Psychometric properties of family members' reports of parental physical aggression toward clinic-referred children

The Prevalence, Predictors, and Health Consequences of Disagreement in Reports of Child Maltreatment Exposure

The purpose of this study was to examine the prevalence, predictors, and consequences of disagreement between prospective caregiver and retrospective child reports of childhood physical and emotional maltreatment. The design was a secondary analysis of data from the Avon Longitudinal Study of Parents and Children, a three-decade long UK-based birth cohort. Prospective caregiver reports were in poor to fair agreement with retrospective child reports for physical and emotional maltreatment exposure, with caregivers tending to underreport exposure. Disagreement between reporters was associated with increased risk of depressive symptoms and substance use severity, but decreased risk for mental health diagnoses. Screening measures of childhood maltreatment exposure should take caution against using measures from different reporters interchangeably (i.e., from mother versus child). Disagreement in reports may indicate unmet need for mental health evaluation.

Child-Reported Family Violence: A Systematic Review of Available Instruments

The impact of family violence (FV) on children is a significant global public policy issue. Earliest identification of FV among children is critical for preventing escalating sequelae. While practitioners routinely ask adults about FV, there are relatively few measures that enable children to reliably self-report on their own safety. This review sought to systematically identify and appraise all available child self-report measures for screening and assessment of FV in both clinical and research settings. Database searching was conducted in January 2022. Articles were eligible for review if they included a validated child (5-18 years) self-report measure of FV (including victimization, perpetration, and/or exposure to inter-parental violence). Screening of an initial 4,714 records identified a total of 85 articles, representing 32 unique validated instruments. Results provide an up-to-date catalog of child self-report measures of FV, intended to benefit practitioners, services and researchers in selecting appropriate tools, and in understanding their suitability and limitations for different cohorts and practice goals. While just under half of the measures captured both exposure to inter-parental violence and direct victimization, none captured all three domains of exposure, victimization and perpetration together. Instruments with provision for input from multiple respondents (e.g., both child and parent report) and with assessment of contextual risk factors were few. Findings point to the need for developmentally appropriate, whole-of-family screening and assessment frameworks to support children in the early identification of family safety concerns.

Discrepancies between children's and caregivers' child maltreatment reporting and their associations with child wellbeing

BACKGROUND

Child maltreatment reporting is critical for case investigation and service disposition. However, reporting discrepancies across informants is a challenge for child welfare services.

METHODS

Using data from the Fragile Families and Child Wellbeing Study (n = 3150), the current study examined child-caregiver discrepancies in reporting the frequencies of psychological and physical maltreatment. Multivariate models were used to examine how caregivers' reports, children's reports, and discrepancies between the two were associated with child anxiety, depression, aggression, and delinquency.

RESULTS

A quarter of the children reported psychological maltreatment at a higher (25.7 %) or lower (23.8 %) frequency than their caregivers' report, respectively; 8.4 % and 8.7 % of the children did so in physical maltreatment reports, respectively. Multivariate models showed that children's maltreatment reports were more closely associated with children's anxiety, depression, and delinquency than caregivers' reports, while caregivers' reports were more closely associated with children's aggression. After accounting for caregivers' reporting and other covariates, children who reported more frequent psychological maltreatment than their caregivers' report had a higher level of anxiety, depression, and delinquency (b = 0.17 to 0.25, p < 0.001), and the opposite was true (b = -0.36 to -0.13, p < 0.001). Similarly, children who reported more frequent physical maltreatment than their caregivers' report had a higher level of all negative outcomes (b = 0.04 to 0.44; p = 0.04 to <0.00), and the opposite was true for aggression (b = -0.08, p = 0.004).

CONCLUSIONS

The findings suggest that in addition to other reporting barriers, children and caregivers may perceive maltreatment differently, and such discrepancies are related to children's wellbeing.

Child Psychiatric Patients Exposed to Intimate Partner Violence and/or Abuse: The Impact of Double Exposure

Children's exposure to intimate partner violence (IPV) and child abuse (CA) is strongly related to later psychological problems. Few studies exist on patients in child and adolescent mental health services (CAMHS) who have been singly or doubly exposed to IPV and/or CA. The overall aim of the current study was to compare self-reported psychiatric symptoms, post-trauma impact, and post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) diagnoses among CAMHS patients who had been singly or doubly exposed or had reported no family violence (NoFV). We expected to find more severe symptoms in both singly and doubly exposed patients than in the NoFV group and that double exposure was associated with more severe symptoms than single exposure (to IPV or CA). Finally, we expected to find that higher frequencies of exposure to IPV or CA were related to more psychiatric symptoms, greater post-trauma impact, and a higher likelihood of PTSD diagnosis. We compared psychiatric symptoms, post-trauma impact, and PTSD diagnosis in 578 patients aged 9-17 years with NoFV (n = 287), single exposure (n = 162), and double exposure (n = 129). The influence of gender, age, age of onset, frequency, and traumatic interpersonal events outside the family (IPE) were regressed on psychiatric symptoms, post-trauma impact, and PTSD diagnoses. Patients with double exposure had more severe symptoms than the NoFV group, and patients with single exposure had more trauma-related symptoms than the NoFV group. Double exposure was associated with more severe symptoms than single exposure, and frequency (of exposure to IPV and/or CA) and IPE influenced trauma symptoms and psychiatric symptoms, respectively. Exposure to more than one type of violence is associated with more severe symptoms, but other factors such as frequency of violent acts and IPE are important factors to focus on in future studies and clinical assessment.

Effects of Fathers on Adolescent Daughters' Frequency of Substance Use and Risky Sexual Behavior

This research: (1) implements a genetically informed design to examine the effects of fathers' presence-absence and quality of behavior during childhood/adolescence on daughters' frequency of substance use during adolescence; and (2) tests substance use frequency as mediating the relation between paternal behavior and daughters' sexual risk taking. Participants were 223 sister dyads from divorced/separated biological families. Sisters' developmental exposure to socially deviant paternal behavior predicted their frequency of tobacco, alcohol, and cannabis (TAC) use. Older sisters who co-resided with fathers who were more (vs. less) socially deviant reported more frequent TAC use during adolescence. More frequent TAC use predicted more risky sexual behavior for these daughters. No effects were found for younger sisters, who spent less time living with their fathers.

Agency notification and retrospective self-reports of childhood maltreatment in a 30-Year cohort: Estimating population prevalence from different data sources

BACKGROUND

There is little known about how two sources of child maltreatment reports correspond, specifically for emotional, physical, sexual abuse and emotional or physical neglect.

OBJECTIVE

To compare agency and self-reports of child maltreatment and determine whether they are predicted by similar early life course adverse experiences. Participants Data are taken from a long running birth cohort study (Mater-University of Queensland Study of Pregnancy - MUSP). Mothers (N=7223) were recruited in 1981-83 and their children were followed-up 30 years later (2010-14). In 2000 data from the relevant child protection agency were accessed and linked to the survey data. Setting Consecutive women giving birth to a live singleton baby at a major obstetrical service in Brisbane, Australia were recruited and both mother and child were repeatedly follow-up over a 30 year period. Methods Birth cohort study with data linkage of child protection agency records and self-report survey data (using the Childhood Trauma Questionnaire - CTQ) of childhood maltreatment experiences. We compare reports of emotional, physical and sexual abuse and neglect using agency and self-reports (Cramer's V and kappa).

RESULTS

Most children who are notified cases of maltreatment subsequently self-report they experienced little or no maltreatment in childhood. Most children who report experiencing severe maltreatment have not previously been notified to the protection agency. Teenage mothers have children who are notified 2.89 (1.52, 5.52) times, self-report 2.01 (1.31, 3.09) times and both notified and self-report 3.61 (2.26, 6.10) times more than their older comparison mothers.

CONCLUSIONS

Different methods of assessing maltreatment identify different subsets of those children who have experienced maltreatment.

Intergenerational transmission of child maltreatment using a multi-informant multi-generation family design

In the current study a three-generational design was used to investigate intergenerational transmission of child maltreatment (ITCM) using multiple sources of information on child maltreatment: mothers, fathers and children. A total of 395 individuals from 63 families reported on maltreatment. Principal Component Analysis (PCA) was used to combine data from mother, father and child about maltreatment that the child had experienced. This established components reflecting the convergent as well as the unique reports of father, mother and child on the occurrence of maltreatment. Next, we tested ITCM using the multi-informant approach and compared the results to those of two more common approaches: ITCM based on one reporter and ITCM based on different reporters from each generation. Results of our multi-informant approach showed that a component reflecting convergence between mother, father, and child reports explained most of the variance in experienced maltreatment. For abuse, intergenerational transmission was consistently found across approaches. In contrast, intergenerational transmission of neglect was only found using the perspective of a single reporter, indicating that transmission of neglect might be driven by reporter effects. In conclusion, the present results suggest that including multiple informants may be necessary to obtain more valid estimates of ITCM.

The relationship of recalled adverse parenting styles with maladaptive schemas, trait anger, and symptoms of depression and anxiety

BACKGROUND

Young's contention that early maladaptive schemas mediate the relationship between adverse parenting and later emotional difficulties has been lrttle tested. Also, most relevant research focuses only on depression, and on maternal parenting.

METHODS

One hundred and fifty-five non-clinical adults completed the Young Parenting Inventory (YPI) regarding both their mothers and fathers, Young's Schema Questionnaire (YSQ), the State/Trait Anger Scale (STAS) and the Depression Anxiety Stress Scale-21 (DASS-21).

RESULTS

Young's suggested 17-factor YPI structure was not supported. Rather, participants differentiated between recalled paternal and maternal parenting, with rejecting and controlling components emerging for each parent. There was an indirect effect of rejecting fathering on symptoms of depression, via the social isolation schema, in support of Young's theory. However, despite some significant relationships between parenting and schemas, and schemas and emotions, most effects of parenting on emotions were direct. Rejecting fathering had a direct positive effect on trait anger, and controlling mothering on symptoms of depression and anxiety. Controlling fathering had a negative effect on anxiety symptoms.

LIMITATIONS

The study was cross-sectional, limited to participants in a single city, and had a preponderance of female respondents.

CONCLUSIONS

Most effects of adverse parenting seem to be direct rather than operating through schemas. Prevention through early parenting programs, and adult cognitive therapies that draw on a broad range of schemas, seem to be called for.

Association between mothers' problematic Internet use and maternal recognition of child abuse

BACKGROUND

There are few studies about mothers' problematic Internet use (PIU). Mothers' PIU may lead to inadequate parenting and child abuse.

OBJECTIVE

This cross-sectional study aimed to clarify the association between mothers' PIU and their recognition of child abuse.

PARTICIPANTS AND SETTING

We analyzed data collected of health examinations of children aged 4 months, 1.5 years, and 3 years which were carried out in Matsue City, Shimane Prefecture, Japan between April 2016 and March 2017. The number of the subjects were 1685, 1729, 1674, respectively.

METHODS

We used logistic regression analysis to clarify the association between mothers' PIU (Young's Diagnostic Questionnaire for Internet Addiction score: ≥5) and their recognition of child abuse (selecting < True of me > for < I sometimes think that I am abusing my child > on a questionnaire survey), which was adjusted for covariates such as maternal age, number of children, daytime caretaker, social support, postpartum depression, and current smoking status of the parents.

RESULTS

Based on the multivariate logistic regression analysis, the mothers' PIU was significantly correlated with their recognition of child abuse for children aged 4 months, 1.5 years, or 3 years [odds ratio (OR): 13.30, 95% confidence interval (CI): 1.26-139.98, OR: 7.02, 95% CI: 1.28-38.55, and OR: 28.06, 2.48-317.93, respectively].

CONCLUSION

This study revealed the possibility that mothers with PIU recognize child abuse more than mothers without PIU. However, further studies should be conducted to increase reliability and validity.

Concordance of Parent- and Child-Reported Physical Abuse Following Child Protective Services Investigation

Knowledge about the concordance of parent- and child-reported child physical abuse is scarce, leaving researchers and practitioners with little guidance on the implications of selecting either informant. Drawing from a 2008-2009 sample of 11- to 17-year-olds ( N = 636) from Wave 1 of the second National Survey of Child and Adolescent Well-Being, this study first examined parent-child concordance in physical abuse reporting (Parent-Child Conflict Tactic Scale). Second, it applied multivariate regression analysis to relate parent-child agreement in physical abuse to parent-reported (Child Behavior Checklist) and child-reported (Youth Self Report) child behavioral problems. Results indicate low parent-child concordance of physical abuse (κ = .145). Coreporting of physical abuse was related to clinical-level parent-reported externalizing problems ([Formula: see text] = 64.57), whereas child-only reports of physical abuse were the only agreement category related to child-reported internalizing problems ( B = 4.17, p < .001). Attribution bias theory may further understanding of reporting concordance and its implications.

Parent-Child Agreement on Parent-to-Child Maltreatment

Parent-child agreement on child maltreatment was examined in a multigenerational study. Questionnaires on perpetrated and experienced child maltreatment were completed by 138 parent-child pairs. Multi-level analyses were conducted to explore whether parents and children agreed about levels of parent-to-child maltreatment (convergence), and to examine whether parents and children reported equal levels of child maltreatment (absolute differences). Direct and moderating effects of age and gender were examined as potential factors explaining differences between parent and child report. The associations between parent- and child-reported maltreatment were significant for all subtypes, but the strength of the associations was low to moderate. Moreover, children reported more parent-to-child neglect than parents did. Older participants reported more experienced maltreatment than younger participants, without evidence for differences in actual exposure. These findings support the value of multi-informant assessment of child maltreatment to improve accuracy, but also reveal the divergent perspectives of parents and children on child maltreatment.

Child Maltreatment in Turkey: Comparison of Parent and Child Reports

BACKGROUND AND AIM

Child maltreatment, i.e. abuse and neglect, is a significant problem worldwide and can cause impaired physical and mental health throughout life. The true extent still remains unknown in all countries, including Turkey. The aim of this study was to apply the two versions of the International Society for the Prevention of Child Abuse and Neglect (ISPCAN) Child Abuse Screening Tool of ICAST-C and ICAST-P, which are used to assess child and parent feedback and to compare reports given by children and those given by parents. This is the first study of its kind conducted in Turkey.

METHODS

First, ICAST was translated into Turkish by bilingual experts. Students and their parents were asked to complete ICAST-C and ICAST-P respectively, with the help of trained researchers. In total, data from 2,608 matched reports (2,608 children and 2,608 parents) was obtained. Descriptive statistics were used to evaluate demographical variables, and chi-square tests were employed to investigate the statistical significance of comparisons.

RESULTS

The present study demonstrated that Turkish parents consider rebukes, insults and corporal punishment effective ways of disciplining children. According to parents' reports, the use of psychological abuse was most prevalent against boys aged 16, while the use of physical abuse was most prevalent against boys aged 13. A statistically significant relationship was found between parents' economic conditions and child abuse (p<0.01). No significant relationship was detected between maternal educational levels and child abuse (p>0.05). However, the relationship between paternal educational background and psychological abuse was observed to be significant (p<0.05). A comparison of children's and parents' reports shows that parents tended to under-report child maltreatment.

CONCLUSIONS

The results show that there is a significant healthcare problem in Turkey, since child maltreatment is prevalent, but parents are not generally aware of its extent. Possible approaches to changing this situation include efforts to increase education levels, promoting public awareness, and strengthening political commitments.

Contributions of Matrilineal and Patrilineal Kin Alloparental Effort to the Development of Life History Strategies and Patriarchal Values

Childrearing behaviors are often shaped by familial and cultural principles that function as guides for socialization goals and effective childrearing practices. For an increasing number of Latino families, the extended kin often acts as a source of childcare support. Due to a scarcity of research on the familial support configurations of Latin American families, the current study utilizes a cross-cultural retrospective approach to explore the associations between matrilineal/patrilineal kin and life history strategies in relation to childrearing. Applying a family system and life history framework, the present model tested 200 university students from Mexico and Costa Rica on measures of family emotional environment and traditional social values (e.g., familismo/simpatía and patriarchal values). Results found that childcare assistance from patrilineal and matrilineal kin was associated with positive family emotional environment, which weakly mediated the association between kin care and slow life history. Positive associations were also found between matrilineal kin childcare and traditional Latin social values. However, patriarchal values were only predicted by higher levels of patrilineal kin aid. The results are consistent with the general theoretical literature of life history theory and family systems theory, suggesting that high levels of childcare produce positively emotional family climates, which in turn perpetuate the development of prosocial individuals with slow life history strategies. Implications for further research are discussed.

Impact of fathers on risky sexual behavior in daughters: A genetically and environmentally controlled sibling study

Girls receiving lower quality paternal investment tend to engage in more risky sexual behavior (RSB) than peers. Whereas paternal investment theory posits that this effect is causal, it could arise from environmental or genetic confounds. To distinguish between these competing explanations, the current authors employed a genetically and environmentally controlled sibling design (N = 101 sister pairs; ages 18–36), which retrospectively examined the effects of differential sibling exposure to family disruption/father absence and quality of fathering. Consistent with a causal explanation, differences between older and younger sisters in the effects of quality of fathering on RSB were greatest in biologically disrupted families when there was a large age gap between the sisters (thus maximizing differential exposure to fathers), with greater exposure within families to higher quality fathering serving as a protective factor against RSB. Further, variation around the lower end of fathering quality appeared to have the most influence on RSB. In contrast, differential sibling exposure to family disruption/father absence (irrespective of quality of fathering) was not associated with RSB. The differential sibling-exposure design affords a new quasi-experimental method for evaluating the causal effects of fathers within families.

Comparison of Parent and Child Reports on Child Maltreatment in a Representative Household Sample in Hong Kong

This study investigated and compared the rates of child maltreatment as reported by parents and children. Self-reports of 1,093 children aged 12 to 18, which were matched with both parents' records, were compared and analyzed in the study. The levels of agreement between parent and child reporting of various kinds of parental child maltreatment were low to moderate. Factors affecting the disagreement in reports were also investigated. Social desirability and violence approval were the common predictors of disagreement in father-child and mother-child reports, respectively. The low agreement between parent-child reports found in the present study highlights the need for the inclusion of both parent and child reports on maltreatment in future clinical screening and intervention programs.

Children's adjustment problems in families characterized by men's severe violence toward women: does other family violence matter?

OBJECTIVE

This research examined whether additional forms of family violence (partner-child aggression, mother-child aggression, and women's intimate partner violence [IPV]) contribute to children's adjustment problems in families characterized by men's severe violence toward women.

METHODS

Participants were 258 children and their mothers recruited from domestic violence shelters. Mothers and children completed measures of men's IPV, women's IPV, partner-child aggression, and mother-child aggression. Mothers provided reports of children's internalizing and externalizing behavior problems; children provided reports of their appraisals of threat in relation to interparent conflict.

RESULTS

After controlling for sociodemographics and men's IPV: (1) each of the additional forms of family violence (partner-child aggression, mother-child aggression, and women's IPV) was associated with children's externalizing problems; (2) partner-child aggression was associated with internalizing problems; and (3) partner-child aggression was associated with children's threat appraisals. The relation of mother-child aggression to externalizing problems was stronger for boys than for girls; gender differences were not observed for internalizing problems or threat appraisals.

CONCLUSIONS

Men's severe IPV seldom occurs in the absence of other forms of family violence, and these other forms appear to contribute to children's adjustment problems. Parent-child aggression, and partner-child aggression in particular, are especially important. Systematic efforts to identify shelter children who are victims of parental violence seem warranted.

PRACTICE IMPLICATIONS

Men's severe IPV seldom occurs in the absence of other forms of family violence (partner-child aggression, mother-child aggression, and women's IPV), and these different forms of family violence all contribute to children's adjustment problems. Treatment programs for children who come to domestic violence shelters should address these different forms of family violence, especially parent-child aggression.

Co-Occurrence of Child and Partner Maltreatment

This paper addresses issues in the literature regarding the co-occurrence of partner and child physical maltreatment in the United States and in Europe. Design issues including operationalizations, representativeness of samples, data collection methods, and reference periods are discussed in the context of prevalence studies. Next, possible explanations for the pervasiveness of co-occurring maltreatment are explored with an emphasis on theoretical models and mechanisms of co-occurrence. Finally, we offer assessment implications for clinicians and agencies dealing with partner and child maltreatment.

Effects of early and later family violence on children's behavior problems and depression: a longitudinal, multi-informant perspective

OBJECTIVES

To examine the effects of different forms of family violence at two developmental stages by assessing a sample of 110 Israeli children, drawn from the case files of Israeli family service agencies, studied longitudinally in both middle childhood and adolescence.

METHODS

Information about the children's adjustment was obtained from parents, teachers, and the children themselves when the children averaged 10.6 and 15.9 years of age using the Child Behavior Checklist (CBCL), Teacher Report Form (TRF), Youth Self-Report (YSR), and Children's Depression Inventory (CDI). Information about the history of family violence was obtained from the mothers, fathers, children, and social workers.

RESULTS

The results paint a mixed picture of the effects of family violence on children and adolescents. The relationship between concurrent behavior problems and abuse group varied by informant and study phase, although they were strongest when children were the informants. Predictions regarding the relationship between early abuse and later adjustment were only partially confirmed. Different informants did not agree about which groups of children were most adversely affected, there was little stability over time in the pattern of reported effects, and children were more likely than other informants to report levels of maladjustment that varied depending on recent or concurrent exposure to family violence. Many families changed their abuse status over time, and children who were new victims at follow-up had the most internalizing problems. Girls were found to be at more risk for internalizing and externalizing behavior problems than boys.

CONCLUSIONS

Multiple informants are necessary to evaluate and assess the effects of family violence on children's behavior. Younger children may be more susceptible to the effects of family violence than older children, but problems manifest by some children may not carry over to adolescence. Changes in family and parenting practices, as well as in children's capacity to appraise and cope with family violence may help mitigate the adverse effects of family violence.

Assessment of Adult Psychopathology: Meta-Analyses and Implications of Cross-Informant Correlations

Assessment of adult psychopathology relies heavily on self-reports. To determine how well self-reports agree with reports by "informants" who know the person being assessed, the authors examined 51,000 articles published over 10 years in 52 peer-reviewed journals for correlations between self-reports and "informants" reports. Qualifying correlations were found in 108 (0.2%) of the articles. When self-reports and informant reports were obtained with parallel instruments, mean cross-informant correlations were .681 for substance use, .428 for internalizing, and .438 for externalizing problems. When based on different instruments, the mean cross-informant correlation was .304. The moderate sizes of the correlations argue for systematically obtaining multi-informant data. National survey findings were used to illustrate practical ways to obtain and use such data.

Validity of adult retrospective reports of adverse childhood experiences: review of the evidence

BACKGROUND

Influential studies have cast doubt on the validity of retrospective reports by adults of their own adverse experiences in childhood. Accordingly, many researchers view retrospective reports with scepticism.

METHOD

A computer-based search, supplemented by hand searches, was used to identify studies reported between 1980 and 2001 in which there was a quantified assessment of the validity of retrospective recall of sexual abuse, physical abuse, physical/emotional neglect or family discord, using samples of at least 40. Validity was assessed by means of comparisons with contemporaneous, prospectively obtained, court or clinic or research records; by agreement between retrospective reports of two siblings; and by the examination of possible bias with respect to differences between retrospective and prospective reports in their correlates and consequences. Medium- to long-term reliability of retrospective recall was determined from studies in which the test-retest period extended over at least 6 months.

RESULTS

Retrospective reports in adulthood of major adverse experiences in childhood, even when these are of a kind that allow reasonable operationalisation, involve a substantial rate of false negatives, and substantial measurement error. On the other hand, although less easily quantified, false positive reports are probably rare. Several studies have shown some bias in retrospective reports. However, such bias is not sufficiently great to invalidate retrospective case-control studies of major adversities of an easily defined kind. Nevertheless, the findings suggest that little weight can be placed on the retrospective reports of details of early experiences or on reports of experiences that rely heavily onjudgement or interpretation.

CONCLUSION

Retrospective studies have a worthwhile place in research, but further research is needed to examine possible biases in reporting.

The child maltreatment log: a computer-based program for describing research samples

The Child Maltreatment Log (CML) is a computer-based program designed to record information about children's maltreatment experiences and associated life events. Addressing concerns posed by scientific panels and grant review panels, the CML was designed to improve upon existing instruments to facilitate collaboration among researchers interested in maltreatment. The CML encourages researchers to collect information from multiple sources and informants concerning children's maltreatment experiences. Rather than classifying types of maltreatment a priori, the CML allows researchers to describe children's experiences using objective descriptors pertaining to potential acts of abuse, potential perpetrators, frequency, onset, consequential injuries, and treatment. The CML can be downloaded by interested agencies and groups without charge.

Parental cognitions and satisfaction: relationship to aggressive parental behavior in child physical abuse

There are limited data on cognitions and satisfaction with the child in parents who have physically abused their children. Therefore, we examined convergence among these constructs, and their relationships to parental aggression among participants in a treatment study for child physical abuse. Data were examined at two time points 12 weeks apart. The cognitions (unrealistic expectations of the child, perception of lack of control, and hostile attribution bias) and satisfaction with the child showed little convergence. Only parental satisfaction correlated significantly with aggressive parental behavior directed at the child, even after controlling for social desirability. Where there were significant correlations between externalizing child behavior and aggressive parental behavior and between parental depression and aggressive parental behavior, some limited support was found for an indirect path through parental satisfaction. If replicated, these findings suggest it may be useful to focus on parental satisfaction in research on child physical abuse.

Initial development of the expectations test for children: a tool to investigate social information processing

This research describes the initial development of a new measure to assess the expectations of children for social situations. Responses are provided to 16 ambiguous photographs of children. Answers identify expectations for how the child will feel and what will happen to the child in each picture. The value of expectations in identifying and understanding psychopathology was investigated. The effects of child abuse and the parent-child relationship on expectations were studied. Results begin to demonstrate the potential for clinical use, interrater reliability, internal consistency, and validity. Future development is discussed with the caution that limited variance is explained by the Expectations Test at this point.

The curious 2000-year case of asthma

Millions worldwide have asthma, with the numbers succumbing increasing sharply in the past two decades. After 2000 years of scientific study, who succumbs to asthma when is as puzzling as who regains health when and how. The discipline of psychosomatic medicine and science investigates and treats diseases like asthma that typically confound general medicine. Still psychosomatic medicine, like general medicine, only manages but does not remedy asthma, which can currently only be in remission but not cured. This historical review reveals the progress and missteps that have been made in the study and treatment of asthma by comparing the general medicine approach with the major research findings on asthma published over 60 years in Psychosomatic Medicine. Research has identified antecedent, collateral, and subsequent factors to scientifically describe and control this disease in terms of diagnosis, management, and treatment. Paradoxically and regrettably, the prognosis for those with asthma is worse than ever. Curious also that a noninfectious disease should spread so rapidly and mostly for specific groups identified by variables like age, gender, ethnicity, and socioeconomic status. Furthermore, partial, not full, family concordance indicates merely genetic influence, not determination. General medicine now focuses on enumerating the range of environmental and situational triggers, or stimuli, producing asthma and describing the pathophysiology of bronchial inflammation. With a more comprehensive multifactorial approach, psychosomatic medicine seems well suited to investigate further the physiological, psychological, social, and environmental factors implicated in this medical conundrum. A future challenge for psychosomatic medicine is to stem the tide of rising prevalence and cure the disease of asthma.

Mother and father self-reports of corporal punishment and severe physical aggression toward clinic-referred youth

Examined the extent to which 359 mothers and 140 fathers of clinic-referred youth (ages 2 to 17) reported using corporal punishment and severe physical aggression when asked directly via intake screening questionnaires at a community mental health center; higher prevalence rates emerged compared to families in the general population. Clinic-referred parents reported greater use of corporal punishment for younger relative to older youth, sons relative to daughters, and by single relative to married mothers. In cases with reports from both parents, mothers used corporal punishment more frequently than fathers. Demographic factors were not linked to severe physical aggression, except for mothers' treatment of sons versus daughters. After controlling for demographic factors, maternal and paternal reports of child externalizing behavior accounted for significant variance in their own and their partner's use of corporal punishment, and in mothers' use of severe physical aggression.

Patterns of adjustment among children of battered women

Children exposed to interparental violence have been characterized by an array of psychological problems, but findings regarding the precise nature of these problems have been inconsistent. This study used cluster analysis to determine whether distinct patterns of adjustment could be identified in 228 8- to 14-year-old children residing in battered women's shelters. Five such patterns emerged: multiproblem-externalizing, multiproblem-internalizing, externalizing, mild distress, and no problems reported. This solution was cross-validated in independent halves of the sample and was similar for boys and girls. Differences among the clusters on relevant family and demographic variables were examined, and it was found that the clusters could be distinguished on the basis of the frequency of children's exposure to interparental violence, parent-child aggression, and children's appraisals of interparental conflict.

Neuropsychological characteristics of adolescents with conduct disorder: association with attention-deficit-hyperactivity and aggression

The purpose of this study was to determine whether an association exists between neuropsychological deficits and conduct disorder (CD) with and without concurrent attention-deficit-hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). In addition, we explored the differential neuropsychological performance of aggressive and nonaggressive CD adolescents and the combined effect of this behavioral status and ADHD on performance. Fifty-nine adolescents (mean age of 15.4 years) who met the criteria for CD were compared with 29 controls comparable in age, gender, and socioeconomic status. A neuropsychological battery of current tests measuring executive functions and a battery of language tests were used in the study. Multivariate analyses showed that, compared with controls, CD adolescents had significantly lower verbal skills but did not differ on executive function measures. However, the lower verbal performance of CD adolescents is not explained by the existence of a CD subgroup with concomitant ADHD or aggressiveness. The study confirms with a sample of CD adolescents the association between verbal deficits and antisocial behavior when socioeconomic status is controlled. Our results also demonstrate that CD per se can be a sufficient condition for such deficits.