1
|
Copeland A, Stafford T, Field M. Value-based decision-making in regular alcohol consumers following experimental manipulation of alcohol value. Addict Behav 2024; 156:108069. [PMID: 38788454 DOI: 10.1016/j.addbeh.2024.108069] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/07/2023] [Revised: 05/02/2024] [Accepted: 05/17/2024] [Indexed: 05/26/2024]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Devaluation of alcohol leads to reductions in alcohol choice and consumption; however, the cognitive mechanisms that underpin this relationship are not well-understood. In this study we applied a computational model of value-based decision-making (VBDM) to decisions made about alcohol and alcohol-unrelated cues following experimental manipulation of alcohol value. METHOD Using a pre-registered within-subject design, thirty-six regular alcohol consumers (≥14 UK units per week) completed a two-alternative forced choice task where they chose between two alcohol images (in one block) or two soft drink images (in a different block) after watching videos that emphasised the positive (alcohol value), and separately, the negative (alcohol devalue) consequences of alcohol. On each block, participants pressed a key to select the image depicting the drink they would rather consume. A drift-diffusion model (DDM) was fitted to reaction time and choice data to estimate evidence accumulation (EA) processes and response thresholds during the different blocks in each experimental condition. FINDINGS In the alcohol devalue condition, soft drink EA rates were significantly higher compared to alcohol EA rates (p = 0.04, d = 0.31), and compared to soft drink EA rates in the alcohol value condition (p = 0.01, d = 0.38). However, EA rates for alcoholic drinks and response thresholds (for either drink type) were unaffected by the experimental manipulation. CONCLUSIONS In line with behavioural economic models of addiction that emphasise the important role of alternative reinforcement, experimentally manipulating alcohol value is associated with changes in the internal cognitive processes that precede soft drink choice.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
| | - Tom Stafford
- Department of Psychology, University of Sheffield, UK
| | - Matt Field
- Department of Psychology, University of Sheffield, UK
| |
Collapse
|
2
|
Bolam J, Diaz JA, Andrews M, Coats RO, Philiastides MG, Astill SL, Delis I. A drift diffusion model analysis of age-related impact on multisensory decision-making processes. Sci Rep 2024; 14:14895. [PMID: 38942761 PMCID: PMC11213863 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-024-65549-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/24/2023] [Accepted: 06/20/2024] [Indexed: 06/30/2024] Open
Abstract
Older adults (OAs) are typically slower and/or less accurate in forming perceptual choices relative to younger adults. Despite perceptual deficits, OAs gain from integrating information across senses, yielding multisensory benefits. However, the cognitive processes underlying these seemingly discrepant ageing effects remain unclear. To address this knowledge gap, 212 participants (18-90 years old) performed an online object categorisation paradigm, whereby age-related differences in Reaction Times (RTs) and choice accuracy between audiovisual (AV), visual (V), and auditory (A) conditions could be assessed. Whereas OAs were slower and less accurate across sensory conditions, they exhibited greater RT decreases between AV and V conditions, showing a larger multisensory benefit towards decisional speed. Hierarchical Drift Diffusion Modelling (HDDM) was fitted to participants' behaviour to probe age-related impacts on the latent multisensory decision formation processes. For OAs, HDDM demonstrated slower evidence accumulation rates across sensory conditions coupled with increased response caution for AV trials of higher difficulty. Notably, for trials of lower difficulty we found multisensory benefits in evidence accumulation that increased with age, but not for trials of higher difficulty, in which increased response caution was instead evident. Together, our findings reconcile age-related impacts on multisensory decision-making, indicating greater multisensory evidence accumulation benefits with age underlying enhanced decisional speed.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Joshua Bolam
- School of Biomedical Sciences, University of Leeds, West Yorkshire, LS2 9JT, UK.
- Institute of Neuroscience, Trinity College Dublin, Dublin, D02 PX31, Ireland.
| | - Jessica A Diaz
- School of Biomedical Sciences, University of Leeds, West Yorkshire, LS2 9JT, UK
- School of Social Sciences, Birmingham City University, West Midlands, B15 3HE, UK
| | - Mark Andrews
- School of Social Sciences, Nottingham Trent University, Nottinghamshire, NG1 4FQ, UK
| | - Rachel O Coats
- School of Psychology, University of Leeds, West Yorkshire, LS2 9JT, UK
| | - Marios G Philiastides
- School of Neuroscience and Psychology, University of Glasgow, Lanarkshire, G12 8QB, UK
| | - Sarah L Astill
- School of Biomedical Sciences, University of Leeds, West Yorkshire, LS2 9JT, UK
| | - Ioannis Delis
- School of Biomedical Sciences, University of Leeds, West Yorkshire, LS2 9JT, UK.
| |
Collapse
|
3
|
Brosnan M, Pearce DJ, O'Neill MH, Loughnane GM, Fleming B, Zhou SH, Chong T, Nobre AC, O Connell RG, Bellgrove MA. Evidence Accumulation Rate Moderates the Relationship between Enriched Environment Exposure and Age-Related Response Speed Declines. J Neurosci 2023; 43:6401-6414. [PMID: 37507230 PMCID: PMC10500991 DOI: 10.1523/jneurosci.2260-21.2023] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/15/2021] [Revised: 07/10/2023] [Accepted: 07/20/2023] [Indexed: 07/30/2023] Open
Abstract
Older adults exposed to enriched environments (EEs) maintain relatively higher levels of cognitive function, even in the face of compromised markers of brain health. Response speed (RS) is often used as a simple proxy to measure the preservation of global cognitive function in older adults. However, it is unknown which specific selection, decision, and/or motor processes provide the most specific indices of neurocognitive health. Here, using a simple decision task with electroencephalography (EEG), we found that the efficiency with which an individual accumulates sensory evidence was a critical determinant of the extent to which RS was preserved in older adults (63% female, 37% male). Moreover, the mitigating influence of EE on age-related RS declines was most pronounced when evidence accumulation rates were shallowest. These results suggest that the phenomenon of cognitive reserve, whereby high EE individuals can better tolerate suboptimal brain health to facilitate the preservation of cognitive function, is not just applicable to neuroanatomical indicators of brain aging but can be observed in markers of neurophysiology. Our results suggest that EEG metrics of evidence accumulation may index neurocognitive vulnerability of the aging brain.Significance Statement Response speed in older adults is closely linked with trajectories of cognitive aging. Here, by recording brain activity while individuals perform a simple computer task, we identify a neural metric that is a critical determinant of response speed. Older adults exposed to greater cognitive and social stimulation throughout a lifetime could maintain faster responding, even when this neural metric was impaired. This work suggests EEG is a useful technique for interrogating how a lifetime of stimulation benefits brain health in aging.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Méadhbh Brosnan
- Turner Institute for Brain and Mental Health and School of Psychological Sciences, Monash University, Melbourne, Victoria 3800, Australia
- Department of Experimental Psychology, University of Oxford, Oxford OX2 6GG, United Kingdom
- Oxford Centre for Human Brain Activity, University of Oxford, Oxford OX3 7JX, United Kingdom
- Wellcome Centre for Integrative Neuroimaging, University of Oxford, Oxford OX3 9DU, United Kingdom
- School of Psychology, University College Dublin, Dublin 2, Ireland
| | - Daniel J Pearce
- Turner Institute for Brain and Mental Health and School of Psychological Sciences, Monash University, Melbourne, Victoria 3800, Australia
| | - Megan H O'Neill
- Turner Institute for Brain and Mental Health and School of Psychological Sciences, Monash University, Melbourne, Victoria 3800, Australia
| | - Gerard M Loughnane
- School of Business, National College of Ireland, Dublin 1, Ireland
- Trinity College Institute of Neuroscience and School of Psychology, Trinity College Dublin, Dublin 2, Ireland
| | - Bryce Fleming
- Turner Institute for Brain and Mental Health and School of Psychological Sciences, Monash University, Melbourne, Victoria 3800, Australia
| | - Shou-Han Zhou
- Department of Psychology, James Cook University, Brisbane, Queensland 4000, Australia
| | - Trevor Chong
- Turner Institute for Brain and Mental Health and School of Psychological Sciences, Monash University, Melbourne, Victoria 3800, Australia
| | - Anna C Nobre
- Department of Experimental Psychology, University of Oxford, Oxford OX2 6GG, United Kingdom
- Oxford Centre for Human Brain Activity, University of Oxford, Oxford OX3 7JX, United Kingdom
- Wellcome Centre for Integrative Neuroimaging, University of Oxford, Oxford OX3 9DU, United Kingdom
| | - Redmond G O Connell
- Turner Institute for Brain and Mental Health and School of Psychological Sciences, Monash University, Melbourne, Victoria 3800, Australia
- School of Business, National College of Ireland, Dublin 1, Ireland
| | - Mark A Bellgrove
- Turner Institute for Brain and Mental Health and School of Psychological Sciences, Monash University, Melbourne, Victoria 3800, Australia
| |
Collapse
|
4
|
Reinhartz A, Strobach T, Jacobsen T, von Bastian CC. Mechanisms of Training-Related Change in Processing Speed: A Drift-Diffusion Model Approach. J Cogn 2023; 6:46. [PMID: 37600217 PMCID: PMC10437139 DOI: 10.5334/joc.310] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/01/2023] [Accepted: 07/17/2023] [Indexed: 08/22/2023] Open
Abstract
Processing speed is a crucial ability that changes over the course of the lifespan. Training interventions on processing speed have shown promising effects and have been associated with improved cognitive functioning. While training-related changes in processing speed are often studied using reaction times (RTs) and error rates, these measures provide limited insight into the mechanisms underlying changes during training. The drift-diffusion model provides estimates of the cognitive processes underlying speeded decision tasks, such as the rate of evidence accumulation (drift rate), response strategies (boundary separation), as well as time for other processes such as stimulus encoding and motor response (non-decision time). In the current study, we analyzed existing data of an extensive multi-session training intervention (von Bastian & Oberauer, 2013) to disentangle changes in drift rate, boundary separation, and non-decision time during training of different speeded choice-RT tasks. During this training intervention, 30 participants performed 20 training sessions over the course of four weeks, completing three tasks each session: a face-matching, a pattern-matching, and a digit-matching task. Our results show that processing speed training increased drift rates throughout training. Boundary separation and non-decision time decreased mostly during the initial parts of training. This pattern of prolonged training-related changes in rate of evidence accumulation as well as early changes in response strategy and non-decision processes was observed across all three tasks. Future research should investigate how these training-related changes relate to improvements in cognitive functioning more broadly.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Alice Reinhartz
- Department of Psychology, Medical School Hamburg, Hamburg, Germany
- Experimental Psychology Unit, Helmut Schmidt University/University of the Federal Armed Forces Hamburg, Hamburg, Germany
| | - Tilo Strobach
- Department of Psychology, Medical School Hamburg, Hamburg, Germany
| | - Thomas Jacobsen
- Experimental Psychology Unit, Helmut Schmidt University/University of the Federal Armed Forces Hamburg, Hamburg, Germany
| | | |
Collapse
|
5
|
Tagliabue CF, Varesio G, Assecondi S, Vescovi M, Mazza V. Age-related effects on online and offline learning in visuo-spatial working memory. NEUROPSYCHOLOGY, DEVELOPMENT, AND COGNITION. SECTION B, AGING, NEUROPSYCHOLOGY AND COGNITION 2023; 30:486-503. [PMID: 35313784 DOI: 10.1080/13825585.2022.2054926] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 04/25/2023]
Abstract
Learning results from online (within-session) and offline (between-sessions) changes. Heterogeneity of age-related effects in learning may be ascribed to aging differentially affecting these two processes. We investigated the contribution of online and offline consolidation in visuo-spatial working memory (vWM). Younger and older participants performed a vWM task on day one and after nine days, allowing us to disentangle online and offline learning effects. To test whether offline consolidation needs continuous practice, two additional groups of younger and older adults performed the same vWM task in between the two assessments. Similarly to other cognitive domains, older adults improved vWM through online (during session one) but not through offline learning. Practice was necessary to improve vWM between sessions in older participants. Younger adults instead exhibited only offline improvement, regardless of practice. The findings suggest that while online learning remains efficient in aging, practice is instead required to support more fragile offline mechanisms.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
| | - Greta Varesio
- Center for Mind/Brain Sciences (Cimec), University of Trento, Rovereto, Italy
| | - Sara Assecondi
- Center for Mind/Brain Sciences (Cimec), University of Trento, Rovereto, Italy
| | - Massimo Vescovi
- Center for Mind/Brain Sciences (Cimec), University of Trento, Rovereto, Italy
| | - Veronica Mazza
- Center for Mind/Brain Sciences (Cimec), University of Trento, Rovereto, Italy
| |
Collapse
|
6
|
Masís J, Chapman T, Rhee JY, Cox DD, Saxe AM. Strategically managing learning during perceptual decision making. eLife 2023; 12:64978. [PMID: 36786427 PMCID: PMC9928425 DOI: 10.7554/elife.64978] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/18/2020] [Accepted: 01/15/2023] [Indexed: 02/15/2023] Open
Abstract
Making optimal decisions in the face of noise requires balancing short-term speed and accuracy. But a theory of optimality should account for the fact that short-term speed can influence long-term accuracy through learning. Here, we demonstrate that long-term learning is an important dynamical dimension of the speed-accuracy trade-off. We study learning trajectories in rats and formally characterize these dynamics in a theory expressed as both a recurrent neural network and an analytical extension of the drift-diffusion model that learns over time. The model reveals that choosing suboptimal response times to learn faster sacrifices immediate reward, but can lead to greater total reward. We empirically verify predictions of the theory, including a relationship between stimulus exposure and learning speed, and a modulation of reaction time by future learning prospects. We find that rats' strategies approximately maximize total reward over the full learning epoch, suggesting cognitive control over the learning process.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Javier Masís
- Department of Molecular and Cellular Biology, Harvard UniversityCambridgeUnited States,Center for Brain Science, Harvard UniversityCambridgeUnited States
| | - Travis Chapman
- Center for Brain Science, Harvard UniversityCambridgeUnited States
| | - Juliana Y Rhee
- Department of Molecular and Cellular Biology, Harvard UniversityCambridgeUnited States,Center for Brain Science, Harvard UniversityCambridgeUnited States
| | - David D Cox
- Department of Molecular and Cellular Biology, Harvard UniversityCambridgeUnited States,Center for Brain Science, Harvard UniversityCambridgeUnited States
| | - Andrew M Saxe
- Department of Experimental Psychology, University of OxfordOxfordUnited Kingdom
| |
Collapse
|
7
|
Schmiedek F, Lövdén M, Ratcliff R, Lindenberger U. Practice-related changes in perceptual evidence accumulation correlate with changes in working memory. J Exp Psychol Gen 2022; 152:763-779. [PMID: 36136813 PMCID: PMC10030378 DOI: 10.1037/xge0001290] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
It has been proposed that evidence accumulation determines not only the speed and accuracy of simple perceptual decisions but also influences performance on tasks assessing higher-order cognitive abilities, such as working memory (WM). Accordingly, estimates of evidence accumulation based on diffusion decision modeling of perceptual decision-making tasks have been found to correlate with WM performance. Here we use diffusion decision modeling in combination with latent factor modeling to test the stronger prediction that practice-induced changes in evidence accumulation correlate with changes in WM performance. Analyses are based on data from the COGITO Study, in which 101 young adults practiced a battery of cognitive tasks, including three simple two-choice reaction time tasks and three WM tasks, in 100 day-to-day training sessions distributed over 6 months. In initial analyses, drift rates were found to correlate across the three choice tasks, such that latent factors of evidence accumulation could be established. These latent factors of evidence accumulation were positively correlated with latent factors of practiced and unpracticed WM tasks, both before and after practice. As predicted, individual differences in changes of evidence accumulation correlated positively with changes in WM performance. Our findings support the proposition that decision making and WM both rely on the active maintenance of task-relevant internal representations. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2022 APA, all rights reserved).
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Florian Schmiedek
- Center for Lifespan Psychology, Max Planck Institute for Human Development, Berlin, Germany
- Department of Education and Human Development, DIPF j Leibniz Institute for Research and Information in Education, Frankfurt am Main, Germany
- Correspondence can go to
| | - Martin Lövdén
- Center for Lifespan Psychology, Max Planck Institute for Human Development, Berlin, Germany
- Department of Psychology, University of Gothenburg
| | | | - Ulman Lindenberger
- Center for Lifespan Psychology, Max Planck Institute for Human Development, Berlin, Germany
- Max Planck UCL Centre for Computational Psychiatry and Ageing Research, Berlin, Germany, and London, United Kingdom
| |
Collapse
|
8
|
Fengler A, Bera K, Pedersen ML, Frank MJ. Beyond Drift Diffusion Models: Fitting a Broad Class of Decision and Reinforcement Learning Models with HDDM. J Cogn Neurosci 2022; 34:1780-1805. [PMID: 35939629 DOI: 10.1162/jocn_a_01902] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/04/2022]
Abstract
Computational modeling has become a central aspect of research in the cognitive neurosciences. As the field matures, it is increasingly important to move beyond standard models to quantitatively assess models with richer dynamics that may better reflect underlying cognitive and neural processes. For example, sequential sampling models (SSMs) are a general class of models of decision-making intended to capture processes jointly giving rise to RT distributions and choice data in n-alternative choice paradigms. A number of model variations are of theoretical interest, but empirical data analysis has historically been tied to a small subset for which likelihood functions are analytically tractable. Advances in methods designed for likelihood-free inference have recently made it computationally feasible to consider a much larger spectrum of SSMs. In addition, recent work has motivated the combination of SSMs with reinforcement learning models, which had historically been considered in separate literatures. Here, we provide a significant addition to the widely used HDDM Python toolbox and include a tutorial for how users can easily fit and assess a (user-extensible) wide variety of SSMs and how they can be combined with reinforcement learning models. The extension comes batteries included, including model visualization tools, posterior predictive checks, and ability to link trial-wise neural signals with model parameters via hierarchical Bayesian regression.
Collapse
|
9
|
Perceptual training narrows the temporal binding window of audiovisual integration in both younger and older adults. Neuropsychologia 2022; 173:108309. [PMID: 35752266 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2022.108309] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/23/2021] [Revised: 05/16/2022] [Accepted: 06/20/2022] [Indexed: 10/17/2022]
Abstract
There is a growing body of evidence to suggest that multisensory processing changes with advancing age-usually in the form of an enlarged temporal binding window-with some studies linking these multisensory changes to negative clinical outcomes. Perceptual training regimes represent a promising means for enhancing the precision of multisensory integration in ageing; however, to date, the vast majority of studies examining the efficacy of multisensory perceptual learning have focused solely on healthy young adults. Here, we measured the temporal binding windows of younger and older participants before and after training on an audiovisual temporal discrimination task to assess (i) how perceptual training affected the shape of the temporal binding window and (ii) whether training effects were similar in both age groups. Our results replicated previous findings of an enlarged temporal binding window in older adults, as well as providing further evidence that both younger and older participants can improve the precision of their audiovisual timing estimation via perceptual training. We also show that this training protocol led to a narrowing of the temporal binding window associated with the sound-induced flash illusion in both age groups indicating a general refinement of audiovisual integration. However, while younger adults also displayed a general reduction in crossmodal interactions following training, this effect was not observed in the older adult group. Together, our results suggest that perceptual training narrows the temporal binding window of audiovisual integration in both younger and older adults but has less of an impact on prior expectations regarding the source of audiovisual signals in older adults.
Collapse
|
10
|
Ratcliff R, Scharre DW, McKoon G. Discriminating memory disordered patients from controls using diffusion model parameters from recognition memory. J Exp Psychol Gen 2022; 151:1377-1393. [PMID: 34735185 PMCID: PMC9065216 DOI: 10.1037/xge0001133] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
One hundred and five memory disordered (MD) patients and 57 controls were tested on item recognition memory and lexical decision tasks, and diffusion model analyses were conducted on accuracy and response time distributions for correct and error responses. The diffusion model fit the data well for the MD patients and control subjects, the results replicated earlier studies with young and older adults, and individual differences were consistent between the item recognition and lexical decision tasks. In the diffusion model analysis, MD patients had lower drift rates (with mild Alzheimer's [AD] patients lower than mild cognitive impairment [MCI] patients) as well as wider boundaries and longer nondecision times. These data and results were used in a series of studies to examine how well MD patients could be discriminated from controls using machine-learning techniques, linear discriminant analysis, logistic regression, and support vector machines (all of which produced similar results). There was about 83% accuracy in separating MD from controls, and within the MD group, AD patients had about 90% accuracy and MCI patients had about 68% accuracy (controls had about 90% accuracy). These methods might offer an adjunct to traditional clinical diagnosis. Limitations are noted including difficulties in obtaining a matched group of control subjects as well as the possibility of misdiagnosis of MD patients. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2022 APA, all rights reserved).
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Gail McKoon
- Department of Psychology, The Ohio State University
| |
Collapse
|
11
|
Copeland A, Stafford T, Field M. Methodological issues with value-based decision-making (VBDM) tasks: The effect of trial wording on evidence accumulation outputs from the EZ drift-diffusion model. COGENT PSYCHOLOGY 2022. [DOI: 10.1080/23311908.2022.2079801] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/18/2022] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Amber Copeland
- Department of Psychology, University of Sheffield, Sheffield, UK
| | - Tom Stafford
- Department of Psychology, University of Sheffield, Sheffield, UK
| | - Matt Field
- Department of Psychology, University of Sheffield, Sheffield, UK
| |
Collapse
|
12
|
Abstract
It is commonly assumed that a specific testing occasion (task, design, procedure, etc.) provides insights that generalize beyond that occasion. This assumption is infrequently carefully tested in data. We develop a statistically principled method to directly estimate the correlation between latent components of cognitive processing across tasks, contexts, and time. This method simultaneously estimates individual-participant parameters of a cognitive model at each testing occasion, group-level parameters representing across-participant parameter averages and variances, and across-task correlations. The approach provides a natural way to "borrow" strength across testing occasions, which can increase the precision of parameter estimates across all testing occasions. Two example applications demonstrate that the method is practical in standard designs. The examples, and a simulation study, also provide evidence about the reliability and validity of parameter estimates from the linear ballistic accumulator model. We conclude by highlighting the potential of the parameter-correlation method to provide an "assumption-light" tool for estimating the relatedness of cognitive processes across tasks, contexts, and time.
Collapse
|
13
|
Age-related changes in visual encoding strategy preferences during a spatial memory task. PSYCHOLOGICAL RESEARCH 2021; 86:404-420. [PMID: 33755797 PMCID: PMC8885492 DOI: 10.1007/s00426-021-01495-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/03/2020] [Accepted: 02/16/2021] [Indexed: 10/26/2022]
Abstract
Ageing is associated with declines in spatial memory, however, the source of these deficits remains unclear. Here we used eye-tracking to investigate age-related differences in spatial encoding strategies and the cognitive processes underlying the age-related deficits in spatial memory tasks. To do so we asked young and older participants to encode the locations of objects in a virtual room shown as a picture on a computer screen. The availability and utility of room-based landmarks were manipulated by removing landmarks, presenting identical landmarks rendering them uninformative, or by presenting unique landmarks that could be used to encode object locations. In the test phase, participants viewed a second picture of the same room taken from the same (0°) or a different perspective (30°) and judged whether the objects occupied the same or different locations in the room. We found that the introduction of a perspective shift and swapping of objects between encoding and testing impaired performance in both age groups. Furthermore, our results revealed that although older adults performed the task as well as younger participants, they relied on different visual encoding strategies to solve the task. Specifically, gaze analysis revealed that older adults showed a greater preference towards a more categorical encoding strategy in which they formed relationships between objects and landmarks.
Collapse
|
14
|
Richards E, Bayer A, Tree JJ, Hanley C, Norris JE, Tales A. Subcortical Ischemic Vascular Cognitive Impairment: Insights from Reaction Time Measures. J Alzheimers Dis 2020; 72:845-857. [PMID: 31594238 PMCID: PMC6918912 DOI: 10.3233/jad-190889] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
In this study, reaction time (RT), intraindividual variability (IIV), and errors, and the effects of practice and processing load upon such function, were compared in patients with subcortical ischemic vascular cognitive impairment (SIVCI) [n = 27] and cognitively healthy older adults (CH) [n = 26]. Compared to CH aging, SIVCI was characterized by a profile of significantly slowed RT, raised IIV, and higher error levels, particularly in the presence of distracting stimuli, indicating that the integrity and/or accessibility of the additional functions required to support high processing load, serial search strategies, are reduced in SIVCI. Furthermore, although practice speeded RT in SIVCI, unlike CH, practice did not lead to an improvement in IIV. This indicates that improvement in RT in SIVCI can in fact mask an abnormally high degree of IIV. Because IIV appears more related to disease, function, and health than RT, its status and potential for change may represent a particularly meaningful, and relevant, disease characteristic of SIVCI. Finally, a high level of within-group variation in the above measures was another characteristic of SIVCI, with such processing heterogeneity in patients with ostensibly the same diagnosis, possibly related to individual variation in pathological load. Detailed measurement of RT, IIV, errors, and practice effects therefore reveal a degree of functional impairment in brain processing not apparent by measuring RT in isolation.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Emma Richards
- Centre for Innovative Ageing, Swansea University, Swansea, UK.,Department of Psychology, Swansea University, Swansea, UK
| | - Antony Bayer
- Department of Medicine, Cardiff University, Cardiff, UK
| | - Jeremy J Tree
- Department of Psychology, Swansea University, Swansea, UK
| | - Claire Hanley
- Department of Psychology, Swansea University, Swansea, UK
| | | | - Andrea Tales
- Centre for Innovative Ageing, Swansea University, Swansea, UK
| |
Collapse
|
15
|
Abstract
Successful navigation requires memorising and recognising the locations of objects across different perspectives. Although these abilities rely on hippocampal functioning, which is susceptible to degeneration in older adults, little is known about the effects of ageing on encoding and response strategies that are used to recognise spatial configurations. To investigate this, we asked young and older participants to encode the locations of objects in a virtual room shown as a picture on a computer screen. Participants were then shown a second picture of the same room taken from the same (0°) or a different perspective (45° or 135°) and had to judge whether the objects occupied the same or different locations. Overall, older adults had greater difficulty with the task than younger adults although the introduction of a perspective shift between encoding and testing impaired performance in both age groups. Diffusion modelling revealed that older adults adopted a more conservative response strategy, while the analysis of gaze patterns showed an age-related shift in visual-encoding strategies with older adults attending to more information when memorising the positions of objects in space. Overall, results suggest that ageing is associated with declines in spatial processing abilities, with older individuals shifting towards a more conservative decision style and relying more on encoding target object positions using room-based cues compared to younger adults, who focus more on encoding the spatial relationships among object clusters.
Collapse
|
16
|
Gür E, Duyan YA, Türkakın E, Arkan S, Karson A, Balcı F. Aging impairs perceptual decision-making in mice: integrating computational and neurobiological approaches. Brain Struct Funct 2020; 225:1889-1902. [PMID: 32566973 DOI: 10.1007/s00429-020-02101-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/24/2019] [Accepted: 06/12/2020] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
Abstract
Decision-making is one of the cognitive domains which has been under-investigated in animal models of cognitive aging along with its neurobiological correlates. This study investigated the latent variables of the decision process using the hierarchical drift-diffusion model (HDDM). Neurobiological correlates of these processes were examined via immunohistochemistry. Young (n = 11, 4 months old), adult (n = 10, 10 months old), and old (n = 10, 18 months old) mice were tested in a perceptual decision-making task (i.e. two-alternative forced-choice; 2AFC). Observed data showed that there was an age-dependent decrease in the accuracy rate of old mice while response times were comparable between age groups. HDDM results revealed that age-dependent accuracy difference was a result of a decrease in the quality of evidence integration during decision-making. Significant positive correlations observed between evidence integration rate and the number of tyrosine hydroxylase positive (TH+) neurons in the ventral tegmental area (VTA) and axon terminals in dorsomedial striatum (DMS) suggest that decrease in the quality of evidence integration in aging is related to decreased function of mesocortical and nigrostriatal dopamine.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Ezgi Gür
- Timing and Decision-Making Laboratory, Department of Psychology, Koç University, 34450, Istanbul, Turkey
- Koç University Research Center for Translational Medicine, 34450, Istanbul, Turkey
| | - Yalçın Akın Duyan
- Timing and Decision-Making Laboratory, Department of Psychology, Koç University, 34450, Istanbul, Turkey
- Koç University Research Center for Translational Medicine, 34450, Istanbul, Turkey
| | - Esin Türkakın
- Timing and Decision-Making Laboratory, Department of Psychology, Koç University, 34450, Istanbul, Turkey
- Koç University Research Center for Translational Medicine, 34450, Istanbul, Turkey
| | - Sertan Arkan
- Timing and Decision-Making Laboratory, Department of Psychology, Koç University, 34450, Istanbul, Turkey
- Koç University Research Center for Translational Medicine, 34450, Istanbul, Turkey
- Physiology Department, Kocaeli University, Umuttepe Campus, 41380, Kocaeli, Turkey
| | - Ayşe Karson
- Physiology Department, Kocaeli University, Umuttepe Campus, 41380, Kocaeli, Turkey
| | - Fuat Balcı
- Timing and Decision-Making Laboratory, Department of Psychology, Koç University, 34450, Istanbul, Turkey.
- Koç University Research Center for Translational Medicine, 34450, Istanbul, Turkey.
| |
Collapse
|
17
|
Wadhera T, Kakkar D. Multiplex temporal measures reflecting neural underpinnings of brain functional connectivity under cognitive load in Autism Spectrum Disorder. Neurol Res 2020; 42:327-337. [PMID: 32131718 DOI: 10.1080/01616412.2020.1726586] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/09/2023]
Abstract
Methods: Thirty individuals with ASD (11-18years) and thirty Typically Developing (TD) individuals (11-16years) were recruited to perform the mental task. The participants were instructed to flip the shown geometric images mentally and mark their response on a scale. The task-related multivariate EEG activations were analyzed using multiplex temporal Visibility Graphs (VGs) to compute local and global brain network functional connectivity dynamics.Results: With cognitive load (0-back to the 2-back task), the behavioral performance (d' index and Reaction Time) has reduced in ASD. The brain network has become more segregated and less integrated, reflecting more involvement of intra-regions over inter-regions in ASD. The frequent rerouting in hubs measured by Eigenvector Centrality (EC) indicated the progression of brain trajectory towards ASD. Overall, the neural mechanisms involving hyperactive response in frontal regions, frequent rewiring, and strengthened brain connectivity as a result of learning-induced performance reflected the adaptation to cognitive demands in ASD.Discussion: The correlation between complex graph measures and behavioral domain further reflected that neural metrics could predict the behavioral performance of the individuals in the task. In the future, modeling functional connectivity-based markers have the potential to reflect the brain trajectory alterations, which can detect ASD even before the behavioral manifestations become apparent.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Tanu Wadhera
- Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering, Dr B R Ambedkar National Institute of Technology, Jalandhar, India
| | - Deepti Kakkar
- Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering, Dr B R Ambedkar National Institute of Technology, Jalandhar, India
| |
Collapse
|
18
|
Hedge C, Vivian-Griffiths S, Powell G, Bompas A, Sumner P. Slow and steady? Strategic adjustments in response caution are moderately reliable and correlate across tasks. Conscious Cogn 2019; 75:102797. [PMID: 31421398 PMCID: PMC6920044 DOI: 10.1016/j.concog.2019.102797] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/01/2019] [Revised: 06/25/2019] [Accepted: 07/23/2019] [Indexed: 01/19/2023]
Abstract
Speed-accuracy trade-offs are often considered a confound in speeded choice tasks, but individual differences in strategy have been linked to personality and brain structure. We ask whether strategic adjustments in response caution are reliable, and whether they correlate across tasks and with impulsivity traits. In Study 1, participants performed Eriksen flanker and Stroop tasks in two sessions four weeks apart. We manipulated response caution by emphasising speed or accuracy. We fit the diffusion model for conflict tasks and correlated the change in boundary (accuracy - speed) across session and task. We observed moderate test-retest reliability, and medium to large correlations across tasks. We replicated this between-task correlation in Study 2 using flanker and perceptual decision tasks. We found no consistent correlations with impulsivity. Though moderate reliability poses a challenge for researchers interested in stable traits, consistent correlation between tasks indicates there are meaningful individual differences in the speed-accuracy trade-off.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Craig Hedge
- School of Psychology, Cardiff University, UK.
| | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
19
|
Combining error-driven models of associative learning with evidence accumulation models of decision-making. Psychon Bull Rev 2019; 26:868-893. [PMID: 30719625 DOI: 10.3758/s13423-019-01570-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/09/2023]
Abstract
As people learn a new skill, performance changes along two fundamental dimensions: Responses become progressively faster and more accurate. In cognitive psychology, these facets of improvement have typically been addressed by separate classes of theories. Reductions in response time (RT) have usually been addressed by theories of skill acquisition, whereas increases in accuracy have been explained by associative learning theories. To date, relatively little work has examined how changes in RT relate to changes in response accuracy, and whether these changes can be accounted for quantitatively within a single theoretical framework. The current work examines joint changes in accuracy and RT in a probabilistic category learning task. We report a model-based analysis of changes in the shapes of RT distributions for different category responses at the level of individual stimuli over the course of learning. We show that changes in performance are determined solely by changes in the quality of information entering the decision process. We then develop a new model that combines an associative learning front end with a sequential sampling model of the decision process, showing that the model provides a good account of all aspects of the learning data. We conclude by discussing potential extensions of the model and future directions for theoretical development that are opened up by our findings.
Collapse
|
20
|
Gallo HB, Hargis MB, Castel AD. Memory for Weather Information in Younger and Older Adults: Tests of Verbatim and Gist Memory. Exp Aging Res 2019; 45:252-265. [PMID: 31021695 DOI: 10.1080/0361073x.2019.1609163] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/27/2022]
Abstract
Background/Study Context: Memory for specific, verbatim details tends to decline with age, and reliance on gist-based information increases. However, instructions that direct attention toward certain types of information can benefit memory accuracy for that information. Previous work has examined gist-based and verbatim memory for images, but little work has utilized stimuli that participants may study in their daily lives, such as a weather forecast. METHODS The current study examined how younger and older adults recall both general, gist-based information and specific, verbatim details of a weather forecast, and whether differences in the task instructions to focus on gist-based information may affect recall. Two study-test cycles with different forecasts were used to determine whether experience with the task may affect performance. RESULTS While there was no effect of additional gist-based instructions on recall of gist-based information, participants who received the additional instructions recalled fewer verbatim details than those who did not. There were no age-related differences in recall of the gist of the forecast, but younger adults correctly recalled more verbatim details than older adults did. CONCLUSION Environmental support and use of gist-based processing can allow both younger and older adults to remember information that can be useful in their daily lives. The current study informs future research on prospective memory and memory for everyday information.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Haley B Gallo
- a Department of Psychology , University of California , Los Angeles , CA , USA
| | - Mary B Hargis
- a Department of Psychology , University of California , Los Angeles , CA , USA
| | - Alan D Castel
- a Department of Psychology , University of California , Los Angeles , CA , USA
| |
Collapse
|
21
|
Blundell J, Frisson S, Chakrapani A, Kearney S, Vijay S, MacDonald A, Gissen P, Hendriksz C, Olson A. Markers of cognitive function in individuals with metabolic disease: Morquio syndrome and tyrosinemia type III. Cogn Neuropsychol 2019; 35:120-147. [PMID: 29741470 DOI: 10.1080/02643294.2018.1443913] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/16/2022]
Abstract
We characterized cognitive function in two metabolic diseases. MPS-IVa (mucopolysaccharidosis IVa, Morquio) and tyrosinemia type III individuals were assessed using tasks of attention, language and oculomotor function. MPS-IVa individuals were slower in visual search, but the display size effects were normal, and slowing was not due to long reaction times (ruling out slow item processing or distraction). Maintaining gaze in an oculomotor task was difficult. Results implicated sustained attention and task initiation or response processing. Shifting attention, accumulating evidence and selecting targets were unaffected. Visual search was also slowed in tyrosinemia type III, and patterns in visual search and fixation tasks pointed to sustained attention impairments, although there were differences from MPS-IVa. Language was impaired in tyrosinemia type III but not MPS-IVa. Metabolic diseases produced selective cognitive effects. Our results, incorporating new methods for developmental data and model selection, illustrate how cognitive data can contribute to understanding function in biochemical brain systems.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- James Blundell
- a School of Psychology , University of Birmingham , Birmingham , UK
| | - Steven Frisson
- a School of Psychology , University of Birmingham , Birmingham , UK
| | | | | | - Suresh Vijay
- b Birmingham Children's Hospital , Birmingham , UK
| | | | - Paul Gissen
- c Great Ormond Street Hospital , London , UK
| | - Chris Hendriksz
- d Steve Biko Academic Unit , University of Pretoria , Pretoria , South Africa
| | - Andrew Olson
- a School of Psychology , University of Birmingham , Birmingham , UK
| |
Collapse
|
22
|
Evans WS, Hula WD, Starns JJ. Speed-Accuracy Trade-Offs and Adaptation Deficits in Aphasia: Finding the "Sweet Spot" Between Overly Cautious and Incautious Responding. AMERICAN JOURNAL OF SPEECH-LANGUAGE PATHOLOGY 2019; 28:259-277. [PMID: 30208413 PMCID: PMC6437701 DOI: 10.1044/2018_ajslp-17-0156] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/15/2017] [Revised: 03/08/2018] [Accepted: 04/26/2018] [Indexed: 05/31/2023]
Abstract
Purpose After stroke, how well do people with aphasia (PWA) adapt to the altered functioning of their language system? When completing a language-dependent task, how well do PWA balance speed and accuracy when the goal is to respond both as quickly and accurately as possible? The current work investigates adaptation theory ( Kolk & Heeschen, 1990 ) in the context of speed-accuracy trade-offs in a lexical decision task. PWA were predicted to set less beneficial speed-accuracy trade-offs than matched controls, and at least some PWA were predicted to present with adaptation deficits, with impaired accuracy or response times attributable to speed-accuracy trade-offs. Method The study used the diffusion model ( Ratcliff, 1978 ), a computational model of response time for simple 2-choice tasks. Parameters of the model can be used to distinguish basic processing efficiency from the overall level of caution in setting response thresholds and were used here to characterize speed-accuracy trade-offs in 20 PWA and matched controls during a lexical decision task. Results Models showed that PWA and matched control groups did not differ overall in how they set response thresholds for speed-accuracy trade-offs. However, case series analyses showed that 40% of the PWA group displayed the predicted adaptation deficits, with impaired accuracy or response time performance directly attributable to overly cautious or overly incautious response thresholds. Conclusions Maladaptive speed-accuracy trade-offs appear to be present in some PWA during lexical decision, leading to adaptation deficits in performance. These adaptation deficits are potentially treatable, and clinical implications and next steps for translational research are discussed.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- William S. Evans
- Department of Communication Sciences and Disorders, University of Pittsburgh, PA
- Geriatric Research Education and Clinical Center, VA Healthcare System, Pittsburgh, PA
| | - William D. Hula
- Department of Communication Sciences and Disorders, University of Pittsburgh, PA
- Geriatric Research Education and Clinical Center, VA Healthcare System, Pittsburgh, PA
| | | |
Collapse
|
23
|
Jung HT, Daneault JF, Lee H, Kim K, Kim B, Park S, Ryu T, Kim Y, Ivan Lee S. Remote Assessment of Cognitive Impairment Level Based on Serious Mobile Game Performance: An Initial Proof of Concept. IEEE J Biomed Health Inform 2019; 23:1269-1277. [PMID: 30668485 DOI: 10.1109/jbhi.2019.2893897] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
Abstract
Individuals with cognitive impairments are evaluated using clinically validated cognitive assessment tools, which need to be administered by trained therapists. This serves as a major barrier for frequent and longitudinal monitoring of patients' cognitive impairment level. We introduce Neuro-World, a set of six mobile games designed to challenge visuospatial short-term memory and selective attention, which allows one to self-administer the assessment of his/her cognitive impairment level. Game performance is analyzed to estimate a widely accepted clinical measure, the mini mental state examination (MMSE), which highlights the translational impact of the system in real-world settings. We collected game-specific performance data from 12 post-stroke patients at baseline and a three-month follow-up, which were used to train supervised machine learning models to estimate the corresponding MMSE scores. The results presented herein show that the proposed approach can estimate the MMSE scores with a normalized root mean square error of 5.75%. We also validate the system's responsiveness to longitudinal changes in cognitive impairment level and demonstrate the system's positive usability in cognitively impaired individuals and their willingness to adhere to the longitudinal use. This study demonstrates that Neuro-world has great potential to be used to evaluate the cognitive impairment level and monitor its long-term change. This study enables new clinical and research opportunities for accurate, longitudinal assessment of cognitive function via mobile games.
Collapse
|
24
|
Reconciling age-related changes in behavioural and neural indices of human perceptual decision-making. Nat Hum Behav 2018; 2:955-966. [PMID: 30988441 DOI: 10.1038/s41562-018-0465-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/19/2018] [Accepted: 10/02/2018] [Indexed: 01/08/2023]
Abstract
Ageing impacts on decision-making behaviour across a range of cognitive tasks and scenarios. Computational modelling has proved valuable in providing mechanistic interpretations of these age-related differences; however, the extent to which model parameter differences accurately reflect changes to the underlying neural computations remains unclear. Here, we report that age-related effects on neural signatures of decision formation are inconsistent with behavioural fits derived from a prominent accumulation-to-bound model. Most notably, model-predicted bound differences were absent neurophysiologically. However, constraining the model to match the decision-predictive elements of the brain signals provided more parsimonious fits to behaviour and generated predictions regarding the neural data that were empirically validated. These included a task-dependent slowing of evidence accumulation among older adults and reduced between-trial accumulation rate variability, which was linked to enhanced attentional engagement. Our findings highlight how combining neurophysiological measurements with computational modelling can yield unique insights into group differences in neural decision mechanisms.
Collapse
|
25
|
Tanu T, Kakkar D. Strengthening risk prediction using statistical learning in children with autism spectrum disorder. ADVANCES IN AUTISM 2018. [DOI: 10.1108/aia-06-2018-0022] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
Purpose
The purpose of this paper is to investigate the prediction ability in children with ASD in the risk-involving situations and compute the impact of statistical learning (SL) in strengthening their risk knowledge. The learning index and stability with time are also calculated by comparing their performance over three consecutive weekly sessions (session 1, session 2 and session 3).
Design/methodology/approach
Participants were presented with a series of images, showing simple and complex risk-involving situations, using the psychophysical experimental paradigm. The stimuli in the experiment were provided with different levels of difficulty in order to keep the legacy of the prediction and SL-based experiment intact.
Findings
The first phase of experimental work showed that children with ASD accurately discriminated the risk, although performed poorly as compared to neurotypical. The attenuated response in differentiating risk levels indicates that children with ASD have a poor and underdeveloped sense of risk. The second phase investigated their capability to extract the information from repetitive patterns and calculated SL stability value in time. The learning curve shows that SL is intact and stable with time (average session r=0.74) in children with ASD.
Research limitations/implications
The present work concludes that impaired action prediction could possibly be one of the factors underlying underdeveloped sense of risk in children with ASD. Their SL capability shows that risk knowledge can be strengthened in them. In future, the studies should investigate the impact of age and individual differences, by using knowledge from repetitive trials, on the learning rate and trajectories.
Practical implications
SL, being an integral part of different therapies, rehabilitation schemes and intervention systems, has the potential to enhance the cognitive and functional abilities of children with ASD.
Originality/value
Past studies have provided evidence regarding the work on the prediction ability in individuals with ASD. However, it is unclear whether the risk-involving/dangerous situations play any certain role to enhance the prediction ability in children with ASD. Also, there are limited studies predicting risk knowledge in them. Based on this, the current work has investigated the risk prediction in children with ASD.
Collapse
|
26
|
Hedge C, Powell G, Sumner P. The mapping between transformed reaction time costs and models of processing in aging and cognition. Psychol Aging 2018; 33:1093-1104. [PMID: 30299155 PMCID: PMC6233521 DOI: 10.1037/pag0000298] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022]
Abstract
Older adults tend to have slower response times (RTs) than younger adults on cognitive tasks. This makes the examination of domain-specific deficits in aging difficult, as differences between conditions in raw RTs (RT costs) typically increase with slower average RTs. Here, we examine the mapping between 2 established approaches to dealing with this confound in the literature. The first is to use transformed RT costs, with the z-score and proportional transforms both being commonly used. The second is to use mathematical models of choice RT behavior, such as the drift-diffusion model (Ratcliff, 1978). We simulated data for younger and older adults from the drift-diffusion model under 4 scenarios: (a) a domain specific deficit, (b) general slowing, (c) strategic slowing, and (d) a slowing of nondecision processes. In each scenario we varied the size of the difference between younger and older adults in the model parameters, and examined corresponding effect sizes and Type I error rates in the raw and transformed RT costs. The z-score transformation provided better control of Type I error rates than the raw or proportional costs, though did not fully control for differences in the general slowing and strategic slowing scenarios. We recommend that RT analyses are ideally supplemented by analyses of error rates where possible, as these may help to identify the presence of confounds. To facilitate this, it would be beneficial to include conditions that elicit below ceiling accuracy in tasks.
Collapse
|
27
|
Dully J, McGovern DP, O'Connell RG. The impact of natural aging on computational and neural indices of perceptual decision making: A review. Behav Brain Res 2018; 355:48-55. [PMID: 29432793 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbr.2018.02.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/05/2017] [Revised: 02/01/2018] [Accepted: 02/01/2018] [Indexed: 01/12/2023]
Abstract
It is well established that natural aging negatively impacts on a wide variety of cognitive functions and research has sought to identify core neural mechanisms that may account for these disparate changes. A central feature of any cognitive task is the requirement to translate sensory information into an appropriate action - a process commonly known as perceptual decision making. While computational, psychophysical, and neurophysiological research has made substantial progress in establishing the key computations and neural mechanisms underpinning decision making, it is only relatively recently that this knowledge has begun to be applied to research on aging. The purpose of this review is to provide an overview of this work which is beginning to offer new insights into the core psychological processes that mediate age-related cognitive decline in adults aged 65 years and over. Mathematical modelling studies have consistently reported that older adults display longer non-decisional processing times and implement more conservative decision policies than their younger counterparts. However, there are limits on what we can learn from behavioural modeling alone and neurophysiological analyses can play an essential role in empirically validating model predictions and in pinpointing the precise neural mechanisms that are impacted by aging. Although few studies to date have explicitly examined correspondences between computational models and neural data with respect to cognitive aging, neurophysiological studies have already highlighted age-related changes at multiple levels of the sensorimotor hierarchy that are likely to be consequential for decision making behaviour. Here, we provide an overview of this literature and suggest some future directions for the field.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Jessica Dully
- Trinity College Dublin Institute of Neuroscience and School of Psychology, Trinity College Dublin, Dublin 2, Ireland.
| | - David P McGovern
- Trinity College Dublin Institute of Neuroscience and School of Psychology, Trinity College Dublin, Dublin 2, Ireland
| | - Redmond G O'Connell
- Trinity College Dublin Institute of Neuroscience and School of Psychology, Trinity College Dublin, Dublin 2, Ireland
| |
Collapse
|
28
|
Ratcliff R, Van Dongen HPA. The effects of sleep deprivation on item and associative recognition memory. J Exp Psychol Learn Mem Cogn 2018; 44:193-208. [PMID: 28933896 PMCID: PMC5826812 DOI: 10.1037/xlm0000452] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
Sleep deprivation adversely affects the ability to perform cognitive tasks, but theories range from predicting an overall decline in cognitive functioning because of reduced stability in attentional networks to specific deficits in various cognitive domains or processes. We measured the effects of sleep deprivation on two memory tasks, item recognition ("was this word in the list studied") and associative recognition ("were these two words studied in the same pair"). These tasks test memory for information encoded a few minutes earlier and so do not address effects of sleep deprivation on working memory or consolidation after sleep. A diffusion model was used to decompose accuracy and response time distributions to produce parameter estimates of components of cognitive processing. The model assumes that over time, noisy evidence from the task stimulus is accumulated to one of two decision criteria, and parameters governing this process are extracted and interpreted in terms of distinct cognitive processes. Results showed that sleep deprivation reduces drift rate (evidence used in the decision process), with little effect on the other components of the decision process. These results contrast with the effects of aging, which show little decline in item recognition but large declines in associative recognition. The results suggest that sleep deprivation degrades the quality of information stored in memory and that this may occur through degraded attentional processes. (PsycINFO Database Record
Collapse
|
29
|
Huang-Pollock C, Ratcliff R, McKoon G, Shapiro Z, Weigard A, Galloway-Long H. Using the Diffusion Model to Explain Cognitive Deficits in Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder. JOURNAL OF ABNORMAL CHILD PSYCHOLOGY 2017; 45:57-68. [PMID: 27030470 DOI: 10.1007/s10802-016-0151-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
Slow, variable, and error-prone performance on speeded reaction time (RT) tasks has been well documented in childhood ADHD, but equally well documented is the context-dependent nature of those deficits, particularly with respect to event rate. As event rates increase (or, as the interstimulus intervals become shorter), RTs decrease, a pattern of performance that has long been interpreted as evidence that cognitive deficits in ADHD are a downstream consequence of a fundamental difficulty in the regulation of arousal to meet task demands. We test the extent to which this is a misinterpretation of the data that occurs when RT and accuracy are considered separately, as is common in neurocognitive research. In two samples of children aged 8-10 with (N = 97; 33 girls) and without (N = 39; 26 girls) ADHD, we used the diffusion model, an influential computational model of RT, to examine the effect of event rate on inhibitory control in a go-no-go task. Contrary to longstanding belief, we found that fast event rates slowed the rate at which children with ADHD accumulated evidence to make a decision to "no-go", as indexed by drift rate. This in turn resulted in a higher proportion of failed inhibits, and occurred despite increased task engagement, as reflected by changes in the starting point of the decision process. Thus, although faster event rates increased task engagement among children with ADHD, the increased engagement was unable to counteract the concurrent slowing of processing speed to "no-go" decisions. Implications for theoretical models of ADHD and treatments are discussed.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Cynthia Huang-Pollock
- Department of Psychology, The Pennsylvania State University, Moore Building, University Park, PA, 16802, USA.
| | - Roger Ratcliff
- The Department of Psychology, Ohio State University, 291 Psychology Building, Columbus, OH, 43210, USA
| | - Gail McKoon
- The Department of Psychology, Ohio State University, 291 Psychology Building, Columbus, OH, 43210, USA
| | - Zvi Shapiro
- Department of Psychology, The Pennsylvania State University, Moore Building, University Park, PA, 16802, USA
| | - Alex Weigard
- Department of Psychology, The Pennsylvania State University, Moore Building, University Park, PA, 16802, USA
| | - Hilary Galloway-Long
- Department of Psychology, The Pennsylvania State University, Moore Building, University Park, PA, 16802, USA
| |
Collapse
|
30
|
Harty S, Murphy PR, Robertson IH, O'Connell RG. Parsing the neural signatures of reduced error detection in older age. Neuroimage 2017; 161:43-55. [PMID: 28811254 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuroimage.2017.08.032] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/21/2017] [Revised: 08/04/2017] [Accepted: 08/09/2017] [Indexed: 12/29/2022] Open
Abstract
Recent work has demonstrated that explicit error detection relies on a neural evidence accumulation process that can be traced in the human electroencephalogram (EEG). Here, we sought to establish the impact of natural aging on this process by recording EEG from young (18-35 years) and older adults (65-88 years) during the performance of a Go/No-Go paradigm in which participants were required to overtly signal their errors. Despite performing the task with equivalent accuracy, older adults reported substantially fewer errors, and the timing of their reports were both slower and more variable. These behavioral differences were linked to three key neurophysiological changes reflecting distinct parameters of the error detection decision process: a reduction in medial frontal delta/theta (2-7 Hz) activity, indicating diminished top-down input to the decision process; a slower rate of evidence accumulation as indexed by the rate of rise of a centro-parietal signal, known as the error positivity; and a higher motor execution threshold as indexed by lateralized beta-band (16-30 Hz) activity. Our data provide novel insight into how the natural aging process affects the neural underpinnings of error detection.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Siobhán Harty
- Trinity College Institute of Neuroscience and School of Psychology, Trinity College Dublin, Dublin 2, Ireland; Department of Experimental Psychology, University of Oxford, Oxford OX1 3UD, United Kingdom.
| | - Peter R Murphy
- Trinity College Institute of Neuroscience and School of Psychology, Trinity College Dublin, Dublin 2, Ireland; Department of Neurophysiology and Pathophysiology, University Medical Center Hamburg-Eppendorf, 20246 Hamburg, Germany
| | - Ian H Robertson
- Trinity College Institute of Neuroscience and School of Psychology, Trinity College Dublin, Dublin 2, Ireland
| | - Redmond G O'Connell
- Trinity College Institute of Neuroscience and School of Psychology, Trinity College Dublin, Dublin 2, Ireland
| |
Collapse
|
31
|
Voskuilen C, Ratcliff R, McKoon G. Aging and confidence judgments in item recognition. J Exp Psychol Learn Mem Cogn 2017. [PMID: 28639799 DOI: 10.1037/xlm0000425] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
We examined the effects of aging on performance in an item-recognition experiment with confidence judgments. A model for confidence judgments and response time (RTs; Ratcliff & Starns, 2013) was used to fit a large amount of data from a new sample of older adults and a previously reported sample of younger adults. This model of confidence judgments allows us to distinguish between changes evidence from memory and changes in decision-related components and it accounts for both RT distributions and response proportions. Older adults took longer to respond than younger adults, older adults exhibited a small decrease in the strength of evidence from memory compared with younger adults and a slight bias toward judging items as "old." The difference in RTs between the 2 age groups was primarily explained by the difference in the nondecision component. Although our small sample size makes the general conclusions about aging tentative, the results are consistent with other research examining the effects of aging in two-choice RT tasks and response-signal tasks, and the study demonstrates that confidence judgment choice proportion and RT distribution data from older adults can be fit with the response time and confidence 2 (RTCON2) model. (PsycINFO Database Record
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Gail McKoon
- Department of Psychology, The Ohio State University
| |
Collapse
|
32
|
van Ravenzwaaij D, Donkin C, Vandekerckhove J. The EZ diffusion model provides a powerful test of simple empirical effects. Psychon Bull Rev 2017; 24:547-556. [PMID: 27352898 PMCID: PMC5389995 DOI: 10.3758/s13423-016-1081-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 62] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
Over the last four decades, sequential accumulation models for choice response times have spread through cognitive psychology like wildfire. The most popular style of accumulator model is the diffusion model (Ratcliff Psychological Review, 85, 59-108, 1978), which has been shown to account for data from a wide range of paradigms, including perceptual discrimination, letter identification, lexical decision, recognition memory, and signal detection. Since its original inception, the model has become increasingly complex in order to account for subtle, but reliable, data patterns. The additional complexity of the diffusion model renders it a tool that is only for experts. In response, Wagenmakers et al. (Psychonomic Bulletin & Review, 14, 3-22, 2007) proposed that researchers could use a more basic version of the diffusion model, the EZ diffusion. Here, we simulate experimental effects on data generated from the full diffusion model and compare the power of the full diffusion model and EZ diffusion to detect those effects. We show that the EZ diffusion model, by virtue of its relative simplicity, will be sometimes better able to detect experimental effects than the data-generating full diffusion model.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Don van Ravenzwaaij
- University of Groningen, Department of Psychology, Grote Kruisstraat 2/1, Heymans Building, room 169, 9712, TS, Groningen, The Netherlands.
| | - Chris Donkin
- University of New South Wales, Sydney, Australia
| | | |
Collapse
|
33
|
Purcell BA, Palmeri TJ. RELATING ACCUMULATOR MODEL PARAMETERS AND NEURAL DYNAMICS. JOURNAL OF MATHEMATICAL PSYCHOLOGY 2017; 76:156-171. [PMID: 28392584 PMCID: PMC5381950 DOI: 10.1016/j.jmp.2016.07.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/22/2023]
Abstract
Accumulator models explain decision-making as an accumulation of evidence to a response threshold. Specific model parameters are associated with specific model mechanisms, such as the time when accumulation begins, the average rate of evidence accumulation, and the threshold. These mechanisms determine both the within-trial dynamics of evidence accumulation and the predicted behavior. Cognitive modelers usually infer what mechanisms vary during decision-making by seeing what parameters vary when a model is fitted to observed behavior. The recent identification of neural activity with evidence accumulation suggests that it may be possible to directly infer what mechanisms vary from an analysis of how neural dynamics vary. However, evidence accumulation is often noisy, and noise complicates the relationship between accumulator dynamics and the underlying mechanisms leading to those dynamics. To understand what kinds of inferences can be made about decision-making mechanisms based on measures of neural dynamics, we measured simulated accumulator model dynamics while systematically varying model parameters. In some cases, decision- making mechanisms can be directly inferred from dynamics, allowing us to distinguish between models that make identical behavioral predictions. In other cases, however, different parameterized mechanisms produce surprisingly similar dynamics, limiting the inferences that can be made based on measuring dynamics alone. Analyzing neural dynamics can provide a powerful tool to resolve model mimicry at the behavioral level, but we caution against drawing inferences based solely on neural analyses. Instead, simultaneous modeling of behavior and neural dynamics provides the most powerful approach to understand decision-making and likely other aspects of cognition and perception.
Collapse
|
34
|
Schuch S. Task Inhibition and Response Inhibition in Older vs. Younger Adults: A Diffusion Model Analysis. Front Psychol 2016; 7:1722. [PMID: 27895599 PMCID: PMC5108792 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyg.2016.01722] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/02/2016] [Accepted: 10/18/2016] [Indexed: 11/23/2022] Open
Abstract
Differences in inhibitory ability between older (64–79 years, N = 24) and younger adults (18–26 years, N = 24) were investigated using a diffusion model analysis. Participants performed a task-switching paradigm that allows assessing n−2 task repetition costs, reflecting inhibitory control on the level of tasks, as well as n−1 response-repetition costs, reflecting inhibitory control on the level of responses. N−2 task repetition costs were of similar size in both age groups. Diffusion model analysis revealed that for both younger and older adults, drift rate parameters were smaller in the inhibition condition relative to the control condition, consistent with the idea that persisting task inhibition slows down response selection. Moreover, there was preliminary evidence for task inhibition effects in threshold separation and non-decision time in the older, but not the younger adults, suggesting that older adults might apply different strategies when dealing with persisting task inhibition. N−1 response-repetition costs in mean RT were larger in older than younger adults, but in mean error rates tended to be larger in younger than older adults. Diffusion-model analysis revealed longer non-decision times in response repetitions than response switches in both age groups, consistent with the idea that motor processes take longer in response repetitions than response switches due to persisting response inhibition of a previously executed response. The data also revealed age-related differences in overall performance: Older adults responded more slowly and more accurately than young adults, which was reflected by a higher threshold separation parameter in diffusion model analysis. Moreover, older adults showed larger non-decision times and higher variability in non-decision time than young adults, possibly reflecting slower and more variable motor processes. In contrast, overall drift rate did not differ between older and younger adults. Taken together, diffusion model analysis revealed differences in overall performance between the age groups, as well as preliminary evidence for age differences in dealing with task inhibition, but no evidence for an inhibitory deficit in older age.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Stefanie Schuch
- Institute of Psychology, RWTH Aachen University Aachen, Germany
| |
Collapse
|
35
|
Ward EV, Dhami MK. Editorial: The Aging Decision-Maker: Advances in Understanding the Impact of Cognitive Change on Decision-Making. Front Psychol 2016; 7:1622. [PMID: 27818639 PMCID: PMC5073209 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyg.2016.01622] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/19/2016] [Accepted: 10/04/2016] [Indexed: 11/28/2022] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Emma V Ward
- Department of Psychology, Middlesex University London, UK
| | | |
Collapse
|
36
|
Schmidt JR, De Houwer J, Rothermund K. The Parallel Episodic Processing (PEP) model 2.0: A single computational model of stimulus-response binding, contingency learning, power curves, and mixing costs. Cogn Psychol 2016; 91:82-108. [PMID: 27821256 DOI: 10.1016/j.cogpsych.2016.10.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 67] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/30/2016] [Revised: 10/21/2016] [Accepted: 10/24/2016] [Indexed: 01/21/2023]
Abstract
The current paper presents an extension of the Parallel Episodic Processing model. The model is developed for simulating behaviour in performance (i.e., speeded response time) tasks and learns to anticipate both how and when to respond based on retrieval of memories of previous trials. With one fixed parameter set, the model is shown to successfully simulate a wide range of different findings. These include: practice curves in the Stroop paradigm, contingency learning effects, learning acquisition curves, stimulus-response binding effects, mixing costs, and various findings from the attentional control domain. The results demonstrate several important points. First, the same retrieval mechanism parsimoniously explains stimulus-response binding, contingency learning, and practice effects. Second, as performance improves with practice, any effects will shrink with it. Third, a model of simple learning processes is sufficient to explain phenomena that are typically (but perhaps incorrectly) interpreted in terms of higher-order control processes. More generally, we argue that computational models with a fixed parameter set and wider breadth should be preferred over those that are restricted to a narrow set of phenomena.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- James R Schmidt
- Department of Experimental Clinical and Health Psychology, Ghent University, Belgium.
| | - Jan De Houwer
- Department of Experimental Clinical and Health Psychology, Ghent University, Belgium
| | - Klaus Rothermund
- Department of Psychology, Friedrich-Schiller-Universität Jena, Germany
| |
Collapse
|
37
|
Walasek L. Commentary: Effects of Age and Initial Risk Perception on Balloon Analog Risk Task: The Mediating Role of Processing Speed and Need for Cognitive Closure. Front Psychol 2016; 7:1320. [PMID: 27618940 PMCID: PMC5002553 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyg.2016.01320] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/11/2016] [Accepted: 08/18/2016] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
|
38
|
Kavcic V, Zalar B, Giordani B. The relationship between baseline EEG spectra power and memory performance in older African Americans endorsing cognitive concerns in a community setting. Int J Psychophysiol 2016; 109:116-123. [PMID: 27613569 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijpsycho.2016.09.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/18/2016] [Revised: 09/01/2016] [Accepted: 09/03/2016] [Indexed: 01/22/2023]
Abstract
The finding that some older individuals report declines in aspects of cognitive functioning is becoming a frequently used criteria to identify elderly at risk for mild cognitive impairment (MCI) and dementia. Once concerns are identified in a community setting, however, effective means are necessary to pinpoint those individuals who should go on to more complex and costly diagnostic evaluations (e.g., functional imaging). We tested 44 African American volunteers endorsing cognitive concerns (37 females, 7 males) age≥65years with CogState battery subtests and recorded resting-state EEG, with eyes closed. After current source density (CSD) transformations of EEG recordings we obtained spectral power for delta, theta, alpha, and beta frequency bands. We characterized CogState One Card Back Learning (OCL, memory) with diffusion model parameters drift rate, boundary and non-decision time (NDT). Forward regression models showed that lower OCL drift rate, slower accumulation of information needed for decision making was linked to increased absolute and relative delta at occipital region. Lower drift rate was also linked to decrease in OCL theta power at parietal region, with no findings for ONB. Results show that cortical resting, eyes closed EEG rhythms are related to memory in African American seniors endorsing cognitive concerns. This study further supports the use of EEG as an easily accessible, cost-effective, culture-fair, and noninvasive clinical measurement that could provide potentially reliable diagnostic (and perhaps prognostic) information to differentiate at-risk from stable African American seniors.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Voyko Kavcic
- Institute of Gerontology, Wayne State University, Detroit, MI, USA; Biomedical Research Institute, Ljubljana, Slovenia.
| | - Bojan Zalar
- Biomedical Research Institute, Ljubljana, Slovenia; University Psychiatric Clinic, Ljubljana, Slovenia
| | - Bruno Giordani
- Departments of Psychiatry, Neurology, and Psychology and School of Nursing, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI, USA
| |
Collapse
|
39
|
Predicting Fluid Intelligence by Components of Reaction Time Distributions from Simple Choice Reaction Time Tasks. J Intell 2016. [DOI: 10.3390/jintelligence4030008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
|
40
|
Abstract
Training in meditation has been shown to affect functioning of several attentional subsystems, most prominently conflict monitoring, and to some extent orienting. These previous findings described the effects of cueing and manipulating stimulus congruency on response times and accuracies. However, changes in accuracy and response times can arise from several factors. Computational process models can be used to distinguish different factors underlying changes in accuracy and response times. When decomposed by means of the drift diffusion model, a general process model of decision making that has been widely used, both the congruency and cueing effects, is subserved by a change in decision thresholds. Meditators showed a modest overall increase in their decision threshold, which may reflect an ability to wait longer and collect more information before responding.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Marieke K. van Vugt
- Institute of Artificial Intelligence and Cognitive Engineering, University of Groningen, Nijenborgh 9, 747 AG Groningen, The Netherlands
| | | |
Collapse
|
41
|
Ratcliff R, Childers R. Individual Differences and Fitting Methods for the Two-Choice Diffusion Model of Decision Making. DECISION (WASHINGTON, D.C.) 2015; 2015:10.1037/dec0000030. [PMID: 26236754 PMCID: PMC4517692 DOI: 10.1037/dec0000030] [Citation(s) in RCA: 116] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/04/2023]
Abstract
Methods of fitting the diffusion model were examined with a focus on what the model can tell us about individual differences. Diffusion model parameters were obtained from the fits to data from two experiments and consistency of parameter values, individual differences, and practice effects were examined using different numbers of observations from each subject. Two issues were examined, first, what sizes of differences between groups can be obtained to distinguish between groups and second, what sizes of differences would be needed to find individual subjects that had a deficit relative to a control group. The parameter values from the experiments provided ranges that were used in a simulation study to examine recovery of individual differences. This study used several diffusion model fitting programs, fitting methods, and published packages. In a second simulation study, 64 sets of simulated data from each of 48 sets of parameter values (spanning the range of typical values obtained from fits to data) were fit with the different methods and biases and standard deviations in recovered model parameters were compared across methods. Finally, in a third simulation study, a comparison between a standard chi-square method and a hierarchical Bayesian method was performed. The results from these studies can be used as a starting point for selecting fitting methods and as a basis for understanding the strengths and weaknesses of using diffusion model analyses to examine individual differences in clinical, neuropsychological, and educational testing.
Collapse
|
42
|
Christian J, Goldstone A, Kuai SG, Chin W, Abrams D, Kourtzi Z. Socio-cognitive profiles for visual learning in young and older adults. Front Aging Neurosci 2015; 7:105. [PMID: 26113820 PMCID: PMC4461819 DOI: 10.3389/fnagi.2015.00105] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/16/2015] [Accepted: 05/19/2015] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
It is common wisdom that practice makes perfect; but why do some adults learn better than others? Here, we investigate individuals' cognitive and social profiles to test which variables account for variability in learning ability across the lifespan. In particular, we focused on visual learning using tasks that test the ability to inhibit distractors and select task-relevant features. We tested the ability of young and older adults to improve through training in the discrimination of visual global forms embedded in a cluttered background. Further, we used a battery of cognitive tasks and psycho-social measures to examine which of these variables predict training-induced improvement in perceptual tasks and may account for individual variability in learning ability. Using partial least squares regression modeling, we show that visual learning is influenced by cognitive (i.e., cognitive inhibition, attention) and social (strategic and deep learning) factors rather than an individual's age alone. Further, our results show that independent of age, strong learners rely on cognitive factors such as attention, while weaker learners use more general cognitive strategies. Our findings suggest an important role for higher-cognitive circuits involving executive functions that contribute to our ability to improve in perceptual tasks after training across the lifespan.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Julie Christian
- School of Psychology, University of Birmingham Birmingham, UK
| | - Aimee Goldstone
- School of Psychology, University of Birmingham Birmingham, UK
| | - Shu-Guang Kuai
- Key Laboratory of Brain Functional Genomics, Ministry of Education, Shanghai Key Laboratory of Brain Functional Genomics, East China Normal University Shanghai, China
| | - Wynne Chin
- Department of Decision and Information Sciences, Bauer College of Business, University of Houston Houston, TX, USA
| | - Dominic Abrams
- Department of Psychology, University of Kent Canterbury, UK
| | - Zoe Kourtzi
- Department of Psychology, University of Cambridge Cambridge, UK
| |
Collapse
|
43
|
Ratcliff R, McKoon G. Aging effects in item and associative recognition memory for pictures and words. Psychol Aging 2015; 30:669-74. [PMID: 25985326 DOI: 10.1037/pag0000030] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
Item and associative recognition for pictures and words with college-age young adults and 60-75-year-old adults were examined in the experiment reported in this article. The diffusion model (Ratcliff & McKoon, 2008) was used to extract estimates of components of processing from the empirical values of accuracy and correct and error response time distributions. The model fit the empirical data well for both picture and word stimuli. Results showed that boundary separation was larger and nondecision time was longer for older relative to young adults. Drift rates were not lower for older adults for item recognition but they were for associative recognition, indicating that the richer structure of pictures did not provide an enhanced ability to form associations for the older adults. There were also significant correlations among the components of processing across the tasks of the experiment, suggesting common factors, but participants' accuracy and response times did not significantly correlate within and across the tasks.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
| | - Gail McKoon
- Department of Psychology, The Ohio State University
| |
Collapse
|
44
|
Ratcliff R, Thompson CA, McKoon G. Modeling individual differences in response time and accuracy in numeracy. Cognition 2015; 137:115-136. [PMID: 25637690 DOI: 10.1016/j.cognition.2014.12.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 54] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/20/2013] [Revised: 05/01/2014] [Accepted: 12/17/2014] [Indexed: 10/24/2022]
Abstract
In the study of numeracy, some hypotheses have been based on response time (RT) as a dependent variable and some on accuracy, and considerable controversy has arisen about the presence or absence of correlations between RT and accuracy, between RT or accuracy and individual differences like IQ and math ability, and between various numeracy tasks. In this article, we show that an integration of the two dependent variables is required, which we accomplish with a theory-based model of decision making. We report data from four tasks: numerosity discrimination, number discrimination, memory for two-digit numbers, and memory for three-digit numbers. Accuracy correlated across tasks, as did RTs. However, the negative correlations that might be expected between RT and accuracy were not obtained; if a subject was accurate, it did not mean that they were fast (and vice versa). When the diffusion decision-making model was applied to the data (Ratcliff, 1978), we found significant correlations across the tasks between the quality of the numeracy information (drift rate) driving the decision process and between the speed/accuracy criterion settings, suggesting that similar numeracy skills and similar speed-accuracy settings are involved in the four tasks. In the model, accuracy is related to drift rate and RT is related to speed-accuracy criteria, but drift rate and criteria are not related to each other across subjects. This provides a theoretical basis for understanding why negative correlations were not obtained between accuracy and RT. We also manipulated criteria by instructing subjects to maximize either speed or accuracy, but still found correlations between the criteria settings between and within tasks, suggesting that the settings may represent an individual trait that can be modulated but not equated across subjects. Our results demonstrate that a decision-making model may provide a way to reconcile inconsistent and sometimes contradictory results in numeracy research.
Collapse
|
45
|
Ben-David BM, Eidels A, Donkin C. Effects of aging and distractors on detection of redundant visual targets and capacity: do older adults integrate visual targets differently than younger adults? PLoS One 2014; 9:e113551. [PMID: 25501850 PMCID: PMC4264737 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0113551] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/11/2014] [Accepted: 10/29/2014] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
In the redundant target effect, participants respond faster with two (redundant) targets. We compared the magnitude of this effect in younger and older adults, with and without distractors, in a simple visual-detection task. We employed additional measures that allow non-parametric assessment of performance (Townsend's capacity coefficient) and parametric estimates (Linear Ballistic Accumulator model). Older participants' latencies were slower, especially in the presence of distractors, and their calculated capacity indicators increased with distractors. Parametric estimates indicated that these increases were generated by the older adults' increased difficulty in inhibiting the distractors, and not the results of either improved detection of redundant-targets, or of a generalized slowing of processing.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Boaz M. Ben-David
- School of Psychology, Interdisciplinary Center (IDC) Herzliya, Herzliya, Israel
- Department of Speech-Language Pathology, University of Toronto, Toronto, ON, Canada
- Research, Toronto Rehabilitation Institute, Toronto, ON, Canada
- Graduate Department of Rehabilitation Sciences, University of Toronto, Toronto, ON, Canada
- * E-mail:
| | - Ami Eidels
- School of Psychology, University of Newcastle, Callaghan, NSW, Australia
| | - Chris Donkin
- School of Psychology, University of New South Wales, Sydney, NSW, Australia
| |
Collapse
|
46
|
Wais PE, Gazzaley A. External distraction impairs categorization performance in older adults. Psychol Aging 2014; 29:666-71. [PMID: 25244485 DOI: 10.1037/a0037617] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
The detrimental influence of distraction on memory and attention is well established, yet it is not as clear whether irrelevant information impacts categorization abilities and whether this impact changes in aging. We examined categorization with morphed prototype stimuli in both younger and older adults, using an adaptive staircase approach to assess participants' performance in conditions with and without visual distractors. Results showed that distraction did not affect younger adults, but produced a negative impact on older adults' categorization such that there was an interaction of age and distraction. These results suggest a relationship between the increased susceptibility to visual distraction in normal aging and impairment in categorization.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Peter E Wais
- Departments of Neurology, Physiology, and Psychiatry, Center for Integrative Neurosciences, University of California
| | - Adam Gazzaley
- Departments of Neurology, Physiology, and Psychiatry, Center for Integrative Neurosciences, University of California
| |
Collapse
|
47
|
Arnold NR, Bröder A, Bayen UJ. Empirical validation of the diffusion model for recognition memory and a comparison of parameter-estimation methods. PSYCHOLOGICAL RESEARCH 2014; 79:882-98. [PMID: 25281426 PMCID: PMC4534506 DOI: 10.1007/s00426-014-0608-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 45] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/22/2014] [Accepted: 09/02/2014] [Indexed: 12/02/2022]
Abstract
The diffusion model introduced by Ratcliff (Psychol Rev 85:59–108, 1978) has been applied to many binary decision tasks including recognition memory. It describes dynamic evidence accumulation unfolding over time and models choice accuracy as well as response-time distributions. Various parameters describe aspects of decision quality and response bias. In three recognition-memory experiments, the validity of the model was tested experimentally and analyzed with three different programs: fast-dm, EZ, and DMAT. Each of three central model parameters was targeted via specific experimental manipulations. All manipulations affected mainly the corresponding parameters, thus supporting the convergent validity of the measures. There were, however, smaller effects on other parameters, showing some limitations in discriminant validity.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Nina R Arnold
- Institute for Experimental Psychology, Heinrich-Heine-Universität Düsseldorf, Universitätsstr. 1, 40225, Düsseldorf, Germany,
| | | | | |
Collapse
|
48
|
van Ravenzwaaij D, Boekel W, Forstmann BU, Ratcliff R, Wagenmakers EJ. Action video games do not improve the speed of information processing in simple perceptual tasks. J Exp Psychol Gen 2014; 143:1794-805. [PMID: 24933517 PMCID: PMC4447196 DOI: 10.1037/a0036923] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
Previous research suggests that playing action video games improves performance on sensory, perceptual, and attentional tasks. For instance, Green, Pouget, and Bavelier (2010) used the diffusion model to decompose data from a motion detection task and estimate the contribution of several underlying psychological processes. Their analysis indicated that playing action video games leads to faster information processing, reduced response caution, and no difference in motor responding. Because perceptual learning is generally thought to be highly context-specific, this transfer from gaming is surprising and warrants corroborative evidence from a large-scale training study. We conducted 2 experiments in which participants practiced either an action video game or a cognitive game in 5 separate, supervised sessions. Prior to each session and following the last session, participants performed a perceptual discrimination task. In the second experiment, we included a third condition in which no video games were played at all. Behavioral data and diffusion model parameters showed similar practice effects for the action gamers, the cognitive gamers, and the nongamers and suggest that, in contrast to earlier reports, playing action video games does not improve the speed of information processing in simple perceptual tasks.
Collapse
|
49
|
Whitson LR, Karayanidis F, Fulham R, Provost A, Michie PT, Heathcote A, Hsieh S. Reactive control processes contributing to residual switch cost and mixing cost across the adult lifespan. Front Psychol 2014; 5:383. [PMID: 24817859 PMCID: PMC4012181 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyg.2014.00383] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/14/2013] [Accepted: 04/11/2014] [Indexed: 11/25/2022] Open
Abstract
In task-switching paradigms, performance is better when repeating the same task than when alternating between tasks (switch cost) and when repeating a task alone rather than intermixed with another task (mixing cost). These costs remain even after extensive practice and when task cues enable advanced preparation (residual costs). Moreover, residual reaction time mixing cost has been consistently shown to increase with age. Residual switch and mixing costs modulate the amplitude of the stimulus-locked P3b. This mixing effect is disproportionately larger in older adults who also prepare more for and respond more cautiously on these “mixed” repeat trials (Karayanidis et al., 2011). In this paper, we analyze stimulus-locked and response-locked P3 and lateralized readiness potentials to identify whether residual switch and mixing cost arise from the need to control interference at the level of stimulus processing or response processing. Residual mixing cost was associated with control of stimulus-level interference, whereas residual switch cost was also associated with a delay in response selection. In older adults, the disproportionate increase in mixing cost was associated with greater interference at the level of decision-response mapping and response programming for repeat trials in mixed-task blocks. These findings suggest that older adults strategically recruit greater proactive and reactive control to overcome increased susceptibility to post-stimulus interference. This interpretation is consistent with recruitment of compensatory strategies to compensate for reduced repetition benefit rather than an overall decline on cognitive flexibility.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Lisa R Whitson
- Functional Neuroimaging Laboratory, School of Psychology, University of Newcastle Callaghan, NSW, Australia ; Centre for Translational Neuroscience and Mental Health Research, The University of Newcastle Callaghan, NSW, Australia ; Hunter Medical Research Institute, New Lambton Heights NSW, Australia
| | - Frini Karayanidis
- Functional Neuroimaging Laboratory, School of Psychology, University of Newcastle Callaghan, NSW, Australia ; Centre for Translational Neuroscience and Mental Health Research, The University of Newcastle Callaghan, NSW, Australia ; Hunter Medical Research Institute, New Lambton Heights NSW, Australia
| | - Ross Fulham
- Functional Neuroimaging Laboratory, School of Psychology, University of Newcastle Callaghan, NSW, Australia ; Centre for Translational Neuroscience and Mental Health Research, The University of Newcastle Callaghan, NSW, Australia ; Hunter Medical Research Institute, New Lambton Heights NSW, Australia
| | - Alexander Provost
- Functional Neuroimaging Laboratory, School of Psychology, University of Newcastle Callaghan, NSW, Australia ; Centre for Translational Neuroscience and Mental Health Research, The University of Newcastle Callaghan, NSW, Australia ; Hunter Medical Research Institute, New Lambton Heights NSW, Australia
| | - Patricia T Michie
- Functional Neuroimaging Laboratory, School of Psychology, University of Newcastle Callaghan, NSW, Australia ; Centre for Translational Neuroscience and Mental Health Research, The University of Newcastle Callaghan, NSW, Australia ; Hunter Medical Research Institute, New Lambton Heights NSW, Australia
| | - Andrew Heathcote
- Functional Neuroimaging Laboratory, School of Psychology, University of Newcastle Callaghan, NSW, Australia ; Centre for Translational Neuroscience and Mental Health Research, The University of Newcastle Callaghan, NSW, Australia ; Hunter Medical Research Institute, New Lambton Heights NSW, Australia
| | - Shulan Hsieh
- Department of Psychology and Institute of Allied Health Sciences, National Cheng Kung University Tainan City, Taiwan
| |
Collapse
|
50
|
Tseng YC, Glaser JI, Caddigan E, Lleras A. Modeling the effect of selection history on pop-out visual search. PLoS One 2014; 9:e89996. [PMID: 24595032 PMCID: PMC3940711 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0089996] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/22/2012] [Accepted: 01/30/2014] [Indexed: 11/25/2022] Open
Abstract
While attentional effects in visual selection tasks have traditionally been assigned “top-down” or “bottom-up” origins, more recently it has been proposed that there are three major factors affecting visual selection: (1) physical salience, (2) current goals and (3) selection history. Here, we look further into selection history by investigating Priming of Pop-out (POP) and the Distractor Preview Effect (DPE), two inter-trial effects that demonstrate the influence of recent history on visual search performance. Using the Ratcliff diffusion model, we model observed saccadic selections from an oddball search experiment that included a mix of both POP and DPE conditions. We find that the Ratcliff diffusion model can effectively model the manner in which selection history affects current attentional control in visual inter-trial effects. The model evidence shows that bias regarding the current trial's most likely target color is the most critical parameter underlying the effect of selection history. Our results are consistent with the view that the 3-item color-oddball task used for POP and DPE experiments is best understood as an attentional decision making task.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Yuan-Chi Tseng
- Beckman Institute, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, Illinois, United States of America
- Department of Psychology, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, Illinois, United States of America
- Department of Industrial Design, National Cheng Kung University, Tainan, Taiwan
- * E-mail:
| | - Joshua I. Glaser
- Department of Mathematics, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, Illinois, United States of America
- Interdepartmental Neuroscience Program, Northwestern University, Chicago, Illinois, United States of America
| | - Eamon Caddigan
- Beckman Institute, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, Illinois, United States of America
- Department of Psychology, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, Illinois, United States of America
| | - Alejandro Lleras
- Beckman Institute, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, Illinois, United States of America
- Department of Psychology, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, Illinois, United States of America
| |
Collapse
|