1
|
Lanfermeijer J, van de Ven K, van Dijken H, Hendriks M, Talavera Ormeño CMP, de Heij F, Roholl P, Borghans JAM, van Baarle D, de Jonge J. Modified influenza M1 58-66 peptide vaccination induces non-relevant T-cells and may enhance pathology after challenge. NPJ Vaccines 2023; 8:116. [PMID: 37573454 PMCID: PMC10423225 DOI: 10.1038/s41541-023-00705-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/19/2022] [Accepted: 07/11/2023] [Indexed: 08/14/2023] Open
Abstract
CD8 + T cells are promising targets for vaccination against influenza A virus (IAV) infection. Their induction via peptide vaccination is not trivial, because peptides are weakly immunogenic. One strategy to overcome this is by vaccination with chemically enhanced altered peptide ligands (CPLs), which have improved MHC-binding and immunogenicity. It remains unknown how peptide-modification affects the resulting immune response. We studied the effect of CPLs derived from the influenza M158-66 epitope (GILGFVFTL) on the T-cell response. In HLA-A2*0201 transgenic mice, CPL-vaccination led to higher T-cell frequencies, but only a small percentage of the induced T cells recognized the GILG-wildtype (WT) peptide. CPL-vaccination resulted in a lower richness of the GILG-WT-specific T-cell repertoire and no improved protection against IAV-infection compared to GILG-WT peptide-vaccination. One CPL even appeared to enhance pathology after IAV-challenge. CPL-vaccination thus induces T cells not targeting the original peptide, which may lead to potential unwanted side effects.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Josien Lanfermeijer
- Center for Infectious Disease Control, National Institute for Public Health and the Environment, Bilthoven, the Netherlands
- Center for Translational Immunology, University Medical Center Utrecht, Utrecht, the Netherlands
| | - Koen van de Ven
- Center for Infectious Disease Control, National Institute for Public Health and the Environment, Bilthoven, the Netherlands
| | - Harry van Dijken
- Center for Infectious Disease Control, National Institute for Public Health and the Environment, Bilthoven, the Netherlands
| | - Marion Hendriks
- Center for Infectious Disease Control, National Institute for Public Health and the Environment, Bilthoven, the Netherlands
| | - Cami M P Talavera Ormeño
- Department of Cell and Chemical Biology, Leiden University Medical Centre, Leiden, The Netherlands
| | - Femke de Heij
- Center for Infectious Disease Control, National Institute for Public Health and the Environment, Bilthoven, the Netherlands
| | | | - José A M Borghans
- Center for Translational Immunology, University Medical Center Utrecht, Utrecht, the Netherlands
| | - Debbie van Baarle
- Center for Infectious Disease Control, National Institute for Public Health and the Environment, Bilthoven, the Netherlands
- Center for Translational Immunology, University Medical Center Utrecht, Utrecht, the Netherlands
- Virology & Immunology Research. Dept Medical Microbiology and Infection prevention, University Medical Center Groningen, Groningen, the Netherlands
| | - Jørgen de Jonge
- Center for Infectious Disease Control, National Institute for Public Health and the Environment, Bilthoven, the Netherlands.
| |
Collapse
|
2
|
van de Ven K, Lanfermeijer J, van Dijken H, Muramatsu H, Vilas Boas de Melo C, Lenz S, Peters F, Beattie MB, Lin PJC, Ferreira JA, van den Brand J, van Baarle D, Pardi N, de Jonge J. A universal influenza mRNA vaccine candidate boosts T cell responses and reduces zoonotic influenza virus disease in ferrets. SCIENCE ADVANCES 2022; 8:eadc9937. [PMID: 36516261 PMCID: PMC9750153 DOI: 10.1126/sciadv.adc9937] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/13/2022] [Accepted: 11/04/2022] [Indexed: 06/17/2023]
Abstract
Universal influenza vaccines should protect against continuously evolving and newly emerging influenza viruses. T cells may be an essential target of such vaccines, as they can clear infected cells through recognition of conserved influenza virus epitopes. We evaluated a novel T cell-inducing nucleoside-modified messenger RNA (mRNA) vaccine that encodes the conserved nucleoprotein, matrix protein 1, and polymerase basic protein 1 of an H1N1 influenza virus. To mimic the human situation, we applied the mRNA vaccine as a prime-boost regimen in naïve ferrets (mimicking young children) and as a booster in influenza-experienced ferrets (mimicking adults). The vaccine induced and boosted broadly reactive T cells in the circulation, bone marrow, and respiratory tract. Booster vaccination enhanced protection against heterosubtypic infection with a potential pandemic H7N9 influenza virus in influenza-experienced ferrets. Our findings show that mRNA vaccines encoding internal influenza virus proteins represent a promising strategy to induce broadly protective T cell immunity against influenza viruses.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Koen van de Ven
- Centre for Infectious Disease Control, National Institute for Public Health and the Environment (RIVM), Bilthoven, Netherlands
| | - Josien Lanfermeijer
- Centre for Infectious Disease Control, National Institute for Public Health and the Environment (RIVM), Bilthoven, Netherlands
- Center for Translational Immunology, University Medical Center Utrecht, Utrecht, Netherlands
| | - Harry van Dijken
- Centre for Infectious Disease Control, National Institute for Public Health and the Environment (RIVM), Bilthoven, Netherlands
| | - Hiromi Muramatsu
- Department of Microbiology, Perelman School of Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA, USA
| | - Caroline Vilas Boas de Melo
- Centre for Infectious Disease Control, National Institute for Public Health and the Environment (RIVM), Bilthoven, Netherlands
| | - Stefanie Lenz
- Centre for Infectious Disease Control, National Institute for Public Health and the Environment (RIVM), Bilthoven, Netherlands
| | - Florence Peters
- Centre for Infectious Disease Control, National Institute for Public Health and the Environment (RIVM), Bilthoven, Netherlands
| | | | | | - José A. Ferreira
- Department of Statistics, Informatics and Modelling, National Institute for Public Health and the Environment (RIVM), Bilthoven, Netherlands
| | - Judith van den Brand
- Division of Pathology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Utrecht University, Utrecht, Netherlands
| | - Debbie van Baarle
- Centre for Infectious Disease Control, National Institute for Public Health and the Environment (RIVM), Bilthoven, Netherlands
- Department of Medical Microbiology and Infection Prevention, Virology and Immunology Research Group, University Medical Center Groningen, Groningen, Netherlands
| | - Norbert Pardi
- Department of Microbiology, Perelman School of Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA, USA
| | - Jørgen de Jonge
- Centre for Infectious Disease Control, National Institute for Public Health and the Environment (RIVM), Bilthoven, Netherlands
| |
Collapse
|
3
|
James J, Meyer SM, Hong HA, Dang C, Linh HTY, Ferreira W, Katsande PM, Vo L, Hynes D, Love W, Banyard AC, Cutting SM. Intranasal Treatment of Ferrets with Inert Bacterial Spores Reduces Disease Caused by a Challenging H7N9 Avian Influenza Virus. Vaccines (Basel) 2022; 10:vaccines10091559. [PMID: 36146637 PMCID: PMC9502451 DOI: 10.3390/vaccines10091559] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/24/2022] [Revised: 09/09/2022] [Accepted: 09/14/2022] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Background: Influenza is a respiratory infection that continues to present a major threat to human health, with ~500,000 deaths/year. Continued circulation of epidemic subtypes in humans and animals potentially increases the risk of future pandemics. Vaccination has failed to halt the evolution of this virus and next-generation prophylactic approaches are under development. Naked, “heat inactivated”, or inert bacterial spores have been shown to protect against influenza in murine models. Methods: Ferrets were administered intranasal doses of inert bacterial spores (DSM 32444K) every 7 days for 4 weeks. Seven days after the last dose, the animals were challenged with avian H7N9 influenza A virus. Clinical signs of infection and viral shedding were monitored. Results: Clinical symptoms of infection were significantly reduced in animals dosed with DSM 32444K. The temporal kinetics of viral shedding was reduced but not prevented. Conclusion: Taken together, nasal dosing using heat-stable spores could provide a useful approach for influenza prophylaxis in both humans and animals.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Joe James
- Animal and Plant Health Agency (APHA), Woodham Lane, Weybridge KT15 3NB, Surrey, UK
| | - Stephanie M. Meyer
- Animal and Plant Health Agency (APHA), Woodham Lane, Weybridge KT15 3NB, Surrey, UK
| | - Huynh A. Hong
- SporeGen Ltd., London Bioscience Innovation Centre, 2 Royal College Street, London NW1 0NH, UK
| | - Chau Dang
- SporeGen Ltd., London Bioscience Innovation Centre, 2 Royal College Street, London NW1 0NH, UK
| | - Ho T. Y. Linh
- HURO Biotech JSC, Lot A1-8, VL3 Road, Vinh Loc 2 Industrial Park, Long Hiep Commune, Ben Luc District, Long An, Vietnam
| | - William Ferreira
- SporeGen Ltd., London Bioscience Innovation Centre, 2 Royal College Street, London NW1 0NH, UK
| | - Paidamoyo M. Katsande
- Department of Biological Sciences, Royal Holloway University of London, Egham TW20 0EX, Surrey, UK
| | - Linh Vo
- SporeGen Ltd., London Bioscience Innovation Centre, 2 Royal College Street, London NW1 0NH, UK
| | - Daniel Hynes
- Destiny Pharma Plc., Sussex Innovation Centre, Science Park Square, Falmer, Brighton BN1 9SB, UK
| | - William Love
- Destiny Pharma Plc., Sussex Innovation Centre, Science Park Square, Falmer, Brighton BN1 9SB, UK
| | - Ashley C. Banyard
- Animal and Plant Health Agency (APHA), Woodham Lane, Weybridge KT15 3NB, Surrey, UK
| | - Simon M. Cutting
- SporeGen Ltd., London Bioscience Innovation Centre, 2 Royal College Street, London NW1 0NH, UK
- Department of Biological Sciences, Royal Holloway University of London, Egham TW20 0EX, Surrey, UK
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +44-(0)7900-408043
| |
Collapse
|
4
|
Varying Viral Replication and Disease Profiles of H2N2 Influenza in Ferrets Is Associated with Virus Isolate and Inoculation Route. J Virol 2022; 96:e0073222. [PMID: 35862678 PMCID: PMC9327684 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.00732-22] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
In 1957 the world was subjected to a pandemic caused by an influenza A virus of the subtype H2N2. Although the virus disappeared in 1968, H2 viruses continue to circulate in avian reservoirs.
Collapse
|
5
|
Bi Z, Hong W, Yang J, Lu S, Peng X. Animal models for SARS-CoV-2 infection and pathology. MedComm (Beijing) 2021; 2:548-568. [PMID: 34909757 PMCID: PMC8662225 DOI: 10.1002/mco2.98] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/11/2021] [Revised: 10/10/2021] [Accepted: 10/13/2021] [Indexed: 02/05/2023] Open
Abstract
Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) is the etiology of coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic. Current variants including Alpha, Beta, Gamma, Delta, and Lambda increase the capacity of infection and transmission of SARS-CoV-2, which might disable the in-used therapies and vaccines. The COVID-19 has now put an enormous strain on health care system all over the world. Therefore, the development of animal models that can capture characteristics and immune responses observed in COVID-19 patients is urgently needed. Appropriate models could accelerate the testing of therapeutic drugs and vaccines against SARS-CoV-2. In this review, we aim to summarize the current animal models for SARS-CoV-2 infection, including mice, hamsters, nonhuman primates, and ferrets, and discuss the details of transmission, pathology, and immunology induced by SARS-CoV-2 in these animal models. We hope this could throw light to the increased usefulness in fundamental studies of COVID-19 and the preclinical analysis of vaccines and therapeutic agents.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Zhenfei Bi
- Laboratory of Aging Research and Cancer Drug TargetState Key Laboratory of BiotherapyNational Clinical Research Center for GeriatricsWest China HospitalSichuan UniversityChengduSichuanChina
| | - Weiqi Hong
- Laboratory of Aging Research and Cancer Drug TargetState Key Laboratory of BiotherapyNational Clinical Research Center for GeriatricsWest China HospitalSichuan UniversityChengduSichuanChina
| | - Jingyun Yang
- Laboratory of Aging Research and Cancer Drug TargetState Key Laboratory of BiotherapyNational Clinical Research Center for GeriatricsWest China HospitalSichuan UniversityChengduSichuanChina
| | - Shuaiyao Lu
- National Kunming High‐level Biosafety Primate Research CenterInstitute of Medical BiologyChinese Academy of Medical Sciences and Peking Union Medical CollegeYunnanChina
| | - Xiaozhong Peng
- National Kunming High‐level Biosafety Primate Research CenterInstitute of Medical BiologyChinese Academy of Medical Sciences and Peking Union Medical CollegeYunnanChina
| |
Collapse
|
6
|
van de Ven K, van Dijken H, Wijsman L, Gomersbach A, Schouten T, Kool J, Lenz S, Roholl P, Meijer A, van Kasteren PB, de Jonge J. Pathology and Immunity After SARS-CoV-2 Infection in Male Ferrets Is Affected by Age and Inoculation Route. Front Immunol 2021; 12:750229. [PMID: 34745122 PMCID: PMC8566349 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2021.750229] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/30/2021] [Accepted: 10/04/2021] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Improving COVID-19 intervention strategies partly relies on animal models to study SARS-CoV-2 disease and immunity. In our pursuit to establish a model for severe COVID-19, we inoculated young and adult male ferrets intranasally or intratracheally with SARS-CoV-2. Intranasal inoculation established an infection in all ferrets, with viral dissemination into the brain and gut. Upon intratracheal inoculation only adult ferrets became infected. However, neither inoculation route induced observable COVID-19 symptoms. Despite this, a persistent inflammation in the nasal turbinates was prominent in especially young ferrets and follicular hyperplasia in the bronchi developed 21 days post infection. These effects -if sustained- might resemble long-COVID. Respiratory and systemic cellular responses and antibody responses were induced only in animals with an established infection. We conclude that intranasally-infected ferrets resemble asymptomatic COVID-19 and possibly aspects of long-COVID. Combined with the increasing portfolio to measure adaptive immunity, ferrets are a relevant model for SARS-CoV-2 vaccine research.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Koen van de Ven
- Centre for Infectious Disease Control, National Institute for Public Health and The Environment (RIVM), Bilthoven, Netherlands
| | - Harry van Dijken
- Centre for Infectious Disease Control, National Institute for Public Health and The Environment (RIVM), Bilthoven, Netherlands
| | - Lisa Wijsman
- Centre for Infectious Disease Control, National Institute for Public Health and The Environment (RIVM), Bilthoven, Netherlands
| | - Angéla Gomersbach
- Animal Research Centre, Poonawalla Science Park, Bilthoven, Netherlands
| | - Tanja Schouten
- Animal Research Centre, Poonawalla Science Park, Bilthoven, Netherlands
| | - Jolanda Kool
- Centre for Infectious Disease Control, National Institute for Public Health and The Environment (RIVM), Bilthoven, Netherlands
| | - Stefanie Lenz
- Centre for Infectious Disease Control, National Institute for Public Health and The Environment (RIVM), Bilthoven, Netherlands
| | | | - Adam Meijer
- Centre for Infectious Disease Control, National Institute for Public Health and The Environment (RIVM), Bilthoven, Netherlands
| | - Puck B van Kasteren
- Centre for Infectious Disease Control, National Institute for Public Health and The Environment (RIVM), Bilthoven, Netherlands
| | - Jørgen de Jonge
- Centre for Infectious Disease Control, National Institute for Public Health and The Environment (RIVM), Bilthoven, Netherlands
| |
Collapse
|
7
|
Rioux M, Francis ME, Swan CL, Ge A, Kroeker A, Kelvin AA. The Intersection of Age and Influenza Severity: Utility of Ferrets for Dissecting the Age-Dependent Immune Responses and Relevance to Age-Specific Vaccine Development. Viruses 2021; 13:678. [PMID: 33920917 PMCID: PMC8071347 DOI: 10.3390/v13040678] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/13/2021] [Revised: 04/09/2021] [Accepted: 04/11/2021] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Many factors impact the host response to influenza virus infection and vaccination. Ferrets have been an indispensable reagent for influenza virus research for almost one hundred years. One of the most significant and well-known factors affecting human disease after infection is host age. Another significant factor is the virus, as strain-specific disease severity is well known. Studying age-related impacts on viral infection and vaccination outcomes requires an animal model that reflects both the physiological and immunological changes that occur with human aging, and sensitivity to differentially virulent influenza viruses. The ferret is uniquely susceptible to a plethora of influenza viruses impacting humans and has proven extremely useful in studying the clinical and immunological pictures of influenza virus infection. Moreover, ferrets developmentally have several of the age-related physiological changes that occur in humans throughout infancy, adulthood, old age, and pregnancy. In this review, we discuss ferret susceptibility to influenza viruses, summarize previous influenza studies using ferrets as models of age, and finally, highlight the application of ferret age models in the pursuit of prophylactic and therapeutic agents to address age-related influenza disease severity.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Melissa Rioux
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Faculty of Medicine, Dalhousie University, Halifax, NS B3H4R2, Canada; (M.R.); (A.G.)
| | - Magen E. Francis
- Vaccine and Infectious Disease Organization (VIDO), University of Saskatchewan, Saskatoon, SK S7N5E3, Canada; (M.E.F.); (C.L.S.); (A.K.)
| | - Cynthia L. Swan
- Vaccine and Infectious Disease Organization (VIDO), University of Saskatchewan, Saskatoon, SK S7N5E3, Canada; (M.E.F.); (C.L.S.); (A.K.)
| | - Anni Ge
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Faculty of Medicine, Dalhousie University, Halifax, NS B3H4R2, Canada; (M.R.); (A.G.)
| | - Andrea Kroeker
- Vaccine and Infectious Disease Organization (VIDO), University of Saskatchewan, Saskatoon, SK S7N5E3, Canada; (M.E.F.); (C.L.S.); (A.K.)
| | - Alyson A. Kelvin
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Faculty of Medicine, Dalhousie University, Halifax, NS B3H4R2, Canada; (M.R.); (A.G.)
- Vaccine and Infectious Disease Organization (VIDO), University of Saskatchewan, Saskatoon, SK S7N5E3, Canada; (M.E.F.); (C.L.S.); (A.K.)
- Department of Pediatrics, Division of Infectious Disease, Faculty of Medicine, Dalhousie University, Halifax, NS B3K6R8, Canada
- The Canadian Center for Vaccinology (IWK Health Centre, Dalhousie University and the Nova Scotia Health Authority), Halifax, NS B3K6R8, Canada
- Department of Biochemistry, College of Medicine, University of Saskatchewan, 107 Wiggins Road, Saskatoon, SK S7N5E5, Canada
| |
Collapse
|
8
|
Mezhenskaya D, Isakova-Sivak I, Kotomina T, Matyushenko V, Kim MC, Bhatnagar N, Kim KH, Kang SM, Rudenko L. A Strategy to Elicit M2e-Specific Antibodies Using a Recombinant H7N9 Live Attenuated Influenza Vaccine Expressing Multiple M2e Tandem Repeats. Biomedicines 2021; 9:biomedicines9020133. [PMID: 33535408 PMCID: PMC7912525 DOI: 10.3390/biomedicines9020133] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/21/2020] [Revised: 01/26/2021] [Accepted: 01/27/2021] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Influenza viruses remain a serious public health problem. Vaccination is the most effective way to prevent the disease; however, seasonal influenza vaccines demonstrate low or no effectiveness against antigenically drifted and newly emerged influenza viruses. Different strategies of eliciting immune responses against conserved parts of various influenza virus proteins are being developed worldwide. We constructed a universal live attenuated influenza vaccine (LAIV) candidate with enhanced breadth of protection by modifying H7N9 LAIV by incorporating four epitopes of M2 protein extracellular part into its hemagglutinin molecule. The new recombinant H7N9+4M2e vaccine induced anti-M2e antibody responses and demonstrated increased protection against heterosubtypic challenge viruses in direct and serum passive protection studies, compared to the classical H7N9 LAIV. The results of our study suggest that the H7N9+4M2e warrants further investigation in pre-clinical and phase 1 clinical trials.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Daria Mezhenskaya
- Department of Virology, Institute of Experimental Medicine, 197376 Saint Petersburg, Russia; (D.M.); (T.K.); (V.M.); (L.R.)
| | - Irina Isakova-Sivak
- Department of Virology, Institute of Experimental Medicine, 197376 Saint Petersburg, Russia; (D.M.); (T.K.); (V.M.); (L.R.)
- Correspondence:
| | - Tatiana Kotomina
- Department of Virology, Institute of Experimental Medicine, 197376 Saint Petersburg, Russia; (D.M.); (T.K.); (V.M.); (L.R.)
| | - Victoria Matyushenko
- Department of Virology, Institute of Experimental Medicine, 197376 Saint Petersburg, Russia; (D.M.); (T.K.); (V.M.); (L.R.)
| | - Min-Chul Kim
- Center for Inflammation, Immunity and Infection, Institute for Biomedical Sciences, Georgia State University, Atlanta, GA 30303, USA; (M.-C.K.); (N.B.); (K.-H.K.); (S.-M.K.)
| | - Noopur Bhatnagar
- Center for Inflammation, Immunity and Infection, Institute for Biomedical Sciences, Georgia State University, Atlanta, GA 30303, USA; (M.-C.K.); (N.B.); (K.-H.K.); (S.-M.K.)
| | - Ki-Hye Kim
- Center for Inflammation, Immunity and Infection, Institute for Biomedical Sciences, Georgia State University, Atlanta, GA 30303, USA; (M.-C.K.); (N.B.); (K.-H.K.); (S.-M.K.)
| | - Sang-Moo Kang
- Center for Inflammation, Immunity and Infection, Institute for Biomedical Sciences, Georgia State University, Atlanta, GA 30303, USA; (M.-C.K.); (N.B.); (K.-H.K.); (S.-M.K.)
| | - Larisa Rudenko
- Department of Virology, Institute of Experimental Medicine, 197376 Saint Petersburg, Russia; (D.M.); (T.K.); (V.M.); (L.R.)
| |
Collapse
|
9
|
Kiseleva I, Rekstin A, Al Farroukh M, Bazhenova E, Katelnikova A, Puchkova L, Rudenko L. Non-Mouse-Adapted H1N1pdm09 Virus as a Model for Influenza Research. Viruses 2020; 12:v12060590. [PMID: 32485821 PMCID: PMC7354452 DOI: 10.3390/v12060590] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/30/2020] [Revised: 05/21/2020] [Accepted: 05/27/2020] [Indexed: 12/26/2022] Open
Abstract
The number of lung-adapted influenza viruses is limited. Most of them are not antigenically related to current circulating viruses. Viruses similar to recent strains are required for screening modern antiviral compounds and studying new vaccine candidates against novel influenza viruses. The process by which an influenza virus adapts to a new host is rather difficult. The aim of this study was to select a non-adapted current virus whose major biological properties correspond to those of classical lab-adapted viruses. Mice were inoculated intranasally with non-lung-adapted influenza viruses of subtype H1N1pdm09. They were monitored closely for body weight loss, mortality outcomes and gross pathology for 14 days following inoculation, as well as viral replication in lung tissue. Lung-adapted PR8 virus was used as a control. The tested viruses multiplied equally well in the lower respiratory tract of mice without prior adaptation but dramatically differed in lethality; the differences in their toxicity and pathogenicity in mice were established. A/South Africa/3626/2013 (H1N1)pdm09 virus was found to be an appropriate candidate to replace PR8 as a model virus for influenza research. No prior adaptation to the animal model is needed to reach the pathogenicity level of the classical mouse-adapted PR8 virus.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Irina Kiseleva
- Department of Virology, Federal State Budgetary Scientific Institution “Institute of Experimental Medicine”, 197376 St Petersburg, Russia; (A.R.); (M.A.F.); (E.B.); (L.P.); (L.R.)
- Correspondence:
| | - Andrey Rekstin
- Department of Virology, Federal State Budgetary Scientific Institution “Institute of Experimental Medicine”, 197376 St Petersburg, Russia; (A.R.); (M.A.F.); (E.B.); (L.P.); (L.R.)
| | - Mohammad Al Farroukh
- Department of Virology, Federal State Budgetary Scientific Institution “Institute of Experimental Medicine”, 197376 St Petersburg, Russia; (A.R.); (M.A.F.); (E.B.); (L.P.); (L.R.)
| | - Ekaterina Bazhenova
- Department of Virology, Federal State Budgetary Scientific Institution “Institute of Experimental Medicine”, 197376 St Petersburg, Russia; (A.R.); (M.A.F.); (E.B.); (L.P.); (L.R.)
| | - Anastasia Katelnikova
- Department of Toxicology and Microbiology, Institute of Preclinical Research Ltd., 188663 St Petersburg, Russia;
| | - Ludmila Puchkova
- Department of Virology, Federal State Budgetary Scientific Institution “Institute of Experimental Medicine”, 197376 St Petersburg, Russia; (A.R.); (M.A.F.); (E.B.); (L.P.); (L.R.)
| | - Larisa Rudenko
- Department of Virology, Federal State Budgetary Scientific Institution “Institute of Experimental Medicine”, 197376 St Petersburg, Russia; (A.R.); (M.A.F.); (E.B.); (L.P.); (L.R.)
| |
Collapse
|
10
|
Desheva Y, Smolonogina T, Donina S, Rudenko L. Study of Neuraminidase-Inhibiting Antibodies in Clinical Trials of Live Influenza Vaccines. Antibodies (Basel) 2020; 9:antib9020020. [PMID: 32485797 PMCID: PMC7344733 DOI: 10.3390/antib9020020] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/01/2020] [Revised: 05/06/2020] [Accepted: 05/11/2020] [Indexed: 01/15/2023] Open
Abstract
Background: Currently, the immunogenicity of influenza vaccines is assessed by detecting an increase of hemagglutination inhibition (HI) antibodies. As neuraminidase (NA)-based immunity may be significant in protecting against influenza infection, detection of neuraminidase inhibiting (NI) antibodies may improve the assessment of the immunogenicity of influenza vaccines. Methods: We investigated the immune response to NA in people after immunization with live influenza vaccines (LAIVs). A number of A/H7NX or A/H6NX viruses were used to detect NI antibodies, using an enzyme-linked lectin assay (ELLA). Results: Seasonal LAIV immunization stimulated an increase in NI antibodies not only to homologous A/H1N1 influenza, but also to A/H1N1pdm09 and A/H5N1 influenza. After A/17/California/09/38 (H1N1) pdm09 LAIV vaccination, there was no statistical relationship between post-vaccinated antibody seroconversion and two surface glycoproteins in serum samples obtained from the same individuals (p = 0.24). Vaccination with LAIV of H5N2, H2N2, H7N3, and H7N9 subtypes led to 7%–29.6% NI antibody seroconversions in the absence of HI antibody conversions. There was relatively low coordination of hemagglutinin (HA) and NA antibody responses (r = 0.24–0.59). Conclusions: The previously noted autonomy for HI and NI immune responses was confirmed when assessing the immunogenicity of LAIVs. Combining the traditional HI test with the detection of NI antibodies can provide a more complete assessment of LAIV immunogenicity.
Collapse
|
11
|
H7N9 influenza split vaccine with SWE oil-in-water adjuvant greatly enhances cross-reactive humoral immunity and protection against severe pneumonia in ferrets. NPJ Vaccines 2020; 5:38. [PMID: 32411401 PMCID: PMC7214439 DOI: 10.1038/s41541-020-0187-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/03/2019] [Accepted: 04/21/2020] [Indexed: 12/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Until universal influenza vaccines become available, pandemic preparedness should include developing classical vaccines against potential pandemic influenza subtypes. We here show that addition of SWE adjuvant, a squalene-in-water emulsion, to H7N9 split influenza vaccine clearly enhanced functional antibody responses in ferrets. These were cross-reactive against H7N9 strains from different lineages and newly emerged H7N9 variants. Both vaccine formulations protected in almost all cases against severe pneumonia induced by intratracheal infection of ferrets with H7N9 influenza; however, the SWE adjuvant enhanced protection against virus replication and disease. Correlation analysis and curve fitting showed that both VN- and NI-titers were better predictors for protection than HI-titers. Moreover, we show that novel algorithms can assist in better interpretation of large data sets generated in preclinical studies. Cluster analysis showed that the adjuvanted vaccine results in robust immunity and protection, whereas the response to the non-adjuvanted vaccine is heterogeneous, such that the protection balance may be more easily tipped toward severe disease. Finally, cluster analysis indicated that the dose-sparing capacity of the adjuvant is at least a factor six, which greatly increases vaccine availability in a pandemic situation.
Collapse
|
12
|
Westerhuis B, Ten Hulscher H, Jacobi R, van Beek J, Koopmans M, Rimmelzwaan G, Meijer A, van Binnendijk R. Specific memory B cell response in humans upon infection with highly pathogenic H7N7 avian influenza virus. Sci Rep 2020; 10:3152. [PMID: 32081953 PMCID: PMC7035254 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-020-60048-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/10/2019] [Accepted: 01/27/2020] [Indexed: 11/29/2022] Open
Abstract
H7 avian influenza viruses represent a major public health concern, and worldwide outbreaks raise the risk of a potential pandemic. Understanding the memory B cell response to avian (H7) influenza virus infection in humans could provide insights in the potential key to human infection risks. We investigated an epizootic of the highly pathogenic A(H7N7) in the Netherlands, which in 2003 led to infection of 89 persons and one fatal case. Subtype-specificity of antibodies were determined for confirmed H7N7 infected individuals (cases) (n = 19), contacts of these cases (n = 21) and a comparison group controls (n = 16), by microarray, using recombinant hemagglutinin (HA)1 proteins. The frequency and specificity of memory B cells was determined by detecting subtype-specific antibodies in the culture supernatants from in vitro stimulated oligoclonal B cell cultures, from peripheral blood of cases and controls. All cases (100%) had high antibody titers specific for A(H7N7)2003 (GMT > 100), whereas H7-HA1 antigen binding was detected in 29% of contacts and 31% of controls, suggesting that some of the H7 reactivity stems from cross reactive antibodies. To unravel homotypic and heterotypic responses, the frequency and specificity of memory B cells were determined in 2 cases. Ten of 123 HA1 reactive clones isolated from the cases bound to only H7- HA1, whereas 5 bound both H7 and other HA1 antigens. We recovered at least four different epitopal reactivities, though none of the H7 reactive antibodies were able to neutralize H7 infections in vitro. Our study serologically confirms the infection with H7 avian influenza viruses, and shows that H7 infection triggers a mixture of strain -specific and cross-reactive antibodies.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Brenda Westerhuis
- Centre for Infectious Disease Control (Cib), National Institute for Public Health and the Environment (RIVM), Bilthoven, The Netherlands.,Department of Viroscience, Erasmus MC, Rotterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Hinke Ten Hulscher
- Centre for Infectious Disease Control (Cib), National Institute for Public Health and the Environment (RIVM), Bilthoven, The Netherlands
| | - Ronald Jacobi
- Centre for Infectious Disease Control (Cib), National Institute for Public Health and the Environment (RIVM), Bilthoven, The Netherlands
| | - Josine van Beek
- Centre for Infectious Disease Control (Cib), National Institute for Public Health and the Environment (RIVM), Bilthoven, The Netherlands
| | - Marion Koopmans
- Department of Viroscience, Erasmus MC, Rotterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Guus Rimmelzwaan
- Department of Viroscience, Erasmus MC, Rotterdam, The Netherlands.,Research Center for Emerging Infections and Zoonoses, University of Veterinary Medicine (TiHo), Hanover, Germany
| | - Adam Meijer
- Centre for Infectious Disease Control (Cib), National Institute for Public Health and the Environment (RIVM), Bilthoven, The Netherlands
| | - Rob van Binnendijk
- Centre for Infectious Disease Control (Cib), National Institute for Public Health and the Environment (RIVM), Bilthoven, The Netherlands.
| |
Collapse
|
13
|
Isakova-Sivak I, Matyushenko V, Kotomina T, Kiseleva I, Krutikova E, Donina S, Rekstin A, Larionova N, Mezhenskaya D, Sivak K, Muzhikyan A, Katelnikova A, Rudenko L. Sequential Immunization with Universal Live Attenuated Influenza Vaccine Candidates Protects Ferrets against a High-Dose Heterologous Virus Challenge. Vaccines (Basel) 2019; 7:vaccines7030061. [PMID: 31288422 PMCID: PMC6789596 DOI: 10.3390/vaccines7030061] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/22/2019] [Revised: 06/28/2019] [Accepted: 07/04/2019] [Indexed: 12/16/2022] Open
Abstract
The development of universal influenza vaccines has been a priority for more than 20 years. We conducted a preclinical study in ferrets of two sets of live attenuated influenza vaccines (LAIVs) expressing chimeric hemagglutinin (cHA). These vaccines contained the HA stalk domain from H1N1pdm09 virus but had antigenically unrelated globular head domains from avian influenza viruses H5N1, H8N4 and H9N2. The viral nucleoproteins (NPs) in the two sets of universal LAIV candidates were from different sources: one LAIV set contained NP from A/Leningrad/17 master donor virus (MDV), while in the other set this gene was from wild-type (WT) H1N1pdm09 virus, in order to better match the CD8 T-cell epitopes of currently circulating influenza A viruses. To avoid any difference in protective effect of the various anti-neuraminidase (NA) antibodies, all LAIVs were engineered to contain the NA gene of Len/17 MDV. Naïve ferrets were sequentially immunized with three doses of (i) classical LAIVs containing non-chimeric HA and NP from MDV (LAIVs (NP-MDV)); (ii) cHA-based LAIVs containing NP from MDV (cHA LAIVs (NP-MDV)); and (iii) cHA-based LAIVs containing NP from H1N1pdm09 virus (cHA LAIVs (NP-WT)). All vaccination regimens were safe, producing no significant increase in body temperature or weight loss, in comparison with the placebo group. The two groups of cHA-based vaccines induced a broadly reactive HA stalk-directed antibody, while classical LAIVs did not. A high-dose challenge with H1N1pdm09 virus induced significant pathology in the control, non-immunized ferrets, including high virus titers in respiratory tissues, clinical signs of disease and histopathological changes in nasal turbinates and lung tissues. All three vaccination regimens protected animals from clinical manifestations of disease: immunized ferrets did not lose weight or show clinical symptoms, and their fever was significantly lower than in the control group. Further analysis of virological and pathological data revealed the following hierarchy in the cross-protective efficacy of the vaccines: cHA LAIVs (NP-WT) > cHA LAIVs (NP-MDV) > LAIVs (NP-MDV). This ferret study showed that prototype universal cHA-based LAIVs are highly promising candidates for further clinical development.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Irina Isakova-Sivak
- Department of Virology, Institute of Experimental Medicine, St Petersburg 197376, Russia.
| | - Victoria Matyushenko
- Department of Virology, Institute of Experimental Medicine, St Petersburg 197376, Russia
| | - Tatiana Kotomina
- Department of Virology, Institute of Experimental Medicine, St Petersburg 197376, Russia
| | - Irina Kiseleva
- Department of Virology, Institute of Experimental Medicine, St Petersburg 197376, Russia
| | - Elena Krutikova
- Department of Virology, Institute of Experimental Medicine, St Petersburg 197376, Russia
| | - Svetlana Donina
- Department of Virology, Institute of Experimental Medicine, St Petersburg 197376, Russia
| | - Andrey Rekstin
- Department of Virology, Institute of Experimental Medicine, St Petersburg 197376, Russia
| | - Natalia Larionova
- Department of Virology, Institute of Experimental Medicine, St Petersburg 197376, Russia
| | - Daria Mezhenskaya
- Department of Virology, Institute of Experimental Medicine, St Petersburg 197376, Russia
| | - Konstantin Sivak
- Department of Preclinical Trials, Smorodintsev Research Institute of Influenza, St Petersburg 197376, Russia
| | - Arman Muzhikyan
- Department of Preclinical Trials, Smorodintsev Research Institute of Influenza, St Petersburg 197376, Russia
| | - Anastasia Katelnikova
- Department of Toxicology and Microbiology, Institute of Preclinical Research Ltd., St Petersburg 188663, Russia
| | - Larisa Rudenko
- Department of Virology, Institute of Experimental Medicine, St Petersburg 197376, Russia
| |
Collapse
|
14
|
Wang WH, Erazo EM, Ishcol MRC, Lin CY, Assavalapsakul W, Thitithanyanont A, Wang SF. Virus-induced pathogenesis, vaccine development, and diagnosis of novel H7N9 avian influenza A virus in humans: a systemic literature review. J Int Med Res 2019; 48:300060519845488. [PMID: 31068040 PMCID: PMC7140199 DOI: 10.1177/0300060519845488] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/08/2023] Open
Abstract
H7N9 avian influenza virus (AIV) caused human infections in 2013 in China.
Phylogenetic analyses indicate that H7N9 AIV is a novel reassortant strain with
pandemic potential. We conducted a systemic review regarding virus-induced
pathogenesis, vaccine development, and diagnosis of H7N9 AIV infection in
humans. We followed PRISMA guidelines and searched PubMed, Web of Science, and
Google Scholar to identify relevant articles published between January 2013 and
December 2018. Pathogenesis data indicated that H7N9 AIV belongs to low
pathogenic avian influenza, which is mostly asymptomatic in avian species;
however, H7N9 induces high mortality in humans. Sporadic human infections have
recently been reported, caused by highly pathogenic avian influenza viruses
detected in poultry. H7N9 AIVs resistant to adamantine and oseltamivir cause
severe human infection by rapidly inducing progressive acute community-acquired
pneumonia, multiorgan dysfunction, and cytokine dysregulation; however,
mechanisms via which the virus induces severe syndromes remain unclear. An H7N9
AIV vaccine is lacking; designs under evaluation include synthesized peptide,
baculovirus-insect system, and virus-like particle vaccines. Molecular diagnosis
of H7N9 AIVs is suggested over conventional assays, for biosafety reasons.
Several advanced or modified diagnostic assays are under investigation and
development. We summarized virus-induced pathogenesis, vaccine development, and
current diagnostic assays in H7N9 AIVs.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Wen-Hung Wang
- Division of Infectious Disease, Department of Internal Medicine, Kaohsiung Medical University Hospital, Kaohsiung Medical University, Kaohsiung.,Center for Infectious Disease and Cancer Research, Kaohsiung Medical University, Kaohsiung
| | - Esmeralda Merari Erazo
- Department of Medical Laboratory Science and Biotechnology, Kaohsiung Medical University, Kaohsiung
| | - Max R Chang Ishcol
- Program in Tropical Medicine, College of Medicine, Kaohsiung Medical University, Kaohsiung
| | - Chih-Yen Lin
- Center for Infectious Disease and Cancer Research, Kaohsiung Medical University, Kaohsiung.,Department of Medical Laboratory Science and Biotechnology, Kaohsiung Medical University, Kaohsiung
| | - Wanchai Assavalapsakul
- Department of Microbiology, Faculty of Science, Chulalongkorn University, Bangkok, Thailand
| | | | - Sheng-Fan Wang
- Center for Infectious Disease and Cancer Research, Kaohsiung Medical University, Kaohsiung.,Department of Medical Laboratory Science and Biotechnology, Kaohsiung Medical University, Kaohsiung.,Department of Medical Research, Kaohsiung Medical University Hospital, Kaohsiung
| |
Collapse
|
15
|
Stepanova EA, Kotomina TS, Matyushenko VA, Smolonogina TA, Shapovalova VS, Rudenko LG, Isakova-Sivak IN. Amino Acid Substitutions N123D and N149D in Hemagglutinin Molecule Enhance Immunigenicity of Live Attenuated Influenza H7N9 Vaccine Strain in Experiment. Bull Exp Biol Med 2019; 166:631-636. [PMID: 30903496 DOI: 10.1007/s10517-019-04407-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/22/2018] [Indexed: 02/01/2023]
Abstract
We compared three cold-adapted live attenuated influenza vaccine strains prepared by reverse genetics methods on the basis of master donor virus A/Leningrad/134/17/57 and influenza H7N9 strains A/Anhui/1/2013 and A/Shanghai/1/2013. Two strains based on A/Anhui/1/2013 differed by amino acid positions 123 and 149 in HA1 (123N/149N; 123D/149D). All strains efficiently replicated in developing chicken embryos; A/Shanghai/1/2013-based strain and A/Anhui/1/2013-123N/149N variant were characterized by reduced replication in MDCK cells. Strains based on A/Anhui/1/2013 virus agglutinated erythrocytes with α2,3- and α2,6-linked sialic acid residues, whereas strain A/Shanghai/1/2013 only α2,3. In experiments with BALB/c mice, Anhui-123D/149D strain was most immunogenic and induced high crossreactive humoral immune response, therefore it can be recommended as the model virus for the construction of recombinant vector vaccines based on live attenuated influenza vaccine.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- E A Stepanova
- A. A. Smorodintsev Department of Virology, Institute of Experimental Medicine, St. Petersburg, Russia.
| | - T S Kotomina
- A. A. Smorodintsev Department of Virology, Institute of Experimental Medicine, St. Petersburg, Russia
| | - V A Matyushenko
- A. A. Smorodintsev Department of Virology, Institute of Experimental Medicine, St. Petersburg, Russia
| | - T A Smolonogina
- A. A. Smorodintsev Department of Virology, Institute of Experimental Medicine, St. Petersburg, Russia
| | - V S Shapovalova
- A. A. Smorodintsev Department of Virology, Institute of Experimental Medicine, St. Petersburg, Russia
| | - L G Rudenko
- A. A. Smorodintsev Department of Virology, Institute of Experimental Medicine, St. Petersburg, Russia
| | - I N Isakova-Sivak
- A. A. Smorodintsev Department of Virology, Institute of Experimental Medicine, St. Petersburg, Russia
| |
Collapse
|
16
|
Nurpeisova A, Kassenov M, Rametov N, Tabynov K, Renukaradhya GJ, Volgin Y, Sagymbay A, Makbuz A, Sansyzbay A, Khairullin B. Analysis of the efficacy of an adjuvant-based inactivated pandemic H5N1 influenza virus vaccine. Arch Virol 2019; 164:1027-1036. [PMID: 30740636 DOI: 10.1007/s00705-019-04147-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/05/2018] [Accepted: 01/07/2019] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
This paper describes a preclinical study analyzing the immunogenicity and protective efficacy of Kazfluvac®, an adjuvant-based inactivated pandemic influenza A/H5N1 virus vaccine. In this study, laboratory animals (ferrets and mice) were vaccinated by the intramuscular or intraperitoneal route at an interval of 14 days with two doses of the vaccine containing different concentrations of influenza virus hemagglutinin (HA) protein. HA protein without adjuvant (aluminum hydroxide and Merthiolate) was used as a control. As a negative control, we utilized PBS. We assessed the protective efficacy of the candidate vaccine by analyzing the response to challenge with the influenza virus strain A/chicken/Astana/6/05 (H5N1). Our experimental results revealed substantially reduced clinical disease and an increased antibody response, as determined by hemagglutination-inhibition (HAI) test and microneutralization assay (MNA). This study showed that the candidate vaccine is safe and elicits an antigen-dose-dependent serum antibody response. In summary, we determined the optimum antigen dose in a Kazfluvac® adjuvant formulation required for induction of heightened immunogenicity and protective efficacy to mitigate H5N1 disease in experimental animals, suggesting its readiness for clinical studies in humans.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Ainur Nurpeisova
- Research Institute for Biological Safety Problems (RIBSP), Gvardeyskiy, Korday district, Zhambyl Region, Republic of Kazakhstan.
| | - Markhabat Kassenov
- Research Institute for Biological Safety Problems (RIBSP), Gvardeyskiy, Korday district, Zhambyl Region, Republic of Kazakhstan
| | - Nurkuisa Rametov
- Research Institute for Biological Safety Problems (RIBSP), Gvardeyskiy, Korday district, Zhambyl Region, Republic of Kazakhstan
| | - Kaissar Tabynov
- Research Institute for Biological Safety Problems (RIBSP), Gvardeyskiy, Korday district, Zhambyl Region, Republic of Kazakhstan
| | - Gourapura J Renukaradhya
- Department of Veterinary Preventive Medicine, Food Animal Health Research Program, Ohio Agricultural Research and Development Center, The Ohio State University (OSU), Wooster, OH, 44691, USA
| | - Yevgeniy Volgin
- Research Institute for Biological Safety Problems (RIBSP), Gvardeyskiy, Korday district, Zhambyl Region, Republic of Kazakhstan
| | - Altynay Sagymbay
- Research Institute for Biological Safety Problems (RIBSP), Gvardeyskiy, Korday district, Zhambyl Region, Republic of Kazakhstan
| | - Amanzhol Makbuz
- Kazakh National Agrarian University, Almaty, Republic of Kazakhstan
| | - Abylay Sansyzbay
- Research Institute for Biological Safety Problems (RIBSP), Gvardeyskiy, Korday district, Zhambyl Region, Republic of Kazakhstan
| | - Berik Khairullin
- Research Institute for Biological Safety Problems (RIBSP), Gvardeyskiy, Korday district, Zhambyl Region, Republic of Kazakhstan
| |
Collapse
|
17
|
Rudenko L, Kiseleva I, Krutikova E, Stepanova E, Isakova-Sivak I, Donina S, Rekstin A, Pisareva M, Bazhenova E, Kotomina T, Katelnikova A, Muzhikyan A, Makarov V, Sparrow EG, Torelli G. Two Live Attenuated Vaccines against Recent Low⁻and Highly Pathogenic H7N9 Influenza Viruses Are Safe and Immunogenic in Ferrets. Vaccines (Basel) 2018; 6:vaccines6040074. [PMID: 30388790 PMCID: PMC6313887 DOI: 10.3390/vaccines6040074] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/30/2018] [Revised: 09/21/2018] [Accepted: 09/27/2018] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Influenza H7N9 virus is a potentially pandemic subtype to which most people are immunologically naïve. To be better prepared for the potential occurrence of an H7N9 pandemic, in 2017 the World Health Organization recommended developing candidate vaccine viruses from two new H7N9 viruses, A/Guangdong/17SF003/2016 (A/GD) and A/Hong Kong/125/2017 (A/HK). This report describes the development of live attenuated influenza vaccine (LAIV) candidates against A/GD and A/HK viruses and study of their safety and immunogenicity in the ferret model in order to choose the most promising one for a phase I clinical trial. The A/HK-based vaccine candidate (A/17/HK) was developed by classical reassortment in eggs. The A/GD-based vaccine candidate (A/17/GD) was generated by reverse genetics. Ferrets were vaccinated with two doses of LAIV or phosphate-buffered saline. Both H7N9 LAIVs tested were safe for ferrets, as shown by absence of clinical signs, and by virological and histological data; they were immunogenic after a single vaccination. These results provide a compelling argument for further testing of these vaccines in volunteers. Since the A/HK virus represents the cluster that has caused the majority of human cases, and because the A/HK-based LAIV candidate was developed by classical reassortment, this is the preferred candidate for a phase I clinical trial.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Larisa Rudenko
- Institute of Experimental Medicine, St. Petersburg 197376, Russia.
| | - Irina Kiseleva
- Institute of Experimental Medicine, St. Petersburg 197376, Russia.
| | - Elena Krutikova
- Institute of Experimental Medicine, St. Petersburg 197376, Russia.
| | | | | | - Svetlana Donina
- Institute of Experimental Medicine, St. Petersburg 197376, Russia.
| | - Andrey Rekstin
- Institute of Experimental Medicine, St. Petersburg 197376, Russia.
| | - Maria Pisareva
- Institute of Experimental Medicine, St. Petersburg 197376, Russia.
| | | | - Tatiana Kotomina
- Institute of Experimental Medicine, St. Petersburg 197376, Russia.
| | | | - Arman Muzhikyan
- Institute of Preclinical Research Ltd., St. Petersburg 188663, Russia.
| | - Valery Makarov
- Institute of Preclinical Research Ltd., St. Petersburg 188663, Russia.
| | | | - Guido Torelli
- World Health Organization, 1211 Geneva, Switzerland.
| |
Collapse
|
18
|
Delgadillo-Gutiérrez K, Ribas-Aparicio RM, Jiménez-Alberto A, Aparicio-Ozores G, Castelán-Vega JA. Stability of retroviral pseudotypes carrying the hemagglutinin of avian influenza viruses under various storage conditions. J Virol Methods 2018; 263:44-49. [PMID: 30347199 DOI: 10.1016/j.jviromet.2018.10.013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/01/2018] [Revised: 09/09/2018] [Accepted: 10/16/2018] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Abstract
Retroviral pseudotypes are broadly used as safe instruments to mimic the structure and surface of highly pathogenic viruses. They have been employed for the discovery of new drugs, as diagnostic tools in vaccine studies, and part of serological assays. Because of their widespread use in research and their potential as tools for quality control, it is important to know their shelf life, stability, and best storage conditions. In this study, we produced pseudotypes carrying the lacZ reporter gene and the hemagglutinin (HA) of avian influenza virus subtypes H5 and H7 to investigate their stability under various storage conditions. We produced pseudotypes with titers of approximately 106 RLU/mL, which decreased to 105-106 RLU/mL after short-term storage at 4 °C (up to 4 weeks). Stability was maintained after long-term storage at -20 °C (up to 12 months), even under storage variations such as freeze-thaw cycles. We conclude that, although the titers decreased by 1 log10 under the different storage conditions, the remaining titers can be readily applicable in many techniques, such as neutralization assays. These findings show that large quantities of retroviral pseudotypes can be safely stored for short- or long-term use, allowing standardization and reduced variation in assays involving retroviral pseudotypes.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Karen Delgadillo-Gutiérrez
- Departamento de Microbiología, Escuela Nacional de Ciencias Biológicas, Instituto Politécnico Nacional (IPN), Mexico City, Mexico
| | - Rosa María Ribas-Aparicio
- Departamento de Microbiología, Escuela Nacional de Ciencias Biológicas, Instituto Politécnico Nacional (IPN), Mexico City, Mexico
| | - Alicia Jiménez-Alberto
- Departamento de Microbiología, Escuela Nacional de Ciencias Biológicas, Instituto Politécnico Nacional (IPN), Mexico City, Mexico
| | - Gerardo Aparicio-Ozores
- Departamento de Microbiología, Escuela Nacional de Ciencias Biológicas, Instituto Politécnico Nacional (IPN), Mexico City, Mexico
| | - Juan A Castelán-Vega
- Departamento de Microbiología, Escuela Nacional de Ciencias Biológicas, Instituto Politécnico Nacional (IPN), Mexico City, Mexico.
| |
Collapse
|
19
|
Comparison of the Efficacy of N9 Neuraminidase-Specific Monoclonal Antibodies against Influenza A(H7N9) Virus Infection. J Virol 2018; 92:JVI.01588-17. [PMID: 29167344 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.01588-17] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/19/2017] [Accepted: 11/20/2017] [Indexed: 01/07/2023] Open
Abstract
The fifth wave of A(H7N9) virus infection in China from 2016 to 2017 caused great concern due to the large number of individuals infected, the isolation of drug-resistant viruses, and the emergence of highly pathogenic strains. Antibodies against neuraminidase (NA) provide added benefit to hemagglutinin-specific immunity and may be important contributors to the effectiveness of A(H7N9) vaccines. We generated a panel of mouse monoclonal antibodies (MAbs) to identify antigenic domains on NA of the novel A(H7N9) virus and compared their functional properties. The loop formed in the region of residue 250 (250 loop) and the domain formed by the loops containing residues 370, 400, and 430 were identified as major antigenic regions. MAbs 1E8, 2F6, 10F4, and 11B2, which recognize these two antigenic domains, were characterized in depth. These four MAbs differ in their abilities to inhibit cleavage of small and large substrates (methyl-umbelliferyl-acetyl neuraminic acid [MU-NANA] and fetuin, respectively) in NA inhibition assays. 1E8 and 11B2 did not inhibit NA cleavage of either MU-NANA or fetuin, and 2F6 inhibited cleavage of fetuin alone, whereas 10F4 inhibited cleavage of both substrates. All four MAbs reduced the in vitro spread of viruses carrying either the wild-type N9 or N9 with antiviral-resistant mutations but to different degrees. These MAbs have different in vivo levels of effectiveness: 10F4 was the most effective in protecting mice against challenge with A(H7N9) virus, 2F6 was less effective, and 11B2 failed to protect BALB/c mice at the doses tested. Our study confirms that NA-specific antibodies can protect against A(H7N9) infection and suggests that in vitro properties can be used to rank antibodies with therapeutic potential.IMPORTANCE The novel A(H7N9) viruses that emerged in China in 2013 continue to infect humans, with a high fatality rate. The most recent outbreak resulted in a larger number of human cases than previous epidemic waves. Due to the absence of a licensed vaccine and the emergence of drug-resistant viruses, there is a need to develop alternative approaches to prevent or treat A(H7N9) infection. We have made a panel of mouse monoclonal antibodies (MAbs) specific for neuraminidase (NA) of A(H7N9) viruses; some of these MAbs are effective in inhibiting viruses that are resistant to antivirals used to treat A(H7N9) patients. Binding avidity, inhibition of NA activity, and plaque formation correlated with the effectiveness of these MAbs to protect mice against lethal A(H7N9) virus challenge. This study identifies in vitro measures that can be used to predict the in vivo efficacy of NA-specific antibodies, providing a way to select MAbs for further therapeutic development.
Collapse
|
20
|
Khodamoradi S, Shenagari M, Kheiri MT, Sabahi F, Jamali A, Heidari A, Ashrafkhani B. IRES-based co-expression of influenza virus conserved genes can promote synergistic antiviral effects both in vitro and in vivo. Arch Virol 2017; 163:877-886. [DOI: 10.1007/s00705-017-3682-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/25/2017] [Accepted: 12/07/2017] [Indexed: 01/21/2023]
|
21
|
Hu Z, Jiao X, Liu X. Antibody Immunity Induced by H7N9 Avian Influenza Vaccines: Evaluation Criteria, Affecting Factors, and Implications for Rational Vaccine Design. Front Microbiol 2017; 8:1898. [PMID: 29018438 PMCID: PMC5622983 DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2017.01898] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/01/2017] [Accepted: 09/15/2017] [Indexed: 12/27/2022] Open
Abstract
Severe H7N9 avian influenza virus (AIV) infections in humans have public health authorities around the world on high alert for the potential development of a human influenza pandemic. Currently, the newly-emerged highly pathogenic avian influenza A (H7N9) virus poses a dual challenge for public health and poultry industry. Numerous H7N9 vaccine candidates have been generated using various platforms. Immunization trials in animals and humans showed that H7N9 vaccines are apparently poorly immunogenic because they induced low hemagglutination inhibition and virus neutralizing antibody titers. However, H7N9 vaccines elicit comparable levels of total hemagglutinin (HA)-reactive IgG antibody as the seasonal influenza vaccines, suggesting H7N9 vaccines are as immunogenic as their seasonal counterparts. A large fraction of overall IgG antibody is non-neutralizing antibody and they target unrecognized epitopes outside of the traditional antigenic sites in HA. Further, the Treg epitope identified in H7 HA may at least partially contribute to regulation of antibody immunity. Here, we review the latest advances for the development of H7N9 vaccines and discuss the influence of serological criteria on evaluation of immunogenicity of H7N9 vaccines. Next, we discuss factors affecting antibody immunity induced by H7N9 vaccines, including the change in antigenic epitopes in HA and the presence of the Treg epitope. Last, we present our perspectives for the unique features of antibody immunity of H7N9 vaccines and propose some future directions to improve or modify antibody response induced by H7N9 vaccines. This perspective would provide critical implications for rational design of H7N9 vaccines for human and veterinary use.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Zenglei Hu
- Animal Infectious Disease Laboratory, School of Veterinary Medicine, Yangzhou University, Yangzhou, China
- Jiangsu Co-innovation Center for Prevention and Control of Important Animal Infectious Diseases and Zoonoses, Yangzhou University, Yangzhou, China
| | - Xinan Jiao
- Animal Infectious Disease Laboratory, School of Veterinary Medicine, Yangzhou University, Yangzhou, China
- Jiangsu Co-innovation Center for Prevention and Control of Important Animal Infectious Diseases and Zoonoses, Yangzhou University, Yangzhou, China
- Jiangsu Key Laboratory of Zoonosis, Yangzhou University, Yangzhou, China
- Key Laboratory of Prevention and Control of Biological Hazard Factors (Animal Origin) for Agri-Food Safety and Quality, Ministry of Agriculture of China, Yangzhou University, Yangzhou, China
| | - Xiufan Liu
- Animal Infectious Disease Laboratory, School of Veterinary Medicine, Yangzhou University, Yangzhou, China
- Jiangsu Co-innovation Center for Prevention and Control of Important Animal Infectious Diseases and Zoonoses, Yangzhou University, Yangzhou, China
- Jiangsu Key Laboratory of Zoonosis, Yangzhou University, Yangzhou, China
- Key Laboratory of Prevention and Control of Biological Hazard Factors (Animal Origin) for Agri-Food Safety and Quality, Ministry of Agriculture of China, Yangzhou University, Yangzhou, China
| |
Collapse
|
22
|
Isakova-Sivak I, Rudenko L. Tackling a novel lethal virus: a focus on H7N9 vaccine development. Expert Rev Vaccines 2017; 16:1-13. [PMID: 28532182 DOI: 10.1080/14760584.2017.1333907] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/01/2023]
Abstract
INTRODUCTION Avian-origin H7N9 influenza viruses first detected in humans in China in 2013 continue to cause severe human infections with a mortality rate close to 40%. These viruses are acknowledged as the subtype most likely to cause the next influenza pandemic. Areas covered: Here we review published data on the development of H7N9 influenza vaccine candidates and their evaluation in preclinical and clinical trials identified on PubMed database with the term 'H7N9 influenza vaccine'. In addition, a search with the same term was done on ClinicalTrials.gov to find ongoing clinical trials with H7N9 vaccines. Expert commentary: Influenza vaccines are the most powerful tool for protecting the human population from influenza infections, both seasonal and pandemic. During the past four years, a large number of promising H7N9 influenza vaccine candidates have been generated using traditional and advanced gene engineering techniques. In addition, with the support of WHO's GAP program, influenza vaccine production capacities have been established in a number of vulnerable low- and middle-income countries with a high population density, allowing the countries to be independent of vaccine supply from high-income countries. Overall, it is believed that the world is now well prepared for a possible H7N9 influenza pandemic.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Irina Isakova-Sivak
- a Department of Virology , Institute of Experimental Medicine , Saint Petersburg , Russia
| | - Larisa Rudenko
- a Department of Virology , Institute of Experimental Medicine , Saint Petersburg , Russia
| |
Collapse
|
23
|
Immunogenicity and Cross Protection in Mice Afforded by Pandemic H1N1 Live Attenuated Influenza Vaccine Containing Wild-Type Nucleoprotein. BIOMED RESEARCH INTERNATIONAL 2017; 2017:9359276. [PMID: 28210631 PMCID: PMC5292185 DOI: 10.1155/2017/9359276] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/06/2016] [Accepted: 11/21/2016] [Indexed: 01/31/2023]
Abstract
Since conserved viral proteins of influenza virus, such as nucleoprotein (NP) and matrix 1 protein, are the main targets for virus-specific CD8+ cytotoxic T-lymphocytes (CTLs), we hypothesized that introduction of the NP gene of wild-type virus into the genome of vaccine reassortants could lead to better immunogenicity and afford better protection. This paper describes in vitro and in vivo preclinical studies of two new reassortants of pandemic H1N1 live attenuated influenza vaccine (LAIV) candidates. One had the hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA) genes from A/South Africa/3626/2013 H1N1 wild-type virus on the A/Leningrad/134/17/57 master donor virus backbone (6 : 2 formulation) while the second had the HA, NA, and NP genes of the wild-type virus on the same backbone (5 : 3 formulation). Although both LAIVs induced similar antibody immune responses, the 5 : 3 LAIV provoked greater production of virus-specific CTLs than the 6 : 2 variant. Furthermore, the 5 : 3 LAIV-induced CTLs had higher in vivo cytotoxic activity, compared to 6 : 2 LAIV. Finally, the 5 : 3 LAIV candidate afforded greater protection against infection and severe illness than the 6 : 2 LAIV. Inclusion in LAIV of the NP gene from wild-type influenza virus is a new approach to inducing cross-reactive cell-mediated immune responses and cross protection against pandemic influenza.
Collapse
|
24
|
Production of individualized V gene databases reveals high levels of immunoglobulin genetic diversity. Nat Commun 2016; 7:13642. [PMID: 27995928 PMCID: PMC5187446 DOI: 10.1038/ncomms13642] [Citation(s) in RCA: 130] [Impact Index Per Article: 16.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/22/2016] [Accepted: 10/21/2016] [Indexed: 12/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Comprehensive knowledge of immunoglobulin genetics is required to advance our understanding of B cell biology. Validated immunoglobulin variable (V) gene databases are close to completion only for human and mouse. We present a novel computational approach, IgDiscover, that identifies germline V genes from expressed repertoires to a specificity of 100%. IgDiscover uses a cluster identification process to produce candidate sequences that, once filtered, results in individualized germline V gene databases. IgDiscover was tested in multiple species, validated by genomic cloning and cross library comparisons and produces comprehensive gene databases even where limited genomic sequence is available. IgDiscover analysis of the allelic content of the Indian and Chinese-origin rhesus macaques reveals high levels of immunoglobulin gene diversity in this species. Further, we describe a novel human IGHV3-21 allele and confirm significant gene differences between Balb/c and C57BL6 mouse strains, demonstrating the power of IgDiscover as a germline V gene discovery tool. Current databases of V genes for antibody repertoire have limitations. Here Corcoran et al. develop a computational approach named IgDiscover that can identify germline V gene sequences from expressed antibody repertoires to high specificity and completeness.
Collapse
|
25
|
Isakova-Sivak I, Korenkov D, Smolonogina T, Tretiak T, Donina S, Rekstin A, Naykhin A, Shcherbik S, Pearce N, Chen LM, Bousse T, Rudenko L. Comparative studies of infectivity, immunogenicity and cross-protective efficacy of live attenuated influenza vaccines containing nucleoprotein from cold-adapted or wild-type influenza virus in a mouse model. Virology 2016; 500:209-217. [PMID: 27829176 DOI: 10.1016/j.virol.2016.10.027] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/01/2016] [Revised: 10/23/2016] [Accepted: 10/27/2016] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
This study sought to improve an existing live attenuated influenza vaccine (LAIV) by including nucleoprotein (NP) from wild-type virus rather than master donor virus (MDV). H7N9 LAIV reassortants with 6:2 (NP from MDV) and 5:3 (NP from wild-type virus) genome compositions were compared with regard to their growth characteristics, induction of humoral and cellular immune responses in mice, and ability to protect mice against homologous and heterologous challenge viruses. Although, in general, the 6:2 reassortant induced greater cell-mediated immunity in C57BL6 mice than the 5:3 vaccine, mice immunized with the 5:3 LAIV were better protected against heterologous challenge. The 5:3 LAIV-induced CTLs also had better in vivo killing activity against target cells loaded with the NP366 epitope of recent influenza viruses. Modification of the genome of reassortant vaccine viruses by incorporating the NP gene from wild-type viruses represents a simple strategy to improve the immunogenicity and cross-protection of influenza vaccines.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
| | - Daniil Korenkov
- Institute of Experimental Medicine, Saint Petersburg, Russia
| | | | - Tatiana Tretiak
- Institute of Experimental Medicine, Saint Petersburg, Russia
| | - Svetlana Donina
- Institute of Experimental Medicine, Saint Petersburg, Russia
| | - Andrey Rekstin
- Institute of Experimental Medicine, Saint Petersburg, Russia
| | - Anatoly Naykhin
- Institute of Experimental Medicine, Saint Petersburg, Russia
| | | | - Nicholas Pearce
- Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, GA, USA
| | - Li-Mei Chen
- Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, GA, USA
| | - Tatiana Bousse
- Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, GA, USA
| | - Larisa Rudenko
- Institute of Experimental Medicine, Saint Petersburg, Russia
| |
Collapse
|
26
|
Rudenko L, Yeolekar L, Kiseleva I, Isakova-Sivak I. Development and approval of live attenuated influenza vaccines based on Russian master donor viruses: Process challenges and success stories. Vaccine 2016; 34:5436-5441. [PMID: 27593158 PMCID: PMC5357706 DOI: 10.1016/j.vaccine.2016.08.018] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/30/2016] [Revised: 07/28/2016] [Accepted: 08/03/2016] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Abstract
Influenza is a viral infection that affects much of the global population each year. Vaccination remains the most effective tool for preventing the disease. Live attenuated influenza vaccine (LAIV) has been used since the 1950s to protect humans against seasonal influenza. LAIVs developed by the Institute of Experimental Medicine (IEM), Saint Petersburg, Russia, have been successfully used in Russia since 1987. In 2006, the World Health Organization (WHO) announced a Global action plan for influenza vaccines (GAP). WHO, recognizing potential advantages of LAIV over the inactivated influenza vaccine in a pandemic situation, included LAIV in the GAP. BioDiem Ltd., a vaccine development company based in Melbourne, Australia which held the rights for the Russian LAIV, licensed this technology to WHO in 2009. WHO was permitted to grant sub-licenses to vaccine manufacturers in newly industrialized and developing countries to use the Russian LAIV for the development, manufacture, use and sale of pandemic and seasonal LAIVs. To date, WHO has granted sub-licenses to vaccine manufacturers in China (Changchun BCHT Biotechnology Co., Ltd.), India (Serum Institute of India Pvt. Ltd.) and Thailand (Government Pharmaceutical Organization). In parallel, in 2009, IEM signed an agreement with WHO, under which IEM committed to supply pandemic and seasonal candidate vaccine viruses to the sub-licensees. This paper describes the progress made by collaborators from China, India, Russia and Thailand in developing preventive measures, including LAIV against pandemic influenza.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Larisa Rudenko
- Department of Virology, Institute of Experimental Medicine, 12 Acad. Pavlov Street, Saint Petersburg 197376, Russia.
| | - Leena Yeolekar
- Vaccine Production, Serum Institute of India, 212/2 Hadapsar, Pune, India.
| | - Irina Kiseleva
- Department of Virology, Institute of Experimental Medicine, 12 Acad. Pavlov Street, Saint Petersburg 197376, Russia.
| | - Irina Isakova-Sivak
- Department of Virology, Institute of Experimental Medicine, 12 Acad. Pavlov Street, Saint Petersburg 197376, Russia.
| |
Collapse
|