A quantitative meta-analysis of face recognition deficits in autism: 40 years of research

Spatiotemporal Eye Movement Dynamics Reveal Altered Face Prioritization in Early Visual Processing Among Autistic Children

BACKGROUND

Reduced social attention-looking at faces-is one of the most common manifestations of social difficulty in autism that is central to social development. Although reduced social attention is well characterized in autism, qualitative differences in how social attention unfolds across time remains unknown.

METHODS

We used a computational modeling (i.e., hidden Markov modeling) approach to assess and compare the spatiotemporal dynamics of social attention in a large, well-characterized sample of children with autism (n = 280) and neurotypical children (n = 119) (ages 6-11) who completed 3 social eye-tracking assays at 3 longitudinal time points (baseline, 6 weeks, 24 weeks).

RESULTS

Our analysis supported the existence of 2 common eye movement patterns that emerged across 3 eye-tracking assays. A focused pattern was characterized by small face regions of interest, which had high a probability of capturing fixations early in visual processing. In contrast, an exploratory pattern was characterized by larger face regions of interest, with a lower initial probability of fixation and more nonsocial regions of interest. In the context of social perception, children with autism showed significantly more exploratory eye movement patterns than neurotypical children across all social perception assays and all 3 longitudinal time points. Eye movement patterns were associated with clinical features of autism, including adaptive function, face recognition, and autism symptom severity.

CONCLUSIONS

Decreased likelihood of precisely looking at faces early in social visual processing may be an important feature of autism that is associated with autism-related symptomology and may reflect less visual sensitivity to face information.

Face perception and social cognitive development in early autism: A prospective longitudinal study from 3 months to 7 years of age

Autism spectrum condition (ASC) is characterized by atypical attention to eyes and faces, but the onset and impact of these atypicalities remain unclear. This prospective longitudinal study examined face perception in infants who develop ASC (N = 22, female = 5, 100% White) compared with typically developing infants (N = 131, female = 65, 55.6% White), tracking social-cognitive and ASC development through age seven. Reduced interest in direct gaze and eyes during infancy correlated with atypical development of adaptive behavior at age four and theory of mind at age seven. Principal component analyses revealed less integrated processing of facial features and eye-gaze information in ASC infants, potentially impacting their childhood social functioning. These findings highlight the intertwined nature of social-cognitive development and ASC.

Role of peroxisome proliferator-activated receptors α and γ in mediating the beneficial effects of β-caryophyllene in a rat model of fragile X syndrome

β-Caryophyllene (BCP) is a naturally occurring sesquiterpene found in numerous plant species, including Cannabis sativa. BCP has shown a high safety profile and a wide range of biological functions, including beneficial effects in neurodegenerative and inflammatory diseases. Here, we used behavioral, pharmacological, and in-silico docking analyses to investigate the effects and mechanism of action of BCP in Fragile X Syndrome (FXS), the most common inherited cause of Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD) and intellectual disability. To this aim, we used the recently validated Fmr1-Δexon 8 rat model of FXS, that is also a genetic rat model of ASD. Acute and repeated oral administration of BCP rescued the cognitive deficits displayed by Fmr1-Δexon 8 rats, without inducing tolerance after repeated administration. These beneficial effects were mediated by activation of hippocampal peroxisome proliferator-activated receptors (PPARs) α and γ, and were mimicked by the PPARα agonist Fenofibrate and the PPARγ agonist Pioglitazone. Conversely, CB2 cannabinoid receptors were not involved. Docking analyses further confirmed the ability of BCP to bind rat PPARs. Together, our findings demonstrate that hippocampal PPARs α and γ play a role in the cognitive deficits observed in a rat model of FXS, and provide first preclinical evidence about the efficacy and mechanism of action of BCP in neurodevelopmental disorders.

The differential outcomes procedure for improving the recognition of dynamic facial expressions of emotion in people with autism spectrum disorders and first-degree relatives

Previous research highlights impairments in the recognition of facial expression of emotion in individuals diagnosed with Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD). Relatives of people with ASD may exhibit similar, albeit subtler, impairments, referred to as the Broad Autism Phenotype (BAP). Recently, the Differential outcomes procedure (DOP) has been shown to enhance this ability in young adults using dynamic stimuli, with fewer intensity levels required to identify fear and surprise. The present study aimed to extend these findings to adults diagnosed with ASD (ASD group), and relatives of people diagnosed with ASD (BAP group). A Bayesian Generalized Linear Model was employed for statistical inference. The results indicated that the ASD DOP group performed worse than the BAP DOP group in fear trials. The social dimension of autism negatively impacted performance in some conditions, while positive relationships were found between the repetitive behavior dimension and performance for the ASD group. The opposite pattern was observed in the BAP group. These results suggest the importance of considering different dimensions of autism when conducting research on its relationship with other variables. Finally, participants in both ASD and BAP groups required less intensity to identify certain emotions when the DOP was applied, highlighting its potential utility for improving dynamic facial emotion recognition.

First Diagnostic Questionnaire for Assessing Patients' Social Functioning: Comprehensive DDX3X Syndrome Patient Profile

Background/Objectives: DDX3X syndrome is often misdiagnosed as autism spectrum disorder (ASD, Rett Syndrome, and Dandy-Walker Syndrome). Precise phenotyping is needed with reference to neurodevelopmental diagnosis. Observation of behavior and communication in parents with DDX3X syndrome in the USA, France, and Poland; conversations with the parents of patients; and rudimentary information in evidence-based medical articles prompted us to identify differences in communication, play, and social interaction between children with ASD only, those with both ASD and DDX3X, and those with DDX3X only. Methods: As diagnostic tool for DDX3X patients, we created a questionnaire divided into four sections: medical, social, play, and communication. Results: The results showed inconsistent diagnoses in different countries where children could have been diagnosed with DDX3X. In a comparative analysis, individuals with DDX3X exhibited greater social skills than individuals with ASD. Furthermore, those with DDX3X demonstrated higher levels of social functioning compared to children with ASD. Therefore, parents of children recently diagnosed with ASD or similar conditions are encouraged to complete a survey to determine if their child is likely to have features of DDX3X syndrome. Conclusion: Identification of early behavioral markers that differentiate children with ASD and those with DDX3X could lead to the earliest opportunity for identification and intervention, and can significantly impact developmental trajectories, leading to better long-term outcomes.

Diverse Face Images (DFI): Validated for racial representation and eye gaze

Face processing is a central component of human communication and social engagement. The present investigation introduces a set of racially and ethnically inclusive faces created for researchers interested in perceptual and socio-cognitive processes linked to human faces. The Diverse Face Images (DFI) stimulus set includes high-quality still images of female faces that are racially and ethnically representative, include multiple images of direct and indirect gaze for each model and control for low-level perceptual variance between images. The DFI stimuli will support researchers interested in studying face processing throughout the lifespan as well as other questions that require a diversity of faces or gazes. This report includes a detailed description of stimuli development and norming data for each model. Adults completed a questionnaire rating each image in the DFI stimuli set on three major qualities relevant to face processing: (1) strength of race/ethnicity group associations, (2) strength of eye gaze orientation, and (3) strength of emotion expression. These validation data highlight the presence of rater variability within and between individual model images as well as within and between race and ethnicity groups.

Early diagnostic value of home video-based machine learning in autism spectrum disorder: a meta-analysis

Machine learning (ML) based on remote video has shown ideal diagnostic value in autism spectrum disorder (ASD). Here, we conducted a meta-analysis of the diagnostic value of home video-based ML in ASD. Relevant articles were systematically searched in PubMed, Cochrane, Embase, and Web of Science from inception to September 2023 with no language restriction, and the literature search was updated in September 2024. The overall risk of bias and suitability of the ML prediction models in the included studies were assessed using PROBAST. Nineteen articles involving 89 prediction models and 9959 subjects were included. The mean video duration was 5.63 ± 1.23 min, and the mean number of behavioral features during initial modeling was 23.53. Among the 19 included studies, 13 models had been trained. Seven of the 13 models were not cross-validated (c-index = 0.92, 95% CI 0.88-0.96), while 6 of the 13 models were tenfold cross-validated (c-index = 0.95, 95% CI 0.94-0.97). There were 8 validation cohorts (c-index = 0.83, 95% CI 0.77-0.89). The pooled sensitivity and specificity were 0.87 (95% CI 0.77-0.93) and 0.79 (95% CI 0.76-0.81) in the training cohort, 0.90 (95% CI 0.85-0.94) and 0.87 (95% CI 0.72-0.94) in the cross-validation, and 0.81 (95% CI 0.74-0.86) and 0.72 (95% CI 0.68-0.75) in the validation cohort, respectively. These results indicated that this model is a highly sensitive and user-friendly tool for early ASD diagnosis.

CONCLUSION

Remote video-based ML may improve clinical practice and future research, particularly by combining advanced technologies such as facial recognition. It is a potential tool for diagnosing ASD in children.

WHAT IS KNOWN

• The incidence of pediatric ASD has increased in recent years. • ML based on remote video has shown ideal early diagnostic value.

WHAT IS NEW

• The first systematic review and meta-analysis evaluating the diagnostic performance of remote video-based ML for ASD. • Home video-based ML is a valuable diagnostic tool for the early diagnosis of ASD. • Remote video-based ML is convenient and simple to utilize.

Eyes are windows to the brain: Capturing eye movements to better understand face processing in autism

Capturing eye movements to better understand face processing in autism.

Fast updating of stimulus history reveals weak internal representations of faces in autism

Atypical perception has been widely reported in autism spectrum disorders, and deficits in face recognition, specifically, are argued to be closely associated with social impairment experienced by these individuals. However, it is still debated (a) whether deficits are perceptually based, and (b) what the role is of experience-based refinements of perceptual face representations in autism. We investigated the effect of short- and long-term experienced stimulus history on face processing. Autistic and non-autistic individuals performed same-different judgments in a serial discrimination task where two consecutive faces were drawn from a distribution of morphed faces. Use of stimulus statistics was measured by testing the gravitation of face representations towards, the mean of a range of morphed faces around which they were sampled (regression-to-the-mean). The results show that unlike non-autistic individuals, representations of own- and other-race faces were equally biased by stimulus statistics in autistic individuals. Moreover, autistic individuals used the most recently exposed faces without forming a strong internal representation based on the overall experienced faces, indicating a weaker internal model of the "typical" averaged face. This accumulated history of faces may underlie typical face specialization, and thus may account for the reduced specialization for own-race faces shown in autism. The results shed light on the way autistic people process and recognize faces, and on the basic mechanisms underlying atypical face perception.

Visual processing and decision-making in autism and dyslexia: Insights from cross-syndrome approaches

Atypical visual processing has been reported in developmental conditions like autism and dyslexia, and some accounts propose a causal role for visual processing in the development of these conditions. However, few studies make direct comparisons between conditions, or use sufficiently sensitive methods, meaning that it is hard to say whether atypical visual processing tells us anything specific about these conditions, or whether it reflects a more general marker of atypical development. Here I review findings from two computational modelling approaches (equivalent noise and diffusion modelling) and related electroencephalography (EEG) indices which we have applied to data from autistic, dyslexic and typically developing children to reveal how the component processes involved in visual processing and decision-making are altered in autism and dyslexia. The results identify both areas of convergence and divergence in autistic and dyslexic children's visual processing and decision-making, with implications for influential theoretical accounts such as weak central coherence, increased internal noise, and dorsal-stream vulnerability. In both sets of studies, we also see considerable variability across children in all three groups. To better understand this variability, and further understand the convergence and divergence identified between conditions, future studies would benefit from studying how the component processes reviewed here relate to transdiagnostic dimensions, which will also give insights into individual differences in visual processing and decision-making more generally.

Atypical daily visual exposure to faces in adults with autism spectrum disorder

Expert face processes are refined and tuned through a protracted development. Exposure statistics of the daily visual experience of neurotypical adults (the face diet) show substantial exposure to familiar faces. People with autism spectrum disorder (ASD) do not show the same expertise with faces as their non-autistic counterparts. This may be due to an impoverished visual experience with faces, according to experiential models of autism. Here, we present the first empirical report on the day-to-day visual experience of the faces of adults with ASD. Our results, based on over 360 h of first-person perspective footage of daily exposure, show striking qualitative and quantitative differences in the ASD face diet compared with those of neurotypical observers, which is best characterized by a pattern of reduced and atypical exposure to familiar faces in ASD. Specifically, duration of exposure to familiar faces was lower in ASD, and faces were viewed from farther distances and from viewpoints that were biased toward profile pose. Our results provide strong evidence that individuals with ASD may not be getting the experience needed for the typical development of expert face processes.

Face recognition's practical relevance: Social bonds, not social butterflies

Research on individual differences in face recognition has provided important foundational insights: their broad range, cognitive specificity, strong heritability, and resilience to change. Elusive, however, has been the key issue of practical relevance: do these individual differences correlate with aspects of life that go beyond the recognition of faces, per se? Though often assumed, especially in social realms, such correlates remain largely theoretical, without empirical support. Here, we investigate an array of potential social correlates of face recognition. We establish social relationship quality as a reproducible correlate. This link generalises across face recognition tasks and across independent samples. In contrast, we detect no robust association with the sheer quantity of social connections, whether measured directly via number of social contacts or indirectly via extraversion-related personality indices. These findings document the existence of a key social correlate of face recognition and provide some of the first evidence to support its practical relevance. At the same time, they challenge the naive assumption that face recognition relates equally to all social outcomes. In contrast, they suggest a focused link of face recognition to the quality, not quantity, of one's social connections.

Acute effects of exercise on gaze fixation and affective response inhibition in children with autism spectrum disorder: A randomized cross-over study

Children with autism spectrum disorder (ASD) show impairments in response inhibition, especially in socio-emotional contexts. A single aerobic exercise session has the potential to temporarily reduce such impairments as findings from neurotypical children support acute benefits of this exercise type for inhibitory control and emotion recognition. In children with ASD, we therefore aimed to investigate the effects of an aerobic exercise bout on response inhibition in an emotional Go/NoGo task and gaze fixation as possible mechanism underlying changes in performance. Using a cross-over design, 29 patients completed a 20-min aerobic exercise bout at moderate intensity on a cycling ergometer and a control condition in a randomized order. An emotional Go/NoGo task was administered before and after both experimental conditions. Eye-tracking was performed during the cognitive task to assess the duration of gaze fixation of eyes and mouth parts of faces expressing happy or sad emotions. The results support no beneficial effect of exercise on performance on the emotional Go/NoGo task. Instead, patients showed a greater decrease in accuracy on Go trials displaying happy faces in the exercise compared to the control condition. This change was associated with a more pronounced decrease in the fixation duration of the eyes for faces expressing either happy or sad emotions. In conclusion, while a single session of moderately intense aerobic exercise does not affect response inhibition, it temporarily aggravates ASD-specific deficits in the processing of and response to facial emotions.

Do changes in eating behaviors signal rising mental health concerns among Saudi high schoolers?

BACKGROUND

Deteriorated eating attitudes have emerged as a prominent psychiatric illness with increasing prevalence in industrialized societies. This research endeavors to investigate the relationships between deteriorated eating patterns and mental health among Saudi high school students after the COVID-19 outbreak.

METHODS

A sample of 2817 students from two high schools in Jeddah, Saudi Arabia, completed a questionnaire about their demographic characteristics and symptoms of anxiety (GAD-7), depression (PHQ-9), and deteriorated eating patterns (Eating Attitudes Test 26) via convenience sampling technique. Multiple regression analysis was carried out to predict the potential associations between deteriorated eating patterns and levels of anxiety and depression among the study participants.

RESULTS

The findings demonstrated a moderate and statistically significant correlation between deteriorated eating patterns and levels of anxiety and depression among the participants in the study. In evaluating the three dimensions of deteriorated eating patterns through regression analysis, it is observed that dieting (anxiety: β = 0.275, depression: β = 0.287) exhibits the highest potential in predicting the levels of anxiety and depression, followed by oral control (anxiety: β = 0.240, depression: β = 0.232) and bulimia & food preoccupation (anxiety: β = 0.218, depression: β = 0.186).

CONCLUSIONS

The findings highlight the necessity to place additional emphasis on students displaying deteriorated eating patterns and symptoms, as these individuals may potentially be experiencing accompanying mental health concerns warranting further assessment.

Associations Between Autism Spectrum Quotient and Integration of Visual Stimuli in 9-year-old Children: Preliminary Evidence of Sex Differences

PURPOSE

The dorsal stream vulnerability hypothesis posits that the dorsal stream, responsible for visual motion and visuo-motor processing, may be particularly vulnerable during neurodevelopment. Consistent with this, autism spectrum disorder (ASD) has been associated with deficits in global motion integration, though deficits in ventral stream tasks, such as form identification, have also been reported. In the current study, we examined whether a similar pattern of results is found in a cohort of 381 children born with neurodevelopmental risk factors and exhibiting a wide spectrum of caregiver-reported autistic traits.

METHODS

We examined the associations between global motion perception, global form perception, fine motor function, visual-motor integration, and autistic traits (autism spectrum quotient, AQ) using linear regression, accounting for possible interactions with sex and other factors relevant to neurodevelopment.

RESULTS

All assessments of dorsal stream function were significantly associated with AQ such that worse performance predicted higher AQ scores. We also observed a significant sex interaction, with worse global form perception associated with higher AQ in boys (n = 202) but not girls (n = 179).

CONCLUSION

We found widespread associations between dorsal stream functions and autistic traits. These associations were observed in a large group of children with a range of AQ scores, demonstrating a range of visual function across the full spectrum of autistic traits. In addition, ventral function was associated with AQ in boys but not girls. Sex differences in the associations between visual processing and neurodevelopment should be considered in the designs of future studies.

The neuropsychological evaluation of face identity recognition

Facial identity recognition (FIR) is arguably the ultimate form of recognition for the adult human brain. Even if the term prosopagnosia is reserved for exceptionally rare brain-damaged cases with a category-specific abrupt loss of FIR at adulthood, subjective and objective impairments or difficulties of FIR are common in the neuropsychological population. Here we provide a critical overview of the evaluation of FIR both for clinicians and researchers in neuropsychology. FIR impairments occur following many causes that should be identified objectively by both general and specific, behavioral and neural examinations. We refute the commonly used dissociation between perceptual and memory deficits/tests for FIR, since even a task involving the discrimination of unfamiliar face images presented side-by-side relies on cortical memories of faces in the right-lateralized ventral occipito-temporal cortex. Another frequently encountered confusion is between specific deficits of the FIR function and a more general impairment of semantic memory (of people), the latter being most often encountered following anterior temporal lobe damage. Many computerized tests aimed at evaluating FIR have appeared over the last two decades, as reviewed here. However, despite undeniable strengths, they often suffer from ecological limitations, difficulties of instruction, as well as a lack of consideration for processing speed and qualitative information. Taking into account these issues, a recently developed behavioral test with natural images manipulating face familiarity, stimulus inversion, and correct response times as a key variable appears promising. The measurement of electroencephalographic (EEG) activity in the frequency domain from fast periodic visual stimulation also appears as a particularly promising tool to complete and enhance the neuropsychological assessment of FIR.

Social Activity in Schizotypy: Measuring Frequency and Enjoyment of Social Events

Improving social functioning deficits-a core characteristic of schizophrenia-spectrum disorders-is often listed by patients as a key recovery goal. Evidence suggests that social deficits also extend to people with schizotypy, a group at heightened risk for psychotic and other psychopathological disorders. One challenge of social functioning research in schizotypy is understanding whether social deficits arise from receiving less pleasure from social activities or from participating less in high-pleasure activities. However, limited information exists on what constitutes highly pleasurable, common social activities. In this study, 357 college students rated the frequency and enjoyment of 38 social activities. Our aims were to categorize activities based on their frequency and enjoyment, and whether these correlated with validated social functioning and schizotypy measures. We found that social activities could be characterized based on their frequency and enjoyment and created a frequency-enjoyment matrix that could be useful for future studies. Activities were correlated with social functioning, generally reaching a small effect size level, with increasing frequency and enjoyment showing associations with greater social functioning. Further, negative and disorganized-but not positive-traits were associated with less engagement and pleasure. Although follow-up studies in community samples are needed, our findings have the potential to help researchers and clinicians better understand which activities participants are more likely to engage in and derive pleasure from. The findings may also illustrate the extent to which social deficits may be due to less engagement or less pleasure from social activities, as well as which aspects of schizophrenia-spectrum disorders are associated with these facets of social functioning.

Functional connectivity in autism spectrum disorder evaluated using rs-fMRI and DKI

We evaluated functional connectivity (FC) in patients with adult autism spectrum disorder (ASD) using resting-state functional MRI (rs-fMRI) and diffusion kurtosis imaging (DKI). We acquired rs-fMRI data from 33 individuals with ASD and 33 healthy controls (HC) and DKI data from 18 individuals with ASD and 17 HC. ASD showed attenuated FC between the right frontal pole (FP) and the bilateral temporal fusiform cortex (TFusC) and enhanced FC between the right thalamus and the bilateral inferior division of lateral occipital cortex, and between the cerebellar vermis and the right occipital fusiform gyrus (OFusG) and the right lingual gyrus, compared with HC. ASD demonstrated increased axial kurtosis (AK) and mean kurtosis (MK) in white matter (WM) tracts, including the right anterior corona radiata (ACR), forceps minor (FM), and right superior longitudinal fasciculus (SLF). In ASD, there was also a significant negative correlation between MK and FC between the cerebellar vermis and the right OFusG in the corpus callosum, FM, right SLF and right ACR. Increased DKI metrics might represent neuroinflammation, increased complexity, or disrupted WM tissue integrity that alters long-distance connectivity. Nonetheless, protective or compensating adaptations of inflammation might lead to more abundant glial cells and cytokine activation effectively alleviating the degeneration of neurons, resulting in increased complexity. FC abnormality in ASD observed in rs-fMRI may be attributed to microstructural alterations of the commissural and long-range association tracts in WM as indicated by DKI.

Children's overestimation of performance across age, task, and historical time: A meta-analysis

Children tend to overestimate their performance on a variety of tasks and activities. The present meta-analysis examines the specificity of this phenomenon across age, tasks, and more than five decades of historical time (1968-2021). Self-overestimation was operationalized as the ratio between children's prospective self-estimates of task performance and their actual (i.e., objectively measured) task performance. A total of 246 effect sizes from 43 published articles were analyzed (4277 participants; 49.6% girls; sample mean ages range from 4 to 12; 86.0% of studies conducted in North America or Europe). Children's self-overestimation was robust across tasks, with their estimates of performance being 1.3 times their actual performance. In addition, children's self-overestimation decreased with sample age and increased with the year of data collection.

How is race perceived during adolescence? A meta-analysis of the own-race bias

Adolescence is a critical developmental period that is marked by drastic changes in face recognition, which are reflected in patterns of bias (i.e., superior recognition for some individuals compared to others). Here, we evaluate how race is perceived during face recognition and whether adolescents exhibit an own-race bias (ORB). We conducted a Bayesian meta-analysis to estimate the summary effect size of the ORB across 16 unique studies (38 effect sizes) with 1,321 adolescent participants between the ages of ∼10-22 years of age. This meta-analytic approach allowed us to inform the analysis with prior findings from the adult literature and evaluate how well they fit the adolescent literature. We report a positive, small ORB (Hedges's g = 0.24) that was evident under increasing levels of uncertainty in the analysis. The magnitude of the ORB was not systematically impacted by participant age or race, which is inconsistent with predictions from perceptual expertise and social cognitive theories. Critically, our findings are limited in generalizability by the study samples, which largely include White adolescents in White-dominant countries. Future longitudinal studies that include racially diverse samples and measure social context, perceiver motivation, peer reorientation, social network composition, and ethnic-racial identity development are critical for understanding the presence, magnitude, and relative flexibility of the ORB in adolescence. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2024 APA, all rights reserved).

Autistic Individuals Do Not Alter Visual Processing Strategy During Encoding Versus Recognition of Faces: A Hidden Markov Modeling Approach

PURPOSE

Visual face recognition-the ability to encode, discriminate, and recognize the faces of others-is fundamentally supported by eye movements and is a common source of difficulty for autistic individuals. We aimed to evaluate how visual processing strategies (i.e., eye movement patterns) directly support encoding and recognition of faces in autistic and neurotypical (NT) individuals.

METHODS

We used a hidden Markov modeling approach to evaluate the spatiotemporal dynamics of eye movements in autistic (n = 15) and neurotypical (NT) adolescents (n = 17) during a face identity recognition task.

RESULTS

We discovered distinct eye movement patterns among all participants, which included a focused and exploratory strategy. When evaluating change in visual processing strategy across encoding and recognition phases, autistic individuals did not shift their eye movement patterns like their NT peers, who shifted to a more exploratory visual processing strategy during recognition.

CONCLUSION

These findings suggest that autistic individuals do not modulate their visual processing strategy across encoding and recognition of faces, which may be an indicator of less efficient face processing.

Exosome lncRNA IFNG-AS1 derived from mesenchymal stem cells of human adipose ameliorates neurogenesis and ASD-like behavior in BTBR mice

BACKGROUND

The transplantation of exosomes derived from human adipose-derived mesenchymal stem cells (hADSCs) has emerged as a prospective cellular-free therapeutic intervention for the treatment of neurodevelopmental disorders (NDDs), as well as autism spectrum disorder (ASD). Nevertheless, the efficacy of hADSC exosome transplantation for ASD treatment remains to be verified, and the underlying mechanism of action remains unclear.

RESULTS

The exosomal long non-coding RNAs (lncRNAs) from hADSC and human umbilical cord mesenchymal stem cells (hUCMSC) were sequenced and 13,915 and 729 lncRNAs were obtained, respectively. The lncRNAs present in hADSC-Exos encompass those found in hUCMSC-Exos and are associated with neurogenesis. The biodistribution of hADSC-Exos in mouse brain ventricles and organoids was tracked, and the cellular uptake of hADSC-Exos was evaluated both in vivo and in vitro. hADSC-Exos promote neurogenesis in brain organoid and ameliorate social deficits in ASD mouse model BTBR T + tf/J (BTBR). Fluorescence in situ hybridization (FISH) confirmed lncRNA Ifngas1 significantly increased in the prefrontal cortex (PFC) of adult mice after hADSC-Exos intraventricular injection. The lncRNA Ifngas1 can act as a molecular sponge for miR-21a-3p to play a regulatory role and promote neurogenesis through the miR-21a-3p/PI3K/AKT axis.

CONCLUSION

We demonstrated hADSC-Exos have the ability to confer neuroprotection through functional restoration, attenuation of neuroinflammation, inhibition of neuronal apoptosis, and promotion of neurogenesis both in vitro and in vivo. The hADSC-Exos-derived lncRNA IFNG-AS1 acts as a molecular sponge and facilitates neurogenesis via the miR-21a-3p/PI3K/AKT signaling pathway, thereby exerting a regulatory effect. Our findings suggest a potential therapeutic avenue for individuals with ASD.

Maternal selenium dietary supplementation alters sociability and reinforcement learning deficits induced by in utero exposure to maternal immune activation in mice

Maternal immune activation (MIA) during pregnancy increases the risk for the unborn foetus to develop neurodevelopmental conditions such as autism spectrum disorder and schizophrenia later in life. MIA mouse models recapitulate behavioural and biological phenotypes relevant to both conditions, and are valuable models to test novel treatment approaches. Selenium (Se) has potent anti-inflammatory properties suggesting it may be an effective prophylactic treatment against MIA. The aim of this study was to determine if Se supplementation during pregnancy can prevent adverse effects of MIA on offspring brain and behaviour in a mouse model. Selenium was administered via drinking water (1.5 ppm) to pregnant dams from gestational day (GD) 9 to birth, and MIA was induced at GD17 using polyinosinic:polycytidylic acid (poly-I:C, 20 mg/kg via intraperitoneal injection). Foetal placenta and brain cytokine levels were assessed using a Luminex assay and brain elemental nutrients assessed using inductively coupled plasma- mass spectrometry. Adult offspring were behaviourally assessed using a reinforcement learning paradigm, the three-chamber sociability test and the open field test. MIA elevated placental IL-1β and IL-17, and Se supplementation successfully prevented this elevation. MIA caused an increase in foetal brain calcium, which was prevented by Se supplement. MIA caused in offspring a female-specific reduction in sociability, which was recovered by Se, and a male-specific reduction in social memory, which was not recovered by Se. Exposure to poly-I:C or selenium, but not both, reduced performance in the reinforcement learning task. Computational modelling indicated that this was predominantly due to increased exploratory behaviour, rather than reduced rate of learning the location of the food reward. This study demonstrates that while Se may be beneficial in ameliorating sociability deficits caused by MIA, it may have negative effects in other behavioural domains. Caution in the use of Se supplementation during pregnancy is therefore warranted.

Investigating Social Competence in a Pilot Randomized Clinical Trial of a Theatre-Based Intervention Enhanced for Adults with Autism Spectrum Disorder

Autism spectrum disorder (ASD) is characterized by challenges in social competence that persist in adulthood, yet few treatment options exist. A pilot randomized clinical trial (RCT) of a peer-mediated, theatre-based intervention with established efficacy in youth with ASD was examined in autistic adults. The final sample consisted of forty-seven 18-to-40-year-old participants randomized to the experimental (EXP N = 23) or waitlist control (WLC N = 24) condition. A multimodal, social interdependent model was employed to examine social competence changes in brain (incidental face memory (IFM) using event-related potentials), cognition (Wechsler Memory Scale-III), behavior (Contextual Assessment of Social Skills) and function (Social Responsiveness Scale (SRS); Adaptive Behavior Assessment Scale (ABAS) Social Composite). Using analysis of covariance in which pretest was controlled in the model, posttest between-group differences were observed on IFM (p = 0.016, η2 = 0.139, d = 0.79) and several social and adaptive functional (SRS, ABAS) outcomes in social communication and interaction (SCI) (p = 0.019, η2 = 0.121, d = -00.45), communication (p = 0.044 η2 = 0.09, d = -00.31), and motivation (p = 0.001, η2 = 0.229, d = -0.79) domains. At two-month follow-up, gains in social motivation remained (p = 0.041, η2 = 0.100, d = -0.77). The results offer preliminary support for a unique theatre-based social skills intervention for autistic adults who have few treatment options to enhance social competence. The trial was pre-registered with ClinicalTrials.gov (Identifier: NCT04349644).

Memory and creativity: A meta-analytic examination of the relationship between memory systems and creative cognition

Increasing evidence suggests that specific memory systems (e.g., semantic vs. episodic) may support specific creative thought processes. However, there are a number of inconsistencies in the literature regarding the strength, direction, and influence of different memory (semantic, episodic, working, and short-term) and creativity (divergent and convergent thinking) types, as well as the influence of external factors (age, stimuli modality) on this purported relationship. In this meta-analysis, we examined 525 correlations from 79 published studies and unpublished datasets, representing data from 12,846 individual participants. We found a small but significant (r = .19) correlation between memory and creative cognition. Among semantic, episodic, working, and short-term memory, all correlations were significant, but semantic memory - particularly verbal fluency, the ability to strategically retrieve information from long-term memory - was found to drive this relationship. Further, working memory capacity was found to be more strongly related to convergent than divergent creative thinking. We also found that within visual creativity, the relationship with visual memory was greater than that of verbal memory, but within verbal creativity, the relationship with verbal memory was greater than that of visual memory. Finally, the memory-creativity correlation was larger for children compared to young adults despite no impact of age on the overall effect size. These results yield three key conclusions: (1) semantic memory supports both verbal and nonverbal creative thinking, (2) working memory supports convergent creative thinking, and (3) the cognitive control of memory is central to performance on creative thinking tasks.

Independent measurement of face perception, face matching, and face memory reveals impairments in face perception and memory, but not matching, in autism

Multiple psychological processes are required in order for a face to be recognised from memory. However, when testing face memory using tasks such as the Cambridge Face Memory Task (CFMT), it is rare for studies to attempt to account for individual differences in face perception and face matching in order to isolate variance in face memory specifically. In Study 1, the Oxford Face Matching Test (OFMT) was used to assess face matching and face perception in a large sample of participants (N = 1,112). Results revealed independent contributions of face perception and matching to CFMT performance, and these results replicated with the Glasgow Face Matching Test. In Study 2, the same procedure was used to test face perception, face matching and face memory in a group of 57 autistic adults and a matched neurotypical control group. Results revealed impaired face perception and memory in the individuals with autism, but intact face matching. Face perception may therefore act as a potential intervention target for individuals with autism who exhibit face recognition impairments.

Replicable Patterns of Memory Impairments in Children With Autism and Their Links to Hyperconnected Brain Circuits

BACKGROUND

Memory impairments have profound implications for social communication and educational outcomes in children with autism spectrum disorder (ASD). However, the precise nature of memory dysfunction in children with ASD and the underlying neural circuit mechanisms remain poorly understood. The default mode network (DMN) is a brain network that is associated with memory and cognitive function, and DMN dysfunction is among the most replicable and robust brain signatures of ASD.

METHODS

We used a comprehensive battery of standardized episodic memory assessments and functional circuit analyses in 25 8- to 12-year-old children with ASD and 29 matched typically developing control children.

RESULTS

Memory performance was reduced in children with ASD compared with control children. General and face memory emerged as distinct dimensions of memory difficulties in ASD. Importantly, findings of diminished episodic memory in children with ASD were replicated in 2 independent data sets. Analysis of intrinsic functional circuits associated with the DMN revealed that general and face memory deficits were associated with distinct, hyperconnected circuits: Aberrant hippocampal connectivity predicted diminished general memory while aberrant posterior cingulate cortex connectivity predicted diminished face memory. Notably, aberrant hippocampal-posterior cingulate cortex circuitry was a common feature of diminished general and face memory in ASD.

CONCLUSIONS

Our results represent a comprehensive appraisal of episodic memory function in children with ASD and identify extensive and replicable patterns of memory reductions in children with ASD that are linked to dysfunction of distinct DMN-related circuits. These findings highlight a role for DMN dysfunction in ASD that extends beyond face memory to general memory function.

Are people with autism prosopagnosic?

Difficulties in various face processing tasks have been well documented in autism spectrum disorder (ASD). Several meta-analyses and numerous case-control studies have indicated that this population experiences a moderate degree of impairment, with a small percentage of studies failing to detect any impairment. One possible account of this mixed pattern of findings is heterogeneity in face processing abilities stemming from the presence of a subpopulation of prosopagnosic individuals with ASD alongside those with normal face processing skills. Samples randomly drawn from such a population, especially relatively smaller ones, would vary in the proportion of participants with prosopagnosia, resulting in a wide range of group-level deficits from mild (or none) to severe across studies. We test this prosopagnosic subpopulation hypothesis by examining three groups of participants: adults with ASD, adults with developmental prosopagnosia (DP), and a comparison group. Our results show that the prosopagnosic subpopulation hypothesis does not account for the face impairments in the broader autism spectrum. ASD observers show a continuous and graded, rather than categorical, heterogeneity that span a range of face processing skills including many with mild to moderate deficits, inconsistent with a prosopagnosic subtype account. We suggest that pathogenic origins of face deficits for at least some with ASD differ from those of DP.

Neural sensitivity to facial identity and facial expression discrimination in adults with autism

The fluent processing of faces can be challenging for autistic individuals. Here, we assessed the neural sensitivity to rapid changes in subtle facial cues in 23 autistic men and 23 age and IQ matched non-autistic (NA) controls using frequency-tagging electroencephalography (EEG). In oddball paradigms examining the automatic and implicit discrimination of facial identity and facial expression, base rate images were presented at 6 Hz, periodically interleaved every fifth image with an oddball image (i.e. 1.2 Hz oddball frequency). These distinctive frequency tags for base rate and oddball stimuli allowed direct and objective quantification of the neural discrimination responses. We found no large differences in the neural sensitivity of participants in both groups, not for facial identity discrimination, nor for facial expression discrimination. Both groups also showed a clear face-inversion effect, with reduced brain responses for inverted versus upright faces. Furthermore, sad faces generally elicited significantly lower neural amplitudes than angry, fearful and happy faces. The only minor group difference is the larger involvement of high-level right-hemisphere visual areas in NA men for facial expression processing. These findings are discussed from a developmental perspective, as they strikingly contrast with robust face processing deficits observed in autistic children using identical EEG paradigms.

Investigating the Face Inversion Effect in Autism Across Behavioral and Neural Measures of Face Processing: A Systematic Review and Bayesian Meta-Analysis

Importance

Face processing is foundational to human social cognition, is central to the hallmark features of autism spectrum disorder (ASD), and shapes neural systems and social behavior. Highly efficient and specialized, the face processing system is sensitive to inversion, demonstrated by reduced accuracy in recognition and altered neural response to inverted faces. Understanding at which mechanistic level the autistic face processing system may be particularly different, as measured by the face inversion effect, will improve overall understanding of brain functioning in autism.

Objective

To synthesize data from the extant literature to determine differences of the face processing system in ASD, as measured by the face inversion effect, across multiple mechanistic levels.

Data Sources

Systematic searches were conducted in the MEDLINE, Embase, Web of Science, and PubMed databases from inception to August 11, 2022.

Study Selection

Original research that reported performance-based measures of face recognition to upright and inverted faces in ASD and neurotypical samples were included for quantitative synthesis. All studies were screened by at least 2 reviewers.

Data Extraction and Synthesis

This systematic review and meta-analysis was conducted according to the 2020 Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-analyses (PRISMA) reporting guideline. Multiple effect sizes were extracted from studies to maximize information gain and statistical precision and used a random-effects, multilevel modeling framework to account for statistical dependencies within study samples.

Main Outcomes and Measures

Effect sizes were calculated as a standardized mean change score between ASD and neurotypical samples (ie, Hedges g). The primary outcome measure was performance difference between upright and inverted faces during face recognition tasks. Measurement modality, psychological construct, recognition demand, sample age, sample sex distribution, and study quality assessment scores were assessed as moderators.

Results

Of 1768 screened articles, 122 effect sizes from 38 empirical articles representing data from 1764 individual participants (899 ASD individuals and 865 neurotypical individuals) were included in the meta-analysis. Overall, face recognition performance differences between upright and inverted faces were reduced in autistic individuals compared with neurotypical individuals (g = -0.41; SE = 0.11; 95% credible interval [CrI], -0.63 to -0.18). However, there was considerable heterogeneity among effect sizes, which were explored with moderator analysis. The attenuated face inversion effect in autistic individuals was more prominent in emotion compared with identity recognition (b = 0.46; SE = 0.26; 95% CrI, -0.08 to 0.95) and in behavioral compared with electrophysiological measures (b = 0.23; SE = 0.24; 95% CrI, -0.25 to 0.70).

Conclusions and Relevance

This study found that on average, face recognition in autism is less impacted by inversion. These findings suggest less specialization or expertise of the face processing system in autism, particularly in recognizing emotion from faces as measured in behavioral paradigms.

The role of visual imagery in face recognition and the construction of facial composites. Evidence from Aphantasia

People with aphantasia have a markedly impaired ability to form visual images in the mind's eye. Here, by testing people with and without aphantasia, we examine the relationship between visual imagery and face processing. We show that aphantasics have weaker face recognition than people with visual imagery, using both self-report (Prosopagnosia Index) and behavioural measures (Cambridge Face Memory Test). However, aphantasics nonetheless have a fully intact ability to construct facial composites from memory (i.e., composites produced using EFIT6 by aphantasics and imagers were rated as equally accurate in terms of their resemblance to a target face). Additionally, we show that aphantasics were less able than imagers to see the resemblance between composites and a target face, suggestive of potential issues with face matching (perception). Finally, we show that holistic and featural methods of composite construction using EFIT6 produce equally accurate composites. Our results suggest that face recognition, but not face composite construction, is facilitated by the ability to represent visual properties as 'pictures in the mind'. Our findings have implications for the study of aphantasia, and also for forensic settings, where face composite systems are commonly used to aid criminal investigations.

Using representational similarity analysis to reveal category and process specificity in visual object recognition

Cross-condition comparisons on neurodevelopmental conditions are central in neurodiversity research. In the realm of visual perception, the performance of participants with different category-specific disorders such as developmental prosopagnosia (problems with faces) and dyslexia (problems with words) have contributed to understanding of perceptual processes involved in word and face recognition. Alterations in face and word recognition are present in several neurodiverse populations, and improved knowledge about their relationship may increase our understanding of this variability of impairment. The present study investigates organizing principles of visual object processing and their implications for developmental disorders of recognition. Some accounts suggest that distinct mechanisms are responsible for recognizing objects of different categories, while others propose that categories share or even compete for cortical resources. We took an individual differences approach to estimate the relationship between abilities in recognition. Neurotypical participants (N = 97 after outlier exclusion) performed a match-to-sample task with faces, houses, and pseudowords. Either individual features or feature configurations were manipulated. To estimate the separability of visual recognition mechanisms, we used representational similarity analysis (RSA) where correlational matrices for accuracy were compared to predicted data patterns. Recognition abilities separated into face recognition on one hand and house/pseudoword recognition on the other, indicating that face recognition may rely on relatively selective mechanisms in neurotypicals. We also found evidence for a general visual object recognition mechanism, while some combinations of category (faces, houses, words) and processing type (featural, configural) likely rely on additional mechanisms. Developmental conditions may therefore reflect combinations of impaired and intact aspects of specific and general visual object recognition mechanisms, where featural and configural processes for one object category separate from the featural or configural processing of another. More generally, RSA is a promising approach for advancing understanding of neurodiversity, including shared aspects and distinctions between neurodevelopmental conditions of visual recognition.

Brain structure underlying the empathizing-systemizing difference in children with autism spectrum disorder

BACKGROUND

Behavioral research has shown that children with autism spectrum disorder (ASD) have a higher empathizing-systemizing difference (D score) than normal children. However, there is no research about the neuroanatomical mechanisms of the empathizing-systemizing difference in children with ASD.

METHODS

Participants comprised 41 children with ASD and 39 typically developing (TD) children aged 6‒12 years. Empathizing-systemizing difference was estimated using the D score from the Chinese version of Children's Empathy Quotient and Systemizing Quotient. We quantified brain morphometry, including global and regional brain volumes and surface-based cortical measures (cortical thickness, surface area, and gyrification) via structural magnetic resonance imaging.

RESULTS

We found that the D score was significantly negatively associated with amygdala gray matter volume [β =  -0.16; 95% confidence interval (CI): -0.30,  -0.02; P value = 0.030] in children with ASD. There was a significantly negative association between D score and gyrification in the left lateral occipital cortex (LOC) in children with ASD (B =  -0.10; SE = 0.03; cluster-wise P value = 0.006) and a significantly positive association between D score and gyrification in the right fusiform in TD children (B = 0.10; SE = 0.03; cluster-wise P value = 0.022). Moderation analyses demonstrated significant interactions between D score and diagnosed group in amygdala gray matter volume (β = 0.19; 95% CI 0.04, 0.35; P value = 0.013) and left LOC gyrification (β = 0.11; 95% CI 0.05, 0.17; P value = 0.001) but not in right fusiform gyrification (β = 0.08; 95% CI -0.02, 0.17; P value = 0.105).

CONCLUSIONS

Neuroanatomical variation in amygdala volume and gyrification of LOC could be potential biomarkers for the empathizing-systemizing difference in children with ASD but not in TD children. Large-scale neuroimaging studies are necessary to test the replicability of our findings.

A randomized cross-over trial investigating the neurocognitive effects of acute exercise on face recognition in children with autism spectrum disorder

Difficulties in face recognition contribute to social-cognitive problems in autistic children. Evidence on behavioral interventions targeting this cognitive domain is limited. In non-autistic individuals, a single exercise session is known to elicit temporary benefits for several cognitive functions. Our study investigates whether acute aerobic exercise influences face recognition in autistic children. In a randomized order, 29 participants completed a 20-min moderately-intense cycling bout on an ergometer and a control condition. Before and after each condition, participants categorized Mooney faces and instruments during a computerized cognitive task. Simultaneously, the N170 component of event-related potentials and pupil size were recorded using electroencephalography and eyetracking, respectively. As indicated by a greater increase of reaction time in the exercise compared to the control condition, the results revealed impaired face recognition following aerobic exercise. This effect was accompanied by a lower decrease of the positive N170 amplitude and a trend towards a greater constriction of the pupil size in the exercise compared to the control condition. Our findings highlight the interplay of the physiological state and face recognition in autistic children. Exercise-induced impairments in this social-cognitive ability may be due to an interference with the learning effect that is typically seen for the structural encoding of faces.

Peers, play, and performance to build social salience in autistic youth: A multisite randomized clinical trial

OBJECTIVE

Individuals with autism spectrum disorder (ASD) have significant impairment in social competence and reduced social salience. SENSE Theatre, a peer-mediated, theater-based intervention has demonstrated posttreatment gains in face memory and social communication. The multisite randomized clinical trial compared the Experimental (EXP; SENSE Theatre) to an Active Control Condition (ACC; Tackling Teenage Training, TTT) at pretest, posttest, and follow-up. It was hypothesized that the EXP group would demonstrate greater incidental face memory (IFM) and better social behavior (interaction with novel peers) and social functioning (social engagement in daily life) than the ACC group, and posttest IFM would mediate the treatment effect on follow-up social behavior and functioning.

METHOD

Two hundred ninety participants were randomized to EXP (N = 144) or ACC (N = 146). Per protocol sample (≥ 7/10 sessions) resulted in 207 autistic children 10-16 years. Event-related potentials measured IFM. Naive examiners measured social behavior (Vocal Expressiveness, Quality of Rapport, Social Anxiety) and functioning (Social Communication). Structural equation modeling was used to assess treatment effects.

RESULTS

SENSE Theatre participants showed significantly better IFM (b = .874, p = .039) at posttest, and significant indirect effects on follow-up Vocal Expressiveness a × b = .064, with 90% CI [.014, .118] and Quality of Rapport a × b = .032, with 90% CI [.002, .087] through posttest IFM.

CONCLUSIONS

SENSE Theatre increases social salience as reflected by IFM, which in turn affected Vocal Expressiveness and Quality of Rapport. Results indicate that a neural mechanism supporting social cognition and driven by social salience is engaged by the treatment and has a generalized, indirect effect on clinically meaningful functional outcomes related to core symptoms of autism. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2023 APA, all rights reserved).

Impairment in reading negative social cues extends beyond the face in autism

Nonverbal expressions are essential to regulating social communication and interaction. Impaired emotion recognition from facial expressions has been linked to various psychiatric conditions characterized by severe social deficits such as autism. As body expressions as an additional source of social-emotional information have attracted little research attention, little is known about whether emotion recognition impairments are specific to faces, or extend to body expressions. This study explored and compared emotion recognition from face versus body expressions in autism spectrum disorder. We compared 30 men with autism spectrum disorder to 30 male age- and IQ-matched control participants in their ability to recognize angry, happy, and neutral expressions from dynamic face and body expressions. Participants with autism spectrum disorder showed impaired recognition of angry expressions from both faces and bodies, while there were no group differences in recognizing happy and neutral expressions. In autism spectrum disorder, recognizing angry face expressions was inversely predicted by gaze avoidance, while recognizing angry body expressions was inversely predicted by impairments in social interaction and autistic traits. These findings suggest that distinct mechanisms may underlie the impaired emotion recognition from face and body expressions in autism spectrum disorder, respectively. Overall, our study demonstrates that emotion-specific recognition difficulties in autism spectrum disorder are not limited to face expressions but extend to emotional body expressions.

Neural reinstatement of context memory in adults with autism spectrum disorder

Autism spectrum disorder (ASD) is associated with episodic memory impairment. However, episodic memories include a variety of contextual details, and it is difficult to solely rely on behavioral data to assess how specifically (i.e. event-specific reinstatement) an event is remembered. We applied encoding-retrieval representational similarity (ERS) analysis to EEG data to assess event-specific ERS for object-context associations in a sample of 34 adults (17 with, 17 without ASD). Participants studied objects presented alongside 2 contextual features: scene/color, and attention was directed toward one object-context relationship. At retrieval, memory was assessed for the object and both contexts. Behavioral results revealed no group differences in item or context memory performance. ERS results revealed group temporal differences in reinstatement. Results may indicate differences in both encoding (i.e. fewer perceptual details) and retrieval (i.e. ineffectively skipping through memory fragments) in ASD and should be further investigated in studies modulating the perceptual detail required for memory decisions. Results highlight the utility of ERS as a methodology used to evaluate episodic reinstatement even in the absence of behavioral differences in memory performance.

Weaker face recognition in adults with autism arises from perceptually based alterations

Face recognition has been shown to be impaired in autism spectrum disorders (ASD). However, it is still debated whether these face processing deficits arise from perceptually based alterations. We tested individuals with ASD and matched typically developing (TD) individuals using a delayed estimation task in which a single target face was shown either upright or inverted. Participants selected a face that best resembled the target face out of a cyclic space of morphed faces. To enable the disentanglement of visual from mnemonic processing, reports were required either following a 1 and 6 second retention interval, or simultaneously while the target face was still visible. Individuals with ASD made significantly more errors than TD individuals in both the simultaneous and delayed intervals, indicating that face recognition deficits in autism are also perceptual rather than strictly memory based. Moreover, individuals with ASD exhibited weaker inversion effects than the TD individuals, on all retention intervals. This finding, that was mostly evident in precision errors, suggests that contrary to the more precise representations of upright faces in TD individuals, individuals with ASD exhibit similar levels of precision for inverted and upright faces, for both simultaneous and delayed conditions. These results suggest that weakened memory for faces reported in ASD may be secondary to an underlying perceptual deficit in face processing.

Brain correlates of declarative memory atypicalities in autism: a systematic review of functional neuroimaging findings

The long-described atypicalities of memory functioning experienced by people with autism have major implications for daily living, academic learning, as well as cognitive remediation. Though behavioral studies have identified a robust profile of memory strengths and weaknesses in autism spectrum disorder (ASD), few works have attempted to establish a synthesis concerning their neural bases. In this systematic review of functional neuroimaging studies, we highlight functional brain asymmetries in three anatomical planes during memory processing between individuals with ASD and typical development. These asymmetries consist of greater activity of the left hemisphere than the right in ASD participants, of posterior brain regions-including hippocampus-rather than anterior ones, and presumably of the ventral (occipito-temporal) streams rather than the dorsal (occipito-parietal) ones. These functional alterations may be linked to atypical memory processes in ASD, including the pre-eminence of verbal over spatial information, impaired active maintenance in working memory, and preserved relational memory despite poor context processing in episodic memory.

Emerging signs of autism spectrum disorder in infancy: Putative neural substrate

Autism spectrum disorder (ASD) is characterized by altered development of the social brain with prominent atypical features in the fronto-temporo-parietal cortex and cerebellum. Early signs of ASD emerge between 6 and 12 months: reduced social communication, slightly less advanced motor development, and repetitive behaviour. The fronto-temporo-parietal cortex and cerebellum play a prominent role in the development of social communication, whereas fronto-parietal-cerebellar networks are involved in the planning of movements, that is, movement selection. Atypical sensory responsivity, a core feature of ASD, may result in impaired development of social communication and motor skills and/or selection of atypical repetitive behaviour. In the first postnatal year, the brain areas involved are characterized by gradual dissolution of temporary structures: the fronto-temporo-parietal cortical subplate and cerebellar external granular layer. It is hypothesized that altered dissolution of the transient structures opens the window for the expression of early signs of ASD arising in the impaired developing permanent networks. WHAT THIS PAPER ADDS: The early social and motor signs of autism spectrum disorder emerge between the ages of 6 and 12 months. Altered dissolution of transient brain structures in the fronto-temporo-parietal cortex and cerebellum may underlie the emergence of these early signs.

The Atypical Effective Connectivity of Right Temporoparietal Junction in Autism Spectrum Disorder: A Multi-Site Study

Social function impairment is the core deficit of autism spectrum disorder (ASD). Although many studies have investigated ASD through a variety of neuroimaging tools, its brain mechanism of social function remains unclear due to its complex and heterogeneous symptoms. The present study aimed to use resting-state functional magnetic imaging data to explore effective connectivity between the right temporoparietal junction (RTPJ), one of the key brain regions associated with social impairment of individuals with ASD, and the whole brain to further deepen our understanding of the neuropathological mechanism of ASD. This study involved 1,454 participants from 23 sites from the Autism Brain Imaging Data Exchange (ABIDE) public dataset, which included 618 individuals with ASD and 836 with typical development (TD). First, a voxel-wise Granger causality analysis (GCA) was conducted with the RTPJ selected as the region of interest (ROI) to investigate the differences in effective connectivity between the ASD and TD groups in every site. Next, to obtain further accurate and representative results, an image-based meta-analysis was implemented to further analyze the GCA results of each site. Our results demonstrated abnormal causal connectivity between the RTPJ and the widely distributed brain regions and that the connectivity has been associated with social impairment in individuals with ASD. The current study could help to further elucidate the pathological mechanisms of ASD and provides a new perspective for future research.

Characteristic fixation biases in Super-Recognizers

Neurotypical observers show large and reliable individual differences in gaze behavior along several semantic object dimensions. Individual gaze behavior toward faces has been linked to face identity processing, including that of neurotypical observers. Here, we investigated potential gaze biases in Super-Recognizers (SRs), individuals with exceptional face identity processing skills. Ten SRs, identified with a novel conservative diagnostic framework, and 43 controls freely viewed 700 complex scenes depicting more than 5000 objects. First, we tested whether SRs and controls differ in fixation biases along four semantic dimensions: faces, text, objects being touched, and bodies. Second, we tested potential group differences in fixation biases toward eyes and mouths. Finally, we tested whether SRs fixate closer to the theoretical optimal fixation point for face identification. SRs showed a stronger gaze bias toward faces and away from text and touched objects, starting from the first fixation onward. Further, SRs spent a significantly smaller proportion of first fixations and dwell time toward faces on mouths but did not differ in dwell time or first fixations devoted to eyes. Face fixation of SRs also fell significantly closer to the theoretical optimal fixation point for identification, just below the eyes. Our findings suggest that reliable superiority for face identity processing is accompanied by early fixation biases toward faces and preferred saccadic landing positions close to the theoretical optimum for face identification. We discuss future directions to investigate the functional basis of individual fixation behavior and face identity processing ability.

Identifying Age Based Maturation in the ERP Response to Faces in Children With Autism: Implications for Developing Biomarkers for Use in Clinical Trials

Recent proposals have suggested the potential for neural biomarkers to improve clinical trial processes in neurodevelopmental conditions; however, few efforts have identified whether chronological age-based adjustments will be necessary (as used in standardized behavioral assessments). Event-related potentials (ERPs) demonstrate early differences in the processing of faces vs. objects in the visual processing system by 4 years of age and age-based improvement (decreases in latency) through adolescence. Additionally, face processing has been proposed to be related to social skills as well as autistic social-communication traits. While previous reports suggest delayed latency in individuals with autism spectrum disorder (ASD), extensive individual and age based heterogeneity exists. In this report, we utilize a sample of 252 children with ASD and 118 children with typical development (TD), to assess the N170 and P100 ERP component latencies (N170L and P100L, respectively), to upright faces, the face specificity effect (difference between face and object processing), and the inversion effect (difference between face upright and inverted processing) in relation to age. First, linear mixed models (LMMs) were fitted with fixed effect of age at testing and random effect of participant, using all available data points to characterize general age-based development in the TD and ASD groups. Second, LMM models using only the TD group were used to calculate age-based residuals in both groups. The purpose of residualization was to assess how much variation in ASD participants could be accounted for by chronological age-related changes. Our data demonstrate that the N170L and P100L responses to upright faces appeared to follow a roughly linear relationship with age. In the ASD group, the distribution of the age-adjusted residual values suggest that ASD participants were more likely to demonstrate slower latencies than would be expected for a TD child of the same age, similar to what has been identified using unadjusted values. Lastly, using age-adjusted values for stratification, we found that children who demonstrated slowed age-adjusted N170L had lower verbal and non-verbal IQ and worse face memory. These data suggest that age must be considered in assessing the N170L and P100L response to upright faces as well, and these adjusted values may be used to stratify children within the autism spectrum.

Speed and accuracy of emotion recognition in autistic adults: The role of stimulus type, response format, and emotion

Emotion recognition difficulties are considered to contribute to social-communicative problems for autistic individuals. Prior research has been dominated by a focus on forced-choice recognition response accuracy for static face presentations of basic emotions, often involving small samples. Using free-report and multiple-choice response formats, we compared emotion recognition in IQ-matched autistic (N = 63) and nonautistic (N = 67) adult samples using 12 face emotion stimuli presented in three different stimulus formats (static, dynamic, social) that varied the degree of accompanying contextual information. Percent agreement with normative recognition responses (usually labeled "recognition accuracy") was slightly lower for autistic adults. Both groups displayed marked inter-individual variability and, although there was considerable overlap between groups, a very small subset of autistic individuals recorded lower percent agreement than any of the nonautistic sample. Overall, autistic individuals were significantly slower to respond and less confident. Although stimulus type, response format, and emotion affected percent agreement, latency and confidence, their interactions with group were nonsignificant and the associated effect sizes extremely small. The findings challenge notions that autistic adults have core deficits in emotion recognition and are more likely than nonautistic adults to be overwhelmed by increasingly dynamic or complex emotion stimuli and to experience difficulties recognizing specific emotions. Suggested research priorities include clarifying whether longer recognition latencies reflect fundamental processing limitations or adjustable strategic influences, probing age-related changes in emotion recognition across adulthood, and identifying the links between difficulties highlighted by traditional emotion recognition paradigms and real-world social functioning. LAY SUMMARY: It is generally considered that autistic individuals are less accurate than nonautistic individuals at recognizing other people's facial emotions. Using a wide array of emotions presented in various contexts, this study suggests that autistic individuals are, on average, only slightly less accurate but at the same time somewhat slower when classifying others' emotions. However, there was considerable overlap between the two groups, and great variability between individuals. The differences between groups prevailed regardless of how stimuli were presented, the response required or the particular emotion.

Visual working memory performance is intact across development in autism spectrum disorder

Autism spectrum disorder (ASD) is associated with atypical visual processing and deficits in working memory (WM). Visual WM performance typically improves between childhood and adulthood, but such improvement may be atypical in ASD. To better understand how visual WM develops, we used a well-established change detection task across multiple visual features. We examined visual WM for color, shape, and pattern in children, adolescents, and adults with and without ASD. VWM capacity and performance for all visual features improved across age similarly for both the TD and ASD groups. While performance was better on set size 4 trials than set size 8 trials for color, shape, and no change trials, such an effect was not evident for pattern change trials. Overall, the present findings suggest that VWM for different visual features may be intact across development in ASD. The ability to hold multiple objects in mind (WM) improves across typical development, but it remains unclear whether such improvement occurs in ASD. We found that developmental improvements in WM for different types of object details (e.g., color, shape, and pattern) is generally similar for both ASD and typical development.

Greater Social Competence Is Associated With Higher Interpersonal Neural Synchrony in Adolescents With Autism

Difficulty engaging in reciprocal social interactions is a core characteristic of autism spectrum disorder. The mechanisms supporting effective dynamic real-time social exchanges are not yet well understood. This proof-of-concept hyperscanning electroencephalography study examined neural synchrony as the mechanism supporting interpersonal social interaction in 34 adolescents with autism spectrum disorder (50% female), age 10-16 years, paired with neurotypical confederates of similar age. The degree of brain-to-brain neural synchrony was quantified at temporo-parietal scalp locations as the circular correlation of oscillatory amplitudes in theta, alpha, and beta frequency bands while the participants engaged in a friendly conversation. In line with the hypotheses, interpersonal neural synchrony was significantly greater during the social interaction compared to the baseline. Lower levels of synchrony were associated with increased behavioral symptoms of social difficulties. With regard to sex differences, we found evidence for stronger interpersonal neural synchrony during conversation than baseline in females with autism, but not in male participants, for whom such condition differences did not reach statistical significance. This study established the feasibility of hyperscanning during real-time social interactions as an informative approach to examine social competence in autism, demonstrated that neural coordination of activity between the interacting brains may contribute to social behavior, and offered new insights into sex-related variability in social functioning in individuals with autism spectrum disorders.