Working memory capacity and fluid intelligence are strongly related constructs: comment on Ackerman, Beier, and Boyle (2005)

Relationship between Thinking Dispositions, Working Memory, and Critical Thinking Ability in Adolescents: A Longitudinal Cross-Lagged Analysis

Previous studies have demonstrated that thinking dispositions and working memory are closely related to students' critical thinking ability. However, little is known about whether bidirectionality between thinking dispositions, working memory, and critical thinking ability exists in adolescence. This study, therefore, explored this aspect across two time points. Participants were 509 Chinese adolescents (mean age at Time 1 = 14.09 years; 59.7% girls). At Time 1, adolescents were administered the measures of thinking dispositions, working memory, and critical thinking ability. They were reassessed using these measures at Time 2 one year later. The results revealed a bidirectional longitudinal relationship between adolescents' thinking dispositions and critical thinking ability, suggesting that thinking dispositions at Time 1 predicted critical thinking ability at Time 2; critical thinking ability at Time 1 also predicted subsequent thinking dispositions in adolescents. Furthermore, working memory at Time 1 showed a larger predictive effect on critical thinking ability at Time 2 compared with thinking dispositions at Time 1. These findings underscore the role of early thinking dispositions and working memory in promoting adolescents' critical thinking ability.

Baseline Pupil Size Seems Unrelated to Fluid Intelligence, Working Memory Capacity, and Attentional Control

Over the past few years, several studies have explored the relationship between resting-state baseline pupil size and cognitive abilities, including fluid intelligence, working memory capacity, and attentional control. However, the results have been inconsistent. Here we present the findings from two experiments designed to replicate and expand previous research, with the aim of clarifying previous mixed findings. In both experiments, we measured baseline pupil size while participants were not engaged in any tasks, and assessed fluid intelligence using a matrix task. In one experiment we also measured working memory capacity (letter-number-sequencing task) and attentional control (attentional-capture task). We controlled for several personal and demographic variables known to influence pupil size, such as age and nicotine consumption. Our analyses revealed no relationship between resting-state pupil size (average or variability) and any of the measured constructs, neither before nor after controlling for confounding variables. Taken together, our results suggest that any relationship between resting-state pupil size and cognitive abilities is likely to be weak or non-existent.

Cognitive, emotional, and social factors promoting psychosocial adaptation: a study of latent profiles in people living in socially vulnerable contexts

Introduction

Social adaptation is a multifaceted process that encompasses cognitive, social, and affective factors. Previous research often focused on isolated variables, overlooking their interactions, especially in challenging environments. Our study addresses this by investigating how cognitive (working memory, verbal intelligence, self-regulation), social (affective empathy, family networks, loneliness), and psychological (locus of control, self-esteem, perceived stress) factors interact to influence social adaptation.

Methods

We analyzed data from 254 adults (55% female) aged 18 to 46 in economically vulnerable households in Santiago, Chile. We used Latent profile analysis (LPA) and machine learning to uncover distinct patters of socioadaptive features and identify the most discriminating features.

Results

LPA showed two distinct psychosocial adaptation profiles: one characterized by effective psychosocial adaptation and another by poor psychosocial adaptation. The adaptive profile featured individuals with strong emotional, cognitive, and behavioral self-regulation, an internal locus of control, high self-esteem, lower stress levels, reduced affective empathy, robust family support, and decreased loneliness. Conversely, the poorly adapted profile exhibited the opposite traits. Machine learning pinpointed six key differentiating factors in various adaptation pathways within the same vulnerable context: high self-esteem, cognitive and behavioral self-regulation, low stress levels, higher education, and increased social support.

Discussion

This research carries significant policy implications, highlighting the need to reinforce protective factors and psychological resources, such as self-esteem, self-regulation, and education, to foster effective adaptation in adversity. Additionally, we identified critical risk factors impacting social adaptation in vulnerable populations, advancing our understanding of this intricate phenomenon.

An item response theory approach to the measurement of working memory capacity

Complex span tasks are perhaps the most widely used paradigm to measure working memory capacity (WMC). Researchers assume that all types of complex span tasks assess domain-general WM. However, most research supporting this claim comes from factor analysis approaches that do not examine task performance at the item level, thus not allowing comparison of the characteristics of verbal and spatial complex span tasks. Item response theory (IRT) can help determine the extent to which different complex span tasks assess domain-general WM. In the current study, spatial and verbal complex span tasks were examined using IRT. The results revealed differences between verbal and spatial tasks in terms of item difficulty and block difficulty, and showed that most subjects with below-average ability were able to answer most items correctly across all tasks. In line with previous research, the findings suggest that examining domain-general WM by using only one task might elicit skewed scores based on task domain. Further, visuospatial complex span tasks should be prioritized as a measure of WMC if resources are limited.

Can we enhance working memory? Bias and effectiveness in cognitive training studies

Meta-analyses have found that working memory (WM) can be improved with cognitive training; however, some authors have suggested that these improvements are mostly driven by biases in the measurement of WM, especially the use of similar tasks for assessment and training. In the present meta-analysis, we investigated whether WM, fluid intelligence, executive functions, and short-term memory can be improved by cognitive training and evaluated the impact of possible sources of bias. We performed a risk of bias assessment of the included studies and took special care in controlling for practice effects. Data from 52 independent comparisons were analyzed, including cognitive training aimed at different cognitive functions. Our results show small improvements in WM after training (SMD = 0.18). Much larger effects were observed when the analysis was restricted to assessment tasks similar to those used for training (SMD = 1.15). Fluid intelligence was not found to improve as a result of training, and improvements in WM were not related to changes in fluid intelligence. Our analyses did however indicate that cognitive training can improve specific executive functions. Contrary to expectations, a set of meta-regressions indicated that characteristics of the training programme, such as dosage and type of training, do not have an impact on the effectiveness of training. The risk of bias assessment revealed some concerns in the randomization process and possible selective reporting among studies. Overall, our results identified various potential sources of bias, with the most significant being the choice of assessment tasks.

The Auditory Consonant Trigram (ACT) Test: A norm updating study for university students

The Auditory Consonant Trigram (ACT) Test is accepted as a pure measurement of verbal working memory, but its norm study and psychometric properties have not been sufficiently researched. This study aims to update the norm data of the ACT, validity and reliability studies of which have been previously conducted on an adult Turkish sample, on a broader young sample and in a way that would end some methodological limitations. For this purpose, the data is collected from 304 voluntary healthy young adults (aged 18-26, 152 females-152 males). According to the results, a difference is found among all delay intervals. While the test scores decrease in females as delay interval increases, there is no difference in males between the delay intervals of 9 and 18 sec. While there is no difference between the genders for very short delay intervals (0-3 sec), males show a more successful performance than females as the delay interval increases (9-18 sec). Males are also more successful than females in terms of total test scores of the ACT. In this respect, it is concluded that the ACT measurement of working memory with a total score reliability coefficient of 0.75 is reliable.

Asymmetric negative transfer effects of working memory training

Gathercole et al. (Journal of Memory and Language, 105, 19-42, 2019) presented a cognitive routine framework for explaining the underlying mechanisms of working memory (WM) training and transfer. This framework conceptualizes training-induced changes as the acquisition of novel cognitive routines similar to learning a new skill. We further infer that WM training might not always generate positive outcomes because previously acquired routines may affect subsequent task performance in various ways. Thus, the present study aimed to demonstrate the negative effects of WM training via two experiments. We conducted Experiment 1 online using a two-phase training paradigm with only three training sessions per phase and replicated the key findings of Gathercole and Norris (in prep.) that training on a backward circle span task (a spatial task) transferred negatively to subsequent training on a backward letter span task (a verbal task). We conducted Experiment 2 using a reversed task order design corresponding to Experiment 1. The results indicated that the transfer from backward letter training to backward circle training was not negative, but rather weakly positive, suggesting that the direction of the negative transfer effect is asymmetric. The present study therefore found that a negative transfer effect can indeed occur under certain WM training designs. The presence of this asymmetric effect indicates that backward circle and backward letter tasks require different optimal routines and that the locus of negative transfer might be the acquisition process of such optimal routines. Hence, the routines already established for backward circle might hinder the development of optimal routines for backward letter, but not vice versa.

Brain working memory network indices as landmarks of intelligence

Identifying the neural correlates of intelligence has long been a goal in neuroscience. Recently, the field of network neuroscience has attracted researchers' attention as a means for answering this question. In network neuroscience, the brain is considered as an integrated system whose systematic properties provide profound insights into health and behavioral outcomes. However, most network studies of intelligence have used univariate methods to investigate topological network measures, with their focus limited to a few measures. Furthermore, most studies have focused on resting state networks despite the fact that brain activation during working memory tasks has been linked to intelligence. Finally, the literature is still missing an investigation of the association between network assortativity and intelligence. To address these issues, here we employ a recently developed mixed-modeling framework for analyzing multi-task brain networks to elucidate the most critical working memory task network topological properties corresponding to individuals' intelligence differences. We used a data set of 379 subjects (22-35 y/o) from the Human Connectome Project (HCP). Each subject's data included composite intelligence scores, and fMRI during resting state and a 2-back working memory task. Following comprehensive quality control and preprocessing of the minimally preprocessed fMRI data, we extracted a set of the main topological network features, including global efficiency, degree, leverage centrality, modularity, and clustering coefficient. The estimated network features and subject's confounders were then incorporated into the multi-task mixed-modeling framework to investigate how brain network changes between working memory and resting state relate to intelligence score. Our results indicate that the general intelligence score (cognitive composite score) is associated with a change in the relationship between connection strength and multiple network topological properties, including global efficiency, leverage centrality, and degree difference during working memory as it is compared to resting state. More specifically, we observed a higher increase in the positive association between global efficiency and connection strength for the high intelligence group when they switch from resting state to working memory. The strong connections might form superhighways for a more efficient global flow of information through the brain network. Furthermore, we found an increase in the negative association between degree difference and leverage centrality with connection strength during working memory tasks for the high intelligence group. These indicate higher network resilience and assortativity along with higher circuit-specific information flow during working memory for those with a higher intelligence score. Although the exact neurobiological implications of our results are speculative at this point, our results provide evidence for the significant association of intelligence with hallmark properties of brain networks during working memory.

Physical activity mitigates the influence of blood cadmium on memory function: a cross-sectional analysis in US elderly population

Current evidence showed that heavy metal exposure including cadmium (Cd) exposure might contribute to memory function impairment in youth, while this association has not been extensively explored in senior groups. Complementary therapy like physical activity (PA) is proved to enhance memory; however, the combined effects of Cd exposure and PA are interesting issues worth investigating. Cross-sectional data from the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES) 2011-2014 were analyzed. Multivariable weighted linear regression model and restricted cubic splines analysis were used to examine the association between blood Cd, PA, and memory function. Ultimately, 1884 samples were analyzed, and the weighted participants were 98,350,183. Results showed that in the immediate and delayed recall tests, a negative association was found between blood Cd and scores for the fully adjusted model, while a positive association was detected with PA on memory test scores. In subgroup analysis, for the delayed recall test, in lower Cd exposure (Cd = Q1), stronger effect size was found in the moderate level PA group than the higher level PA group (moderate level PA group, β = 1.133, 95% CI: 0.330, 1.936; high level PA group, β = 0.203, 95% CI: - 0.314, 0.719), and this finding also existed in higher (Cd = Q4) exposure (moderate level PA group, β = 0.988, 95% CI: 0.267, 1.708; high level PA group, β = 0.830, 95% CI: 0.261, 1.400). Moreover, the non-linear relationship between Cd exposure and performance of CERAD test under different levels of PA was reported, and the moderate level PA group performed best from lower to higher blood Cd. According to our research, the benefit of PA did not always expand with the PA intensity increment under different Cd exposure. Performing an appropriate level of physical exercise could alleviate the memory decline under Cd exposure in the elder groups. Further biological investigations are warranted to verify these findings.

20 years on: Confirmation of P. Anderson's (2002) paediatric model of executive functioning in a healthy adult sample

Executive Functioning (EF) is a construct that encompasses multiple interrelated higher order skills, however, conceptualising this nebulous construct remains challenging. This study aimed to confirm the validity of Anderson's (2002) paediatric model of EF in a healthy adult sample using congeneric modelling. Measures of EF were selected based on utility with adult populations giving rise to minor methodological differences from the original paper. Separate congeneric models were constructed using each of Anderson's constructs in order to isolate the sub-skills represented by each (Attentional Control-AC, Cognitive Flexibility-CF, Information Processing-IP, Goal Setting-GS), with a minimum of three tests per subskill. One hundred and thirty-three adults (42 males and 91 females) aged between 18 and 50 (M = 29.68, SD = 7.46) completed a cognitive test battery comprising 20 EF tests. AC revealed a good fitting model χ²(2) = 1.61, p = .447, RMSEA = 0.000, CFI = 1.000, after removing the non-significant indicator Map Search (p = .349), and BS-Bk as BS-Bk was required to covary with both BS-Fwd (M.I = 7.160, Par Change = .706), and TMT-A (M.I = 5.759, Par Change = -2.417). CF revealed a good fitting model χ²(8) = 2.90, p = .940, RMSEA = 0.000, CFI = 1.000 after covarying TSC-E and Stroop (M.I = 9.696, Par Change = .085). IP revealed a good fitting model χ²(4) = 1.15, p = .886, RMSEA = 0.000, CFI = 1.000 after covarying Animals total and FAS total (M.I. = 4.619, Par Change = 9.068). Lastly, GS indicated a good fitting model χ²(8) = 7.22, p = .513, RMSEA = 0.000, CFI = 1.000 after covarying TOH total time and PA (M.I = 4.25, Par Change = -77.868). Therefore, all four constructs were reliable and valid, and the utility of a parsimonious EF battery is suggested. Investigation of the inter-relationships between the constructs using regression techniques, de-emphasises the role of Attentional Control and argue instead for capacity bound skills.

Knowledge Representations: Individual Differences in Novel Problem Solving

The present study investigates how the quality of knowledge representations contributes to rule transfer in a problem-solving context and how working memory capacity (WMC) might contribute to the subsequent failure or success in transferring the relevant information. Participants were trained on individual figural analogy rules and then asked to rate the subjective similarity of the rules to determine how abstract their rule representations were. This rule representation score, along with other measures (WMC and fluid intelligence measures), was used to predict accuracy on a set of novel figural analogy test items, of which half included only the trained rules, and half were comprised of entirely new rules. The results indicated that the training improved performance on the test items and that WMC largely explained the ability to transfer rules. Although the rule representation scores did not predict accuracy on the trained items, rule representation scores did uniquely explain performance on the figural analogies task, even after accounting for WMC and fluid intelligence. These results indicate that WMC plays a large role in knowledge transfer, even when transferring to a more complex problem-solving context, and that rule representations may be important for novel problem solving.

Working memory load affects intelligence test performance by reducing the strength of relational item bindings and impairing the filtering of irrelevant information

There is a broad consensus that individual differences in working memory capacity (WMC) are strongly related to individual differences in intelligence. However, correlational studies do not allow conclusions about the causal nature of the relationship between WMC and fluid intelligence. While research on the cognitive basis of intelligence typically assumes that simpler lower-level cognitive processes contribute to individual differences in higher-order reasoning processes, a reversed causality or a third variable giving rise to two intrinsically uncorrelated variables may exist. In two studies (n₁ = 65, n₂ = 113), we investigated the causal nature of the relationship between WMC and intelligence by assessing the experimental effect of working memory load on intelligence test performance. Moreover, we tested if the effect of working memory load on intelligence test performance increased under time constraints, as previous studies have shown that the association between the two constructs increases if intelligence tests are administered with a strict time limit. We show that working memory load impaired intelligence test performance, but that this experimental effect was not affected by time constraints, which suggests that the experimental manipulations of working memory capacity and processing time did not affect the same underlying cognitive process. Using a computational modeling approach, we demonstrated that external memory load affected both the building and maintenance of relational item bindings and the filtering of irrelevant information in working memory. Our results confirm that WMC causally contributes to higher-order reasoning processes. Moreover, they support the hypothesis that working memory capacity in general and the abilities to maintain arbitrary bindings and to disengage from irrelevant information in particular are intrinsically related to intelligence.

Fluid Intelligence Is (Much) More than Working Memory Capacity: An Experimental Analysis

Empirical evidence suggests a great positive association between measures of fluid intelligence and working memory capacity, which implied to some researchers that fluid intelligence is little more than working memory. Because this conclusion is mostly based on correlation analysis, a causal relationship between fluid intelligence and working memory has not yet been established. The aim of the present study was therefore to provide an experimental analysis of this relationship. In a first study, 60 participants worked on items of the Advanced Progressive Matrices (APM) while simultaneously engaging in one of four secondary tasks to load specific components of the working memory system. There was a diminishing effect of loading the central executive on the APM performance, which could explain 15% of the variance in the APM score. In a second study, we used the same experimental manipulations but replaced the dependent variable with complex working memory span tasks from three different domains. There was also a diminishing effect of the experimental manipulation on span task performance, which could now explain 40% of the variance. These findings suggest a causal effect of working memory functioning on fluid intelligence test performance, but they also imply that factors other than working memory functioning must contribute to fluid intelligence.

Generalization of Skill for a Working Memory Recognition Procedure in Children: The Benefit of Starting with Easy Materials

When children practice a new task, they need to learn both the task procedure and the materials tested. It is often unclear if improvements with practice reflect learning of the task procedure or familiarity with the materials. We sought to examine learning of the task procedure by switching from one set of materials to another in a working memory recognition task. We recruited 70 children (34 female, M = 11.27 years, SD = 0.62, ranging from 10.08 to 12.39) in the United States who were to remember sequences of orientations and of shapes for recognition immediately following the list. Half of the children began with orientation, an easier task, and the other half began with difficult-to-name shapes, a harder task. When children began with the easier task, the acquisition of the recognition task skill in the easy condition transferred to the more difficult task, optimizing the mean performance across tasks. Transfer was less potent when children began with the more difficult task. The results showed that sufficient practice is crucial to avoid poor initial performance, which might be important for the student’s rate of progress and task engagement.

Brain reserve theory: Are adults with intellectual disability more vulnerable to age than peers with typical development?

BACKGROUND

Life expectancy is on rise and the intriguing question is: When does cognitive decline occur among adults with intellectual disability, compared to adults with typical development? This cross-sectional study examined cognitive performance of crystallised/fluid intelligence, working and long-term memory of adults with intellectual disability of etiologies other than Down syndrome (IQ 50-68) and adults with typical development (IQ 85-114) in four age cohorts (30-39; 40-49; 50-59; 60-69).

METHOD

The WAIS III^HEB and the Rey-AVLT were administered to both groups.

RESULTS

Four patterns of cognitive performance were found: (a) Vocabulary (crystallised intelligence), Spatial Span Forward and Retention yielded similar scores across all four age cohorts in participants with typical development and with intellectual disability. (b) Similarities, Raven and Digit Span Backward exhibit lower scores only in 50-59 or 60-69 compared to the 30-39 age cohort in both groups, (c) Digit Span Forward, Spatial Span Backward and Total Leaning (LTM) yielded lower scores in the 50-59 or 60-69 age cohorts in the typical group, but similar scores in participants with intellectual disability along the age cohorts, (d) Block Design (fluid intelligence) yielded a lower score in the 50-59 cohort versus lower scores only at ages 60-69 in participants with typical development.

CONCLUSIONS

Our findings suggest a possible parallel trajectory in age-related cognitive performance for individuals with and without intellectual disability in six measures, and a possible more preserved trajectory in fluid intelligence and some memory measures in adults with intellectual disability compared to their peers. Caution should be exercised regarding Digit and Spatial Span Backwards, which yielded a floor effect in participants with intellectual disability. The Cognitive Reserve Theory, the Safeguard Hypothesis and late maturation might serve as explanations for these findings.

Atypical development of social and nonsocial working memory capacity among preschoolers with autism spectrum disorders

Individuals with autism spectrum disorders (ASD) have shown impaired performance in canonical and nonsocial working memory (WM). However, no study has investigated social WM and its early development. Using biological motion stimuli, our study assessed the development of social and nonsocial WM capacity among children with or without ASD across the age span between 4 and 6 (N = 150). While typically developing (TD) children show a rapid development from age 5 to 6, children with ASD showed a delayed development for both social and nonsocial WM capacity, reaching a significant group difference at age 6. Furthermore, we found a negative correlation between social (but not nonsocial) WM capacity and the severity of autistic symptoms among children with ASD. In contrast, there is a positive correlation between both types of WM capacity and intelligence among TD children but not among children with ASD. Our findings thus indicate that individuals with ASD miss the rapid development of WM capacity in early childhood and, particularly, their delayed social WM development might contribute to core symptoms that critically depend on social information processing.

ImGo: A Novel Tool for Behavioral Impulsivity Assessment Based on Go/NoGo Tasks

This manuscript aims to present a novel behavioral impulsivity test ImGo, which is suitable for impulsivity assessment in the general population. A series of three studies was conducted to validate its psychometric qualities. In Study 1 we describe the principles of ImGo and verify its test-retest and split-half reliability and its convergent validity with an impulsivity self-report scale and Stop Signal test. In Study 2 we re-analyze the convergent validity of ImGo with a Stop Signal test and examine the potential relationship between ImGo and oculomotor inhibition measured by an Anti-Saccades test. In Study 3 we present a robust research with a large sample size and investigate the discriminant validity of ImGo with tests of other related cognitive and executive processes. Backed by our findings from these studies we can safely claim ImGo is a powerful tool with a good level of reliability (both test-retest and split-half) and validity (convergent and discriminant). Its potential lies in its use in diagnostic and research practice of experts from various countries as the test has already been translated to 9 languages so far. The open-source Hypothesis platform, on which the ImGo test is running, provides the option of both individual and group testing in laboratory conditions as well as remotely through an internet browser.

Ability and Nonability Predictors of Real-World Skill Acquisition: The Case of Rubik's Cube Solving

Most research on skilled performance is correlational, with skill and predictors measured at a single point in time, making it difficult to draw conclusions about the acquisition of skill. By contrast, in this study, we trained novice participants (N = 79) to solve Rubik's Cubes using a 7-step solution method. Participants also completed measures of fluid intelligence (Gf), working memory capacity (WMC), and nonability factors (grit, growth mindset, NFC, and the "big five"). Overall, higher Gf (but not WMC) was predictive of efficient and accurate Rubik's cube skill. No nonability variables were associated with skill. Our results provide compelling evidence for the importance of intellectual talent (cognitive ability) in developing expertise in a complex task.

Stuck on the Last: The Last-Presented Benefit as an Index of Attentional Refreshing in Adolescents

Working memory is a limited-capacity system responsible for maintaining information that is known to dramatically develop throughout childhood and adolescence. Different maintenance mechanisms are proposed to support working memory development, among which is attentional refreshing. Attentional refreshing is assumed to improve the accessibility of working-memory representations by cycling attention from one mental representation to the other, serially. It has been suggested that the efficiency of refreshing increases between the ages of 7 and 14 years old, thereby supporting working memory development. Yet, there is not much research about refreshing in adolescence. Here, we investigate the occurrence of refreshing in 15-year-olds by using a recently-developed index, i.e., the last-presented benefit. Adolescents had to remember a list of four letters and judge whether a subsequent probe letter was present or not in the list. Reaction times to the probe were used to assess the spontaneous occurrence of refreshing. We found that, unlike young adults, 15-year-olds showed consistent speeded responses to probes matching the last-presented memory item, indicating that, in this task, adolescents did not refocus their attention away from the last memory item to initiate refreshing. Implications for working memory functioning and development are discussed.

Attentional enhancement predicts individual differences in visual working memory under go/no-go search conditions

Attention-control processes transfer relevant information to visual working memory (WM) and prevent irrelevant information from consuming WM resources. Although event-related potentials (ERPs) have revealed attention-control processes associated with enhancement of relevant stimuli (targets) and suppression of irrelevant stimuli (distractors), only the suppressive processes have been found to predict WM capacity. We hypothesised a link between target-enhancement processes and WM capacity would be revealed in a task that requires more control than the conventional visual search paradigms used to study target selection. Here, participants searched for a pop-out target on Go trials and withheld responses on an equal number of randomly intermixed No-Go trials, depending on the colour of the stimulus array. Magnitudes of ERP indices associated with target enhancement (the singleton detection positivity, SDP, and N2pc) were positively correlated with individual differences in WM capacity. These relationships vanished when participants searched for the pop-out target on every trial, regardless of stimulus-array colour. Inhibitory processes associated with suppressing distractors (PD) and withholding responses (no-go P3) on No-Go trials did not predict WM capacity. These findings indicate that target-enhancement mechanisms control access to WM in search tasks that require dynamic control and disconfirm the view that the gateway to WM is entirely inhibitory by nature.

The role of executive functions, social cognition and intelligence in predicting social adaptation of vulnerable populations

This study sought to evaluate the roles of and interactions between cognitive processes that have been shown to exhibit impact from socioeconomic status (SES) and living conditions in predicting social adaptation (SA) in a population of adults living in socially vulnerable conditions. Participants included 226 people between the ages of 18 and 60 who have been living in vulnerable contexts throughout life in Santiago, Chile. Data was collected through a battery of psychological assessments. A structural equation model (SEM) was implemented to examine the interrelationships among cognitive and social variables. Results indicate a significant relationship between executive function (EF) and SA through both social cognition (SC) and intelligence. Theory of Mind (ToM), a component of SC, was shown to exhibit a significant relationship with affective empathy; interestingly, this was negatively related to SA. Moreover, fluid intelligence (FI) was found to exhibit a positive, indirect relationship with SA through crystallized intelligence (CI). Evaluation of these results in the context of research on the impacts of SES and vulnerable living conditions on psychological function may allow for the development of more effective clinical, political, and social interventions to support psychosocial health among socially vulnerable populations.

Assessment of cross-cultural measurement invariance of the NIH toolbox fluid cognition measures between Jamaicans and African-Americans

The NIH Toolbox Cognitive Battery (NIHTB-CB) was developed as a common-metric, computerized cognitive screener for research. Although extensively normed and validated in Americans of different ethnicities, there is little data on how generalizable such results would be when used outside of the United States. The objective of this study was to assess measurement invariance (MI) of the NIHTB-CB across Jamaican and African-American samples and determine appropriateness of comparisons across groups. Multi-group confirmatory factor analyses using a single-factor model were conducted using five tests of fluid cognitive abilities from the NIHTB-CB, which assess working memory, episodic memory, processing speed, and executive function. MI was tested sequentially for configural, metric and scalar invariance. 125 Jamaican and 154 American adults of African descent were included. The Jamaican mean age was 31.6 ± 8.6 years (57% males) compared to 43.5 ± 15.5 years (25% males) for the African-American group. The Jamaicans had on average 11.3 ± 2.7 years of education compared to 13.9 ± 2.6 years for the African-Americans. We found metric and configural invariance across both samples but not scalar invariance. These findings suggest that the single factor emerging from the NIHTB-CB measures the same construct, i.e. fluid cognitive ability, in both groups and hence the battery is appropriate for assessments within cultures. However, lack of scalar invariance indicates that direct cross-cultural comparisons of performance levels should be interpreted with caution, also suggesting that U.S. normative standards are not generalizable to the Jamaican population.

Taking a Closer Look: The Relationship between Pre-School Domain General Cognition and School Mathematics Achievement When Controlling for Intelligence

Intelligence, as well as working memory and attention, affect the acquisition of mathematical competencies. This paper aimed to examine the influence of working memory and attention when taking different mathematical skills into account as a function of children’s intellectual ability. Overall, intelligence, working memory, attention and numerical skills were assessed twice in 1868 German pre-school children (t1, t2) and again at 2nd grade (t3). We defined three intellectual ability groups based on the results of intellectual assessment at t1 and t2. Group comparisons revealed significant differences between the three intellectual ability groups. Over time, children with low intellectual ability showed the lowest achievement in domain-general and numerical and mathematical skills compared to children of average intellectual ability. The highest achievement on the aforementioned variables was found for children of high intellectual ability. Additionally, path modelling revealed that, depending on the intellectual ability, different models of varying complexity could be generated. These models differed with regard to the relevance of the predictors (t2) and the future mathematical skills (t3). Causes and conclusions of these findings are discussed.

The role of attention control in complex real-world tasks

Working memory capacity is an important psychological construct, and many real-world phenomena are strongly associated with individual differences in working memory functioning. Although working memory and attention are intertwined, several studies have recently shown that individual differences in the general ability to control attention is more strongly predictive of human behavior than working memory capacity. In this review, we argue that researchers would therefore generally be better suited to studying the role of attention control rather than memory-based abilities in explaining real-world behavior and performance in humans. The review begins with a discussion of relevant literature on the nature and measurement of both working memory capacity and attention control, including recent developments in the study of individual differences of attention control. We then selectively review existing literature on the role of both working memory and attention in various applied settings and explain, in each case, why a switch in emphasis to attention control is warranted. Topics covered include psychological testing, cognitive training, education, sports, police decision-making, human factors, and disorders within clinical psychology. The review concludes with general recommendations and best practices for researchers interested in conducting studies of individual differences in attention control.

Intelligenzdiagnostik der Zukunft

Zusammenfassung. Die menschliche Intelligenz ist eines der am besten erforschten und validierten Konstrukte innerhalb der Psychologie. Dennoch wird die Validität von Intelligenztests im gruppen- und insbesondere kulturvergleichenden Kontext regelmäßig und berechtigterweise kritisch hinterfragt. Obwohl verschiedene Alternativen und Weiterentwicklungen der Intelligenzdiagnostik vorgeschlagen wurden (z. B. kulturfaire Tests), sind fundamentale Probleme in der vergleichenden Intelligenzdiagnostik noch immer ungelöst und die Validitäten entsprechender Verfahren unklar. In dem vorliegenden Positionspapier wird diese Thematik aus der Perspektive der Kognitionspsychologie und der kognitiven Neurowissenschaften beleuchtet und eine prozessorientierte und biologisch inspirierte Form der Intelligenzdiagnostik als potentieller Lösungsansatz vorgeschlagen. Wir zeigen die Bedeutung elementarer kognitiver Prozesse auf (insbesondere Arbeitsgedächtniskapazität, Aufmerksamkeit, Verarbeitungsgeschwindigkeit), die individuellen Leistungsunterschieden zu Grunde liegen, und betonen, dass der Unterscheidung zwischen Inhalten und Prozessen eine zentrale, jedoch oft vernachlässigte Rolle in der Diagnostik allgemeiner kognitiver Leistungsunterschiede zukommt. Während aus kognitions- und neuropsychologischer Sicht davon ausgegangen werden kann, dass sich insbesondere Prozesse für interkulturelle Vergleiche eignen, sollten Inhalte als stärker kulturspezifisch verstanden werden. Darauf aufbauend diskutieren wir drei verschiedene Ansätze zur Verbesserung interkultureller Vergleichbarkeit der Intelligenzdiagnostik sowie deren Grenzen. Wir postulieren, dass sich die Intelligenzforschung im Austausch mit verschiedenen Disziplinen stärker auf die Identifikation von generellen kognitiven Prozessen fokussieren sollte und diskutieren das Potenzial zukünftiger Forschung hin zu einer prozessorientierten und biologisch inspirierten Intelligenzdiagnostik. Schließlich zeigen wir derzeitige Möglichkeiten auf, gehen aber auch auf etwaige Herausforderungen ein und beleuchten Implikationen für die zukünftige Intelligenzdiagnostik und -forschung.

Semantic Memory and Creativity: The Costs and Benefits of Semantic Memory Structure in Generating Original Ideas

Despite its theoretical importance, little is known about how semantic memory structure facilitates and constrains creative idea production. We examine whether the semantic richness of a concept has both benefits and costs to creative idea production. Specifically, we tested whether cue set-size-an index of semantic richness reflecting the average number of elements associated with a given concept-impacts the quantity (fluency) and quality (originality) of responses generated during the alternate uses task (AUT). Across four studies, we show that low-association, sparse, AUT cues benefit originality at the cost of fluency compared to high-association, rich, AUT cues. Furthermore, we found an interaction with individual differences in fluid intelligence in the low-association AUT cues, suggesting that constraints of sparse semantic knowledge can be overcome with top-down intervention. The findings indicate that semantic richness differentially impacts the quality and quantity of generated ideas, and that cognitive control processes can facilitate idea production when conceptual knowledge is limited.

Psycho-Cognitive Model of Knowledge Creation Theory

Humans perform activities collaboratively or individually, and these activities, more often than not, involve both physical and mental processes. However, irrespective of whether individual or collective functioning, knowledge creation is a personal experience. Nevertheless, the general tenet of this paper is that knowledge is created in a human’s mind and resides in the head. Hence, it posits that knowledge creation is cognitive (associated with the neurological structures of the brain) and psychological (involving consciousness)—a psycho-cognitive process. This study thus employs a “Cognaction” mechanism that is based on the assumptions captured below. The mechanism premised that the human cognitive chamber consists of 3C modes of comprehension (for interpreting stimuli transmitted to the brain by sensory organs), contextualisation (for mindful connecting of chunks to existing schemas), and conceptualisation (for evaluative reflection in a manner that leads to drawing inference and building themes or new concepts). It demonstrates that as diverse skill sets are applied to a task, they generate varieties of effects and outcomes. The outcomes though are distinctive and at the same time are cospecialised. Thus, the psycho-cognitive perspective demonstrates knowledge creation as a cocreation process and sees knowledge as a mix of cocreated, cognitive structures. In view of these, the study provides the missing explanation on how the knowledge archetypes emerged. And it provides the missing link between the belief that “knowledge is created in the head” and knowledge creation theory.

Executive functions and their relationship with intellectual capacity and age in schoolchildren with intellectual disability

BACKGROUND

There is certain empirical evidence of, on the one hand, a positive correlation between executive functions (EFs) and intelligence in people with intellectual disability (ID) and, on the other hand, a slower rate of development of EFs in these people relative to people without ID. This evidence is not, however, unequivocal, and further studies are required.

METHODS

We analysed the relationship between development of EFs and both age and intellectual capacity, in a sample of 106 students with either ID or borderline intellectual functioning (BIF) at a special education centre [63 boys and 43 girls, 11-18 years old, mean total intelligence quotient (TIQ) of 59.6]. We applied nine instruments to evaluate both neuropsychological development (working memory, inhibitory control, cognitive flexibility, planning, processing speed and verbal fluency) and behavioural development [teachers' perceptions of the EFs of their students by Behavior Rating Inventory of Executive Function - Second Edition (BRIEF-2) School]. ID and BIF groups were statistically compared in terms of mean performance measures in EF tests. We looked at the correlation between EFs and age, and correlations between EFs and intelligence: TIQ, fluid intelligence [measured by the perceptual reasoning (PR) sub-index of Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children-IV (WISC-IV)] and crystallised intelligence (measured by the verbal comprehension (VC) sub-index of WISC-IV). Regression models were built for variables with strong correlation.

RESULTS

In most of the tests used to evaluate EFs, the ID subgroup performed significantly worse than the subgroup with BIF. In general, teachers' thought that participants had 'medium-low' levels of EFs. TIQ, by WISC-IV scale, correlated significantly with scores in all tests for all EFs. The PR sub-index correlated significantly with 14 of the tests for EFs; 35% of the variation in PR can be explained by variation in performance in Picture Span (working memory) and Mazes (planning). The VC sub-index correlated weakly with seven of the EF tests. We found significant correlations in the ID group between age and scores in all tests of working memory and inhibitory control. Age - considering all participants - did not correlate with any of the variables of teachers' perception except for working memory, and this correlation was not strong.

CONCLUSIONS

The results of our study are consistent with descriptions of the typical population: (1) fluid intelligence is more related to EFs than crystallised intelligence is; and (2) working memory capacity is the EF most strongly related with general, fluid and crystallised forms of intelligence. The results suggest that as children and adolescents with ID/BIF get older, their capacities for working memory and inhibitory control increase; development of the other EFs studied was less evident. Teachers' perceptions of the EFs of children with ID or BIF were independent of intellectual capacity and age. More research is needed to delve further into the development of EFs in people with ID/BIF.

Do Attentional Lapses Account for the Worst Performance Rule?

The worst performance rule (WPR) describes the phenomenon that individuals’ slowest responses in a task are often more predictive of their intelligence than their fastest or average responses. To explain this phenomenon, it was previously suggested that occasional lapses of attention during task completion might be associated with particularly slow reaction times. Because less intelligent individuals should experience lapses of attention more frequently, reaction time distribution should be more heavily skewed for them than for more intelligent people. Consequently, the correlation between intelligence and reaction times should increase from the lowest to the highest quantile of the response time distribution. This attentional lapses account has some intuitive appeal, but has not yet been tested empirically. Using a hierarchical modeling approach, we investigated whether the WPR pattern would disappear when including different behavioral, self-report, and neural measurements of attentional lapses as predictors. In a sample of N = 85, we found that attentional lapses accounted for the WPR, but effect sizes of single covariates were mostly small to very small. We replicated these results in a reanalysis of a much larger previously published data set. Our findings render empirical support to the attentional lapses account of the WPR.

Fluid intelligence and the locus coeruleus-norepinephrine system

The last decade has seen significant progress identifying genetic and brain differences related to intelligence. However, there remain considerable gaps in our understanding of how cognitive mechanisms that underpin intelligence map onto various brain functions. In this article, we argue that the locus coeruleus-norepinephrine system is essential for understanding the biological basis of intelligence. We review evidence suggesting that the locus coeruleus-norepinephrine system plays a central role at all levels of brain function, from metabolic processes to the organization of large-scale brain networks. We connect this evidence with our executive attention view of working-memory capacity and fluid intelligence and present analyses on baseline pupil size, an indicator of locus coeruleus activity. Using a latent variable approach, our analyses showed that a common executive attention factor predicted baseline pupil size. Additionally, the executive attention function of disengagement--not maintenance--uniquely predicted baseline pupil size. These findings suggest that the ability to control attention may be important for understanding how cognitive mechanisms of fluid intelligence map onto the locus coeruleus-norepinephrine system. We discuss how further research is needed to better understand the relationships between fluid intelligence, the locus coeruleus-norepinephrine system, and functionally organized brain networks.

Entropy Fit Indices: New Fit Measures for Assessing the Structure and Dimensionality of Multiple Latent Variables

The accurate identification of the content and number of latent factors underlying multivariate data is an important endeavor in many areas of Psychology and related fields. Recently, a new dimensionality assessment technique based on network psychometrics was proposed (Exploratory Graph Analysis, EGA), but a measure to check the fit of the dimensionality structure to the data estimated via EGA is still lacking. Although traditional factor-analytic fit measures are widespread, recent research has identified limitations for their effectiveness in categorical variables. Here, we propose three new fit measures (termed entropy fit indices) that combines information theory, quantum information theory and structural analysis: Entropy Fit Index (EFI), EFI with Von Neumman Entropy (EFI.vn) and Total EFI.vn (TEFI.vn). The first can be estimated in complete datasets using Shannon entropy, while EFI.vn and TEFI.vn can be estimated in correlation matrices using quantum information metrics. We show, through several simulations, that TEFI.vn, EFI.vn and EFI are as accurate or more accurate than traditional fit measures when identifying the number of simulated latent factors. However, in conditions where more factors are extracted than the number of factors simulated, only TEFI.vn presents a very high accuracy. In addition, we provide an applied example that demonstrates how the new fit measures can be used with a real-world dataset, using exploratory graph analysis.

Neutral and negative mood induction in executive tasks of working memory

The mood induction paradigm has been an important tool for investigating the effects of negative emotional states on working memory (WM) executive functions. Though some evidence showed that negative mood has a differential effect on verbal and visuospatial WM, other findings did not report a similar effect. To explore this issue, we examined the negative mood's impact on verbal and visuospatial WM executive tasks based on grammatical reasoning and visuospatial rotation. Participants with no anxiety or depression disorders performed the tasks before and after negative (n = 14) or neutral (n = 13) mood induction. Participants' mood at the beginning and the end of the session was assessed by the Present Mood States List (LEAP) and word valence rating. The analyses showed changes in the emotional state of the negative group (ps < .03) but not of the neutral group (ps > .83) in the LEAP instrument. No significant differences between groups were observed in the WM tasks (ps > .33). Performance in the visuospatial WM task improved after mood induction for both groups (p < .05), possibly due to a practice effect. In sum, our findings challenge the view that negative mood modulates WM executive functions; thus, they were discussed considering the similarities and differences between studies that found negative mood effects on WM and those that did not find. Different WM tasks tap distinct processes and components, which may underlie behavioral effects of negative mood on WM tasks.

Individual Differences in Attention and Intelligence: A United Cognitive/Psychometric Approach

Process overlap theory (POT) is a new theoretical framework designed to account for the general factor of intelligence (g). According to POT, g does not reflect a general cognitive ability. Instead, g is the result of multiple domain-general executive attention processes and multiple domain-specific processes that are sampled in an overlapping manner across a battery of intelligence tests. POT explains several benchmark findings on human intelligence. However, the precise nature of the executive attention processes underlying g remains unclear. In the current paper, we discuss challenges associated with building a theory of individual differences in attention and intelligence. We argue that the conflation of psychological theories and statistical models, as well as problematic inferences based on latent variables, impedes research progress and prevents theory building. Two studies designed to illustrate the unique features of POT relative to previous approaches are presented. In Study 1, a simulation is presented to illustrate precisely how POT accounts for the relationship between executive attention processes and g. In Study 2, three datasets from previous studies are reanalyzed (N = 243, N = 234, N = 945) and reveal a discrepancy between the POT simulated model and the unity/diversity model of executive function. We suggest that this discrepancy is largely due to methodological problems in previous studies but also reflects different goals of research on individual differences in attention. The unity/diversity model is designed to facilitate research on executive function and dysfunction associated with cognitive and neural development and disease. POT is uniquely suited to guide and facilitate research on individual differences in cognitive ability and the investigation of executive attention processes underlying g.

The neural-vascular basis of age-related processing speed decline

Most studies examining neurocognitive aging are based on the blood-oxygen level-dependent signal obtained during functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI). The physiological basis of this signal is neural-vascular coupling, the process by which neurons signal cerebrovasculature to dilate in response to an increase in active neural metabolism due to stimulation. These fMRI studies of aging rely on the hemodynamic equivalence assumption that this process is not disrupted by physiologic deterioration associated with aging. Studies of neural-vascular coupling challenge this assumption and show that neural-vascular coupling is closely related to cognition. In this review, we put forward a theory of processing speed decline in aging and how it is related to age-related neural-vascular coupling changes based on the results of studies elucidating the relationships between cognition, cerebrovascular dynamics, and aging.

How Executive Processes Explain the Overlap between Working Memory Capacity and Fluid Intelligence: A Test of Process Overlap Theory

Working memory capacity (WMC) and fluid intelligence (Gf) are highly correlated, but what accounts for this relationship remains elusive. Process-overlap theory (POT) proposes that the positive manifold is mainly caused by the overlap of domain-general executive processes which are involved in a battery of mental tests. Thus, executive processes are proposed to explain the relationship between WMC and Gf. The current study aims to (1) achieve a relatively purified representation of the core executive processes including shifting and inhibition by a novel approach combining experimental manipulations and fixed-links modeling, and (2) to explore whether these executive processes account for the overlap between WMC and Gf. To these ends, we reanalyzed data of 215 university students who completed measures of WMC, Gf, and executive processes. Results showed that the model with a common factor, as well as shifting and inhibition factors, provided the best fit to the data of the executive function (EF) task. These components explained around 88% of the variance shared by WMC and Gf. However, it was the common EF factor, rather than inhibition and shifting, that played a major part in explaining the common variance. These results do not support POT as underlying the relationship between WMC and Gf.

Binding Costs in Processing Efficiency as Determinants of Cognitive Ability

Performance in elementary cognitive tasks is moderately correlated with fluid intelligence and working memory capacity. These correlations are higher for more complex tasks, presumably due to increased demands on working memory capacity. In accordance with the binding hypothesis, which states that working memory capacity reflects the limit of a person's ability to establish and maintain temporary bindings (e.g., relations between items or relations between items and their context), we manipulated binding requirements (i.e., 2, 4, and 6 relations) in three choice reaction time paradigms (i.e., two comparison tasks, two change detection tasks, and two substitution tasks) measuring mental speed. Response time distributions of 115 participants were analyzed with the diffusion model. Higher binding requirements resulted in generally reduced efficiency of information processing, as indicated by lower drift rates. Additionally, we fitted bi-factor confirmatory factor analysis to the elementary cognitive tasks to separate basal speed and binding requirements of the employed tasks to quantify their specific contributions to working memory capacity, as measured by Recall-1-Back tasks. A latent factor capturing individual differences in binding was incrementally predictive of working memory capacity, over and above a general factor capturing speed. These results indicate that the relation between reaction time tasks and working memory capacity hinges on the complexity of the reaction time tasks. We conclude that binding requirements and, therefore, demands on working memory capacity offer a satisfactory account of task complexity that accounts for a large portion of individual differences in ability.

Is baseline pupil size related to cognitive ability? Yes (under proper lighting conditions)

There has been some controversy as to whether baseline pupil size is related to individual differences in cognitive ability. Previously, we had shown that a larger baseline pupil size was associated with higher cognitive ability and that the correlation to fluid intelligence was larger than that to working memory capacity (Tsukahara, Harrison, & Engle, 2016). However, other researchers have not been able to replicate our findings - though they only measured working memory capacity and not fluid intelligence. Many of the studies showing no relationship had major methodological issues, namely small baseline pupil size values - down to the physiological minimum - that resulted in reduced variability on baseline pupil size. We conducted two large-scale studies to investigate how different lighting conditions affect baseline pupil size values and the correlation with cognitive abilities. We found that fluid intelligence, working memory capacity, and attention control did correlate with baseline pupil size except in the brightest lighting conditions. We showed that a reduced variability in baseline pupil size values is due to the monitor settings being too bright. Overall, our findings demonstrated that the baseline pupil size - working memory capacity relationship was not as strong or robust as that with fluid intelligence or attention control. Our findings have strong methodological implications for researchers investigating individual differences in task-free or task-evoked pupil size. We conclude that fluid intelligence does correlate with baseline pupil size and that this is related to the functional organization of the resting-state brain through the locus coeruleus-norepinephrine system.

PLAT 20(1) 2021: Enhancing Student Learning in Research and Educational Practice: The Power of Retrieval Practice and Feedback

Students and instructors are looking for effective study and instructional strategies that enhance student achievement across a range of content and conditions. The current Special Issue features seven articles and one report, which used varied methodologies to investigate the benefits of practising retrieval and providing feedback for learning. This editorial serves as an introduction and conceptual framework for these papers. Consistent with trends in the broader literature, the research in this Special Issue goes beyond asking whether retrieval practice and feedback enhance learning, but rather, when, for whom, and under what conditions. The first set of articles examined the benefits of retrieval practice compared to restudy (i.e., the testing effect) and various moderators of the testing effect, including participants’ cognitive and personality characteristics ( Bertilsson et al., 2021 ) as well as the timing of the practice test and sleep ( Kroneisen & Kuepper-Tetzel, 2021 ). The second set of articles examined the efficacy of different types of feedback, including complex versus simple feedback ( Enders et al., 2021 ; Pieper et al., 2021 ) and positively or negatively valenced feedback ( Jones et al., 2021 ). Finally, the third set of articles to this Special Issue examined practical considerations of implementing both retrieval practice and feedback with educationally relevant materials and contexts. Some of the practical issues examined included when students should search the web to look for answers to practice problems ( Giebl et al., 2021 ), whether review quizzes should be required and contribute to students’ final grades ( den Boer et al., 2021 ), and how digital learning environments should be designed to teach students to use effective study strategies such as retrieval practice ( Endres et al., 2021 ). In short, retrieval and feedback practices are effective and robust tools to enhance learning and teaching, and the papers in the current Special Issue provide insight into ways for students and teachers to implement these strategies.

Attention control: The missing link between sensory discrimination and intelligence

Intelligence is correlated with the ability to make fine sensory discriminations. Although this relationship has been known since the beginning of intelligence testing, the mechanisms underlying this relationship are still unknown. In two large-scale structural equation-modelling studies, we investigated whether individual differences in attention control abilities can explain the relationship between sensory discrimination and intelligence. Across these two studies, we replicated the finding that attention control fully mediated the relationships of intelligence/working-memory capacity to sensory discrimination. Our findings show that attention control plays a prominent role in relating sensory discrimination to higher-order cognitive abilities.

Eye-tracking IQ: Cognitive capacity and strategy use on a ratio-bias task

This study tested the relationship between strategy use (assessed by eye-gaze patterns), cognitive ability (CA), and reasoning performance on a ratio-bias task. For the ratio-bias problems, participants (N = 125) chose which of two ratios was larger; each ratio was represented both as a fraction and as a picture. Problems were solved in two blocks: once under a deadline (Time1) and once in free time (Time2). Consistent with the assumption of dual process theories that CA is needed to overturn a pre-potent, initial response (Evans & Stanovich, 2013), CA was positively associated with correct performance at Time2, as well as the increase in performance from Time1 to Time2. However, strategy use predicted performance independently of CA at Time2, and accounted for the relationship between CA and improvement between Time1 and Time2: reasoners who attended to the fractions rather than to the misleading pictures performed better, regardless of CA. CA also predicted performance at Time1. Together, these findings suggest that the robust relationship between CA and reasoning (Stanovich, 1999) may arise because 1) high capacity reasoners are more likely to "intuit" the initial answer and 2) because CA is correlated with good strategy use, which, in turn, predicts performance.