men (n=504) and women (n = 471) from Santiago, Chile. Results revealed that adolescent women reported engaging in higher levels of physical aggression than men. The variables found to be significantly associated with higher levels of reported aggression-younger age, less family involvement, less parental control, less positive relationships with caregivers, having more friends who act out and use substances, having fewer friends committed to learning, presence of dating violence, and more exposure to neighborhood crime-were not moderated by gender, implying that similar factors are related to aggression in adolescent men and women from Chile. Implications for prevention and intervention efforts to address high-risk adolescents and reduce aggression among Chilean youth are discussed.

Suicidal ideation and school bullying experiences after controlling for depression and delinquency

PURPOSE

This cross-sectional study examines differences in the frequency of suicidal ideation and suicidal behaviors across a group of verbal bullies, bully-victims, victims, physically aggressive bullies, and students not involved in bullying.

METHODS

A large sample of middle school students (n = 661; fifth through eighth grades; ages 10-13 years of age) completed a pencil-and-paper survey that included the University of Illinois Bully, Fight, and Victim scales. Students also self-reported how often they had thought of killing themselves or deliberating hurting themselves in past 6 months, and provided information about delinquent behaviors and symptoms of depression and anxiety.

RESULTS

We used cluster analysis to create bully-victim subtypes: uninvolved (n = 357), victims (n = 110), verbal bullies (n = 114), bully-victims (n = 29), and physically aggressive bullies (n = 42). Approximately 32%-38% of verbal bullies and victims, 60% of bully-victims, and 43% of physically aggressive bullies reported suicidal ideation, compared with 12% of uninvolved youth. Similarly, 24%-28% of verbal bullies and victims, 44% of bully-victims, and 35% of physically aggressive bullies reported deliberately trying to hurt or kill themselves, compared with 8% of uninvolved youth. Females in the bully-victim subtype reported particularly elevated suicidal ideation and behavior. After controlling for delinquency and depression, differences in suicidal thoughts and behaviors emerged only between uninvolved youth and the victim and bully-victim groups, but these differences were minimal.

CONCLUSIONS

Findings highlight that at a bivariate level, involvement in bullying in any capacity is linked to increased risk for suicidal ideation and behavior, and echoes previous literature documenting particularly strong mental health implications for bully-victims. Furthermore, this study points to the importance of considering delinquency and depression in conjunction with suicidal ideation and behaviors.

[Validity of the Reactive-Proactive-Aggression-Questionnaire for 5-10 Graders (RPA 5-10)]

A precondition of an appropriate treatment of aggressive children and youth is a specific diagnosis. The Reactive-Proactive-Aggression-Questionnaire for 5-10 Graders (RPA 5-10) assesses reactive and proactive aggression and different facets of the subtypes such as angry-aggression, defensive attribution of aggression, obtaining of resources and power/domination-aggression. This study proves the validity of the questionnaire by differential correlates based on a sample of 9 to 17 year-old students (N = 250). The scales of the RPA 5-10 were associated with anger, physical aggression, verbal aggression, conduct problems and decreased prosocial behaviour. Reactive aggression but not proactive aggression was related to hostility, emotional symptoms and peer relationship problems. The relations between reactive aggression and anger and emotional symptoms are based on angry-aggression. Contrary to predictions hyperactivity/inattention was associated with reactive but also with proactive aggression.

Cognitive Schemas and Aggressive Behavior in Adolescents: The Mediating Role of Social Information Processing

This study assesses the association between cognitive schemas of justification of violence, grandiosity and abuse, and reactive and proactive aggressive behavior, and whether this association is mediated by social information processing (SIP). For this purpose, a sample of 1371 adolescents (638 girls and 580 boys) completed measures of cognitive schemas, SIP, and Reactive-Proactive Aggression. The results showed that the cognitive schemas of justification of violence and narcissism are more relevant for proactive aggression, whereas the abuse schema is more relevant for reactive aggression. SIP mediated particularly the association between cognitive schemas and reactive aggression. Each cognitive schema was shown to be associated with some particular SIP component: justification of violence and abuse with the component of interpretation, and narcissism with the experience of anger. Moreover, the abuse schema was negatively associated with the selection of aggressive responses. Lastly, a general model of paths between schemas, SIP, and aggression was found to be quite similar for boys and girls, although the former scored higher in proactive aggression, partly because of their higher scores in the justification of violence and narcissism schemas.