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Darling C, Kumar S, Alexandrov Y, de Faye J, Almagro Santiago J, Rýdlová A, Bugeon L, Dallman MJ, Behrens AJ, French PMW, McGinty J. Optical projection tomography implemented for accessibility and low cost ( OPTImAL). PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. SERIES A, MATHEMATICAL, PHYSICAL, AND ENGINEERING SCIENCES 2024; 382:20230101. [PMID: 38826047 DOI: 10.1098/rsta.2023.0101] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/25/2024] [Accepted: 03/21/2024] [Indexed: 06/04/2024]
Abstract
Optical projection tomography (OPT) is a three-dimensional mesoscopic imaging modality that can use absorption or fluorescence contrast, and is widely applied to fixed and live samples in the mm-cm scale. For fluorescence OPT, we present OPT implemented for accessibility and low cost, an open-source research-grade implementation of modular OPT hardware and software that has been designed to be widely accessible by using low-cost components, including light-emitting diode (LED) excitation and cooled complementary metal-oxide-semiconductor (CMOS) cameras. Both the hardware and software are modular and flexible in their implementation, enabling rapid switching between sample size scales and supporting compressive sensing to reconstruct images from undersampled sparse OPT data, e.g. to facilitate rapid imaging with low photobleaching/phototoxicity. We also explore a simple implementation of focal scanning OPT to achieve higher resolution, which entails the use of a fan-beam geometry reconstruction method to account for variation in magnification. This article is part of the Theo Murphy meeting issue 'Open, reproducible hardware for microscopy'.
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Affiliation(s)
- C Darling
- Physics Department, Imperial College London , London SW7 2AZ, UK
| | - S Kumar
- Physics Department, Imperial College London , London SW7 2AZ, UK
- Francis Crick Institute , London NW1 1AT, UK
| | - Y Alexandrov
- Physics Department, Imperial College London , London SW7 2AZ, UK
- Francis Crick Institute , London NW1 1AT, UK
| | - J de Faye
- Cancer Stem Cell Laboratory, Institute of Cancer Research , London SW7 3RP, UK
| | - J Almagro Santiago
- Cancer Stem Cell Laboratory, Institute of Cancer Research , London SW7 3RP, UK
| | - A Rýdlová
- Department of Life Sciences, Imperial College London , London SW7 2AZ, UK
| | - L Bugeon
- Department of Life Sciences, Imperial College London , London SW7 2AZ, UK
| | - M J Dallman
- Department of Life Sciences, Imperial College London , London SW7 2AZ, UK
| | - A J Behrens
- Cancer Stem Cell Laboratory, Institute of Cancer Research , London SW7 3RP, UK
- CRUK Convergence Science Centre & Division of Cancer, Department of Surgery and Cancer, Imperial College , London, UK
| | - P M W French
- Physics Department, Imperial College London , London SW7 2AZ, UK
- Francis Crick Institute , London NW1 1AT, UK
| | - J McGinty
- Physics Department, Imperial College London , London SW7 2AZ, UK
- Francis Crick Institute , London NW1 1AT, UK
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Shibukawa A, Higuchi R, Song G, Mikami H, Sudo Y, Jang M. Large-volume focus control at 10 MHz refresh rate via fast line-scanning amplitude-encoded scattering-assisted holography. Nat Commun 2024; 15:2926. [PMID: 38589389 PMCID: PMC11001868 DOI: 10.1038/s41467-024-47009-w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/30/2023] [Accepted: 03/11/2024] [Indexed: 04/10/2024] Open
Abstract
The capability of focus control has been central to optical technologies that require both high temporal and spatial resolutions. However, existing varifocal lens schemes are commonly limited to the response time on the microsecond timescale and share the fundamental trade-off between the response time and the tuning power. Here, we propose an ultrafast holographic focusing method enabled by translating the speed of a fast 1D beam scanner into the speed of the complex wavefront modulation of a relatively slow 2D spatial light modulator. Using a pair of a digital micromirror device and a resonant scanner, we demonstrate an unprecedented refresh rate of focus control of 31 MHz, which is more than 1,000 times faster than the switching rate of a digital micromirror device. We also show that multiple micrometer-sized focal spots can be independently addressed in a range of over 1 MHz within a large volume of 5 mm × 5 mm × 5.5 mm, validating the superior spatiotemporal characteristics of the proposed technique - high temporal and spatial precision, high tuning power, and random accessibility in a three-dimensional space. The demonstrated scheme offers a new route towards three-dimensional light manipulation in the 100 MHz regime.
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Affiliation(s)
- Atsushi Shibukawa
- Research Institute for Electronic Science, Hokkaido University, Sapporo, 001-0020, Japan
| | - Ryota Higuchi
- Research Institute for Electronic Science, Hokkaido University, Sapporo, 001-0020, Japan
| | - Gookho Song
- Department of Bio and Brain Engineering, Korea Advanced Institute of Science and Technology, Daejeon, 34141, Republic of Korea
| | - Hideharu Mikami
- Research Institute for Electronic Science, Hokkaido University, Sapporo, 001-0020, Japan.
| | - Yuki Sudo
- Faculty of Medicine, Dentistry and Pharmaceutical Sciences, Okayama University, Okayama, 700-8530, Japan.
| | - Mooseok Jang
- Department of Bio and Brain Engineering, Korea Advanced Institute of Science and Technology, Daejeon, 34141, Republic of Korea.
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Zhou L, Wu G, Zuo Y, Chen X, Hu H. A Comprehensive Review of Vision-Based 3D Reconstruction Methods. SENSORS (BASEL, SWITZERLAND) 2024; 24:2314. [PMID: 38610525 PMCID: PMC11014007 DOI: 10.3390/s24072314] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/10/2024] [Revised: 03/28/2024] [Accepted: 04/03/2024] [Indexed: 04/14/2024]
Abstract
With the rapid development of 3D reconstruction, especially the emergence of algorithms such as NeRF and 3DGS, 3D reconstruction has become a popular research topic in recent years. 3D reconstruction technology provides crucial support for training extensive computer vision models and advancing the development of general artificial intelligence. With the development of deep learning and GPU technology, the demand for high-precision and high-efficiency 3D reconstruction information is increasing, especially in the fields of unmanned systems, human-computer interaction, virtual reality, and medicine. The rapid development of 3D reconstruction is becoming inevitable. This survey categorizes the various methods and technologies used in 3D reconstruction. It explores and classifies them based on three aspects: traditional static, dynamic, and machine learning. Furthermore, it compares and discusses these methods. At the end of the survey, which includes a detailed analysis of the trends and challenges in 3D reconstruction development, we aim to provide a comprehensive introduction for individuals who are currently engaged in or planning to conduct research on 3D reconstruction. Our goal is to help them gain a comprehensive understanding of the relevant knowledge related to 3D reconstruction.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Guoxin Wu
- Key Laboratory of Modern Measurement and Control Technology Ministry of Education, Beijing Information Science and Technology University, Beijing 100080, China; (L.Z.); (Y.Z.); (X.C.); (H.H.)
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Ataka M, Otomo K, Enoki R, Ishii H, Tsutsumi M, Kozawa Y, Sato S, Nemoto T. Multibeam continuous axial scanning two-photon microscopy for in vivo volumetric imaging in mouse brain. BIOMEDICAL OPTICS EXPRESS 2024; 15:1089-1101. [PMID: 38404301 PMCID: PMC10890896 DOI: 10.1364/boe.514826] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/30/2023] [Revised: 01/12/2024] [Accepted: 01/15/2024] [Indexed: 02/27/2024]
Abstract
This study presents an alternative approach for two-photon volumetric imaging that combines multibeam lateral scanning with continuous axial scanning using a confocal spinning-disk scanner and an electrically focus tunable lens. Using this proposed system, the brain of a living mouse could be imaged at a penetration depth of over 450 μm from the surface. In vivo volumetric Ca2+ imaging at a volume rate of 1.5 Hz within a depth range of 130-200 μm, was segmented with an axial pitch of approximately 5-µm and revealed spontaneous activity of neurons with their 3D positions. This study offers a practical microscope design equipped with compact scanners, a simple control system, and readily adjustable imaging parameters, which is crucial for the widespread adoption of two-photon volumetric imaging.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mitsutoshi Ataka
- National Institute for Physiological Sciences, National Institutes of Natural Sciences, Okazaki 444-8787, Japan
| | - Kohei Otomo
- National Institute for Physiological Sciences, National Institutes of Natural Sciences, Okazaki 444-8787, Japan
- Exploratory Research Center on Life and Living Systems (ExCELLS), National Institutes of Natural Sciences, Okazaki 444-8787, Japan
- Graduate School of Medicine, Juntendo University, Tokyo 113-8421, Japan
| | - Ryosuke Enoki
- National Institute for Physiological Sciences, National Institutes of Natural Sciences, Okazaki 444-8787, Japan
- Exploratory Research Center on Life and Living Systems (ExCELLS), National Institutes of Natural Sciences, Okazaki 444-8787, Japan
- School of Life Sciences, The Graduate School of Advanced Studies, SOKENDAI, Okazaki 444-8787, Japan
| | - Hirokazu Ishii
- National Institute for Physiological Sciences, National Institutes of Natural Sciences, Okazaki 444-8787, Japan
- Exploratory Research Center on Life and Living Systems (ExCELLS), National Institutes of Natural Sciences, Okazaki 444-8787, Japan
- School of Life Sciences, The Graduate School of Advanced Studies, SOKENDAI, Okazaki 444-8787, Japan
| | - Motosuke Tsutsumi
- National Institute for Physiological Sciences, National Institutes of Natural Sciences, Okazaki 444-8787, Japan
- Exploratory Research Center on Life and Living Systems (ExCELLS), National Institutes of Natural Sciences, Okazaki 444-8787, Japan
- School of Life Sciences, The Graduate School of Advanced Studies, SOKENDAI, Okazaki 444-8787, Japan
| | - Yuichi Kozawa
- Institute of Multidisciplinary Research for Advanced Materials, Tohoku University, 2-1-1 Katahira, Aoba-ku, Sendai 980-8577, Japan
| | - Shunichi Sato
- Institute of Multidisciplinary Research for Advanced Materials, Tohoku University, 2-1-1 Katahira, Aoba-ku, Sendai 980-8577, Japan
| | - Tomomi Nemoto
- National Institute for Physiological Sciences, National Institutes of Natural Sciences, Okazaki 444-8787, Japan
- Exploratory Research Center on Life and Living Systems (ExCELLS), National Institutes of Natural Sciences, Okazaki 444-8787, Japan
- School of Life Sciences, The Graduate School of Advanced Studies, SOKENDAI, Okazaki 444-8787, Japan
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Weber TD, Moya MV, Kılıç K, Mertz J, Economo MN. High-speed multiplane confocal microscopy for voltage imaging in densely labeled neuronal populations. Nat Neurosci 2023; 26:1642-1650. [PMID: 37604887 PMCID: PMC11209746 DOI: 10.1038/s41593-023-01408-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/09/2022] [Accepted: 07/17/2023] [Indexed: 08/23/2023]
Abstract
Genetically encoded voltage indicators (GEVIs) hold immense potential for monitoring neuronal population activity. To date, best-in-class GEVIs rely on one-photon excitation. However, GEVI imaging of dense neuronal populations remains difficult because out-of-focus background fluorescence produces low contrast and excess noise when paired with conventional one-photon widefield imaging methods. To address this challenge, we developed an imaging system capable of efficient, high-contrast GEVI imaging at near-kHz rates and demonstrate it for in vivo and ex vivo imaging applications in the mouse neocortex. Our approach uses simultaneous multiplane imaging to monitor activity within contiguous tissue volumes with no penalty in speed or requirement for high excitation power. This approach, multi-Z imaging with confocal detection (MuZIC), permits high signal-to-noise ratio voltage imaging in densely labeled neuronal populations and is compatible with imaging through micro-optics. Moreover, it minimizes artifacts associated with concurrent imaging and optogenetic photostimulation for all-optical electrophysiology.
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Affiliation(s)
- Timothy D Weber
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Boston University, Boston, MA, USA
| | - Maria V Moya
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Boston University, Boston, MA, USA
- Center for Systems Neuroscience, Boston University, Boston, MA, USA
| | - Kıvılcım Kılıç
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Boston University, Boston, MA, USA
- Neurophotonics Center, Boston University, Boston, MA, USA
| | - Jerome Mertz
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Boston University, Boston, MA, USA
- Center for Systems Neuroscience, Boston University, Boston, MA, USA
- Neurophotonics Center, Boston University, Boston, MA, USA
- Photonics Center, Boston University, Boston, MA, USA
| | - Michael N Economo
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Boston University, Boston, MA, USA.
- Center for Systems Neuroscience, Boston University, Boston, MA, USA.
- Neurophotonics Center, Boston University, Boston, MA, USA.
- Photonics Center, Boston University, Boston, MA, USA.
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Benisty H, Song A, Mishne G, Charles AS. Review of data processing of functional optical microscopy for neuroscience. NEUROPHOTONICS 2022; 9:041402. [PMID: 35937186 PMCID: PMC9351186 DOI: 10.1117/1.nph.9.4.041402] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/04/2022] [Accepted: 07/15/2022] [Indexed: 05/04/2023]
Abstract
Functional optical imaging in neuroscience is rapidly growing with the development of optical systems and fluorescence indicators. To realize the potential of these massive spatiotemporal datasets for relating neuronal activity to behavior and stimuli and uncovering local circuits in the brain, accurate automated processing is increasingly essential. We cover recent computational developments in the full data processing pipeline of functional optical microscopy for neuroscience data and discuss ongoing and emerging challenges.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hadas Benisty
- Yale Neuroscience, New Haven, Connecticut, United States
| | - Alexander Song
- Max Planck Institute for Intelligent Systems, Stuttgart, Germany
| | - Gal Mishne
- UC San Diego, Halıcığlu Data Science Institute, Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering and the Neurosciences Graduate Program, La Jolla, California, United States
| | - Adam S. Charles
- Johns Hopkins University, Kavli Neuroscience Discovery Institute, Center for Imaging Science, Department of Biomedical Engineering, Department of Neuroscience, and Mathematical Institute for Data Science, Baltimore, Maryland, United States
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7
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Grienberger C, Giovannucci A, Zeiger W, Portera-Cailliau C. Two-photon calcium imaging of neuronal activity. NATURE REVIEWS. METHODS PRIMERS 2022; 2:67. [PMID: 38124998 PMCID: PMC10732251 DOI: 10.1038/s43586-022-00147-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 07/07/2022] [Indexed: 12/23/2023]
Abstract
In vivo two-photon calcium imaging (2PCI) is a technique used for recording neuronal activity in the intact brain. It is based on the principle that, when neurons fire action potentials, intracellular calcium levels rise, which can be detected using fluorescent molecules that bind to calcium. This Primer is designed for scientists who are considering embarking on experiments with 2PCI. We provide the reader with a background on the basic concepts behind calcium imaging and on the reasons why 2PCI is an increasingly powerful and versatile technique in neuroscience. The Primer explains the different steps involved in experiments with 2PCI, provides examples of what ideal preparations should look like and explains how data are analysed. We also discuss some of the current limitations of the technique, and the types of solutions to circumvent them. Finally, we conclude by anticipating what the future of 2PCI might look like, emphasizing some of the analysis pipelines that are being developed and international efforts for data sharing.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christine Grienberger
- Department of Biology and Volen National Center for Complex Systems, Brandeis University, Waltham, MA, USA
| | - Andrea Giovannucci
- Joint Department of Biomedical Engineering University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill and North Carolina State University, Chapel Hill, NC, USA
- UNC Neuroscience Center, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, NC, USA
| | - William Zeiger
- Department of Neurology, David Geffen School of Medicine at UCLA, Los Angeles, CA, USA
| | - Carlos Portera-Cailliau
- Department of Neurology, David Geffen School of Medicine at UCLA, Los Angeles, CA, USA
- Department of Neurobiology, David Geffen School of Medicine at UCLA, Los Angeles, CA, USA
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8
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Li Z, Yuan X, Wang C. A review on structural development and recognition–localization methods for end-effector of fruit–vegetable picking robots. INT J ADV ROBOT SYST 2022. [DOI: 10.1177/17298806221104906] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
The excellent performance of fruit and vegetable picking robots is usually contributed by the reasonable structure of end-effector and recognition–localization methods with high accuracy. As a result, efforts are focused on two aspects, and diverse structures of end-effector, target recognition methods as well as their combinations are yielded continuously. A good understanding for the working principle, advantages, limitations, and the adaptability in respective fields is helpful to design picking robots. Therefore, depending on different grasping ways, separating methods, structures, materials, and driving modes, main characteristics existing in traditional schemes will be depicted firstly. According to technical routes, advantages, potential applications, and challenges, underactuated manipulators and soft manipulators representing future development are then summarized systematically. Secondly, partial recognition and localization methods are also demonstrated. Specifically, current recognition manners adopting the single-feature, multi-feature fusion and deep learning are explained in view of their advantages, limitations, and successful instances. In the field of 3D localization, active vision based on the structured light, laser scanning, time of flight, and radar is reflected through the respective applications. Also, another 3D localization method called passive vision is also evaluated by advantages, limitations, the degree of automation, reconstruction effects, and the application scenario, such as monocular vision, binocular vision, and multiocular vision. Finally portrayed from structural development, recognition, and localization methods, it is possible to develop future end-effectors for fruit and vegetable picking robots with superior characteristics containing the less driving element, rigid–flexible–bionic coupling soft manipulators, simple control program, high efficiency, low damage, low cost, high versatility, and high recognition accuracy in all-season picking tasks.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ziyue Li
- School of Automotive Engineering, Hubei University of Automotive Technology, Shiyan, PR China
| | - Xianju Yuan
- School of Automotive Engineering, Hubei University of Automotive Technology, Shiyan, PR China
- Department of Systems Design Engineering, University of Waterloo, Waterloo, Canada
| | - Chuyan Wang
- School of Automotive Engineering, Hubei University of Automotive Technology, Shiyan, PR China
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Ota K, Uwamori H, Ode T, Murayama M. Breaking trade-offs: development of fast, high-resolution, wide-field two-photon microscopes to reveal the computational principles of the brain. Neurosci Res 2022; 179:3-14. [PMID: 35390357 DOI: 10.1016/j.neures.2022.03.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/30/2021] [Revised: 02/26/2022] [Accepted: 03/07/2022] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
Information in the brain is represented by the collective and coordinated activity of single neurons. Activity is determined by a large amount of dynamic synaptic inputs from neurons in the same and/or distant brain regions. Therefore, the simultaneous recording of single neurons across several brain regions is critical for revealing the interactions among neurons that reflect the computational principles of the brain. Recently, several wide-field two-photon (2P) microscopes equipped with sizeable objective lenses have been reported. These microscopes enable large-scale in vivo calcium imaging and have the potential to make a significant contribution to the elucidation of information-processing mechanisms in the cerebral cortex. This review discusses recent reports on wide-field 2P microscopes and describes the trade-offs encountered in developing wide-field 2P microscopes. Large-scale imaging of neural activity allows us to test hypotheses proposed in theoretical neuroscience, and to identify rare but influential neurons that have potentially significant impacts on the whole-brain system.
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Affiliation(s)
- Keisuke Ota
- Department of Neurochemistry, Graduate School of Medicine, The University of Tokyo, Bunkyo-ku, Tokyo113-0033, Japan; Center for Brain Science, RIKEN, 2-1 Hirosawa, Wako-shi, Saitama351-0198, Japan.
| | - Hiroyuki Uwamori
- Center for Brain Science, RIKEN, 2-1 Hirosawa, Wako-shi, Saitama351-0198, Japan
| | - Takahiro Ode
- Center for Brain Science, RIKEN, 2-1 Hirosawa, Wako-shi, Saitama351-0198, Japan; FOV Corporation, 2-12-3 Taru-machi, Kouhoku-ku, Yokohama, Kanagawa222-0001, Japan
| | - Masanori Murayama
- Center for Brain Science, RIKEN, 2-1 Hirosawa, Wako-shi, Saitama351-0198, Japan
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Wan J, Zhou S, Mea HJ, Guo Y, Ku H, Urbina BM. Emerging Roles of Microfluidics in Brain Research: From Cerebral Fluids Manipulation to Brain-on-a-Chip and Neuroelectronic Devices Engineering. Chem Rev 2022; 122:7142-7181. [PMID: 35080375 DOI: 10.1021/acs.chemrev.1c00480] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Abstract
Remarkable progress made in the past few decades in brain research enables the manipulation of neuronal activity in single neurons and neural circuits and thus allows the decipherment of relations between nervous systems and behavior. The discovery of glymphatic and lymphatic systems in the brain and the recently unveiled tight relations between the gastrointestinal (GI) tract and the central nervous system (CNS) further revolutionize our understanding of brain structures and functions. Fundamental questions about how neurons conduct two-way communications with the gut to establish the gut-brain axis (GBA) and interact with essential brain components such as glial cells and blood vessels to regulate cerebral blood flow (CBF) and cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) in health and disease, however, remain. Microfluidics with unparalleled advantages in the control of fluids at microscale has emerged recently as an effective approach to address these critical questions in brain research. The dynamics of cerebral fluids (i.e., blood and CSF) and novel in vitro brain-on-a-chip models and microfluidic-integrated multifunctional neuroelectronic devices, for example, have been investigated. This review starts with a critical discussion of the current understanding of several key topics in brain research such as neurovascular coupling (NVC), glymphatic pathway, and GBA and then interrogates a wide range of microfluidic-based approaches that have been developed or can be improved to advance our fundamental understanding of brain functions. Last, emerging technologies for structuring microfluidic devices and their implications and future directions in brain research are discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jiandi Wan
- Department of Chemical Engineering, University of California, Davis, California 95616, United States
| | - Sitong Zhou
- Department of Chemical Engineering, University of California, Davis, California 95616, United States
| | - Hing Jii Mea
- Department of Chemical Engineering, University of California, Davis, California 95616, United States
| | - Yaojun Guo
- Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, University of California, Davis, California 95616, United States
| | - Hansol Ku
- Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, University of California, Davis, California 95616, United States
| | - Brianna M Urbina
- Biochemistry, Molecular, Cellular and Developmental Biology Program, University of California, Davis, California 95616, United States
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Abstract
The creation of innovative tools, objects and artifacts that introduce abstract ideas in the real world is a necessary step for the evolution process and characterize the creative capacity of civilization. Sculpture is based on the available technology for its creation process and is strongly related to the level of technological sophistication of each era. This paper analyzes the evolution of basic sculpture techniques (carving, lost-wax casting and 3D scanning/printing), and their importance as a culture footprint. It also presents and evaluates the added creative capacities of each technological step and the different methods of 3D scanning/printing concerning sculpture. It is also an attempt to define the term “material poetics”, which is connected to sculpture artifacts. We conclude that 3D scanning/printing is an important sign of civilization, although artifacts lose a part of material poetics with additive manufacturing. Subsequently, there are various causes of the destruction of sculptures, leaving a hole in the history of art. Finally, this paper showcases the importance of 3D scanning/printing in salvaging cultural heritage, as it has radically altered the way we “backup” objects.
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12
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Akemann W, Wolf S, Villette V, Mathieu B, Tangara A, Fodor J, Ventalon C, Léger JF, Dieudonné S, Bourdieu L. Fast optical recording of neuronal activity by three-dimensional custom-access serial holography. Nat Methods 2022; 19:100-110. [PMID: 34949810 DOI: 10.1038/s41592-021-01329-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/20/2019] [Accepted: 10/25/2021] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
Optical recording of neuronal activity in three-dimensional (3D) brain circuits at cellular and millisecond resolution in vivo is essential for probing information flow in the brain. While random-access multiphoton microscopy permits fast optical access to neuronal targets in three dimensions, the method is challenged by motion artifacts when recording from behaving animals. Therefore, we developed three-dimensional custom-access serial holography (3D-CASH). Built on a fast acousto-optic light modulator, 3D-CASH performs serial sampling at 40 kHz from neurons at freely selectable 3D locations. Motion artifacts are eliminated by targeting each neuron with a size-optimized pattern of excitation light covering the cell body and its anticipated displacement field. Spike rates inferred from GCaMP6f recordings in visual cortex of awake mice tracked the phase of a moving bar stimulus with higher spike correlation between intra compared to interlaminar neuron pairs. 3D-CASH offers access to the millisecond correlation structure of in vivo neuronal activity in 3D microcircuits.
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Affiliation(s)
- Walther Akemann
- Institut de Biologie de l'ENS (IBENS), École Normale Supérieure, CNRS, INSERM, Université PSL, Paris, France
| | - Sébastien Wolf
- Institut de Biologie de l'ENS (IBENS), École Normale Supérieure, CNRS, INSERM, Université PSL, Paris, France
- Laboratoire de Physique de l'ENS (LPENS), École Normale Supérieure, CNRS, Université PSL, Paris, France
| | - Vincent Villette
- Institut de Biologie de l'ENS (IBENS), École Normale Supérieure, CNRS, INSERM, Université PSL, Paris, France
| | - Benjamin Mathieu
- Institut de Biologie de l'ENS (IBENS), École Normale Supérieure, CNRS, INSERM, Université PSL, Paris, France
| | - Astou Tangara
- Institut de Biologie de l'ENS (IBENS), École Normale Supérieure, CNRS, INSERM, Université PSL, Paris, France
| | - Jozsua Fodor
- Institut de Biologie de l'ENS (IBENS), École Normale Supérieure, CNRS, INSERM, Université PSL, Paris, France
| | - Cathie Ventalon
- Institut de Biologie de l'ENS (IBENS), École Normale Supérieure, CNRS, INSERM, Université PSL, Paris, France
| | - Jean-François Léger
- Institut de Biologie de l'ENS (IBENS), École Normale Supérieure, CNRS, INSERM, Université PSL, Paris, France
| | - Stéphane Dieudonné
- Institut de Biologie de l'ENS (IBENS), École Normale Supérieure, CNRS, INSERM, Université PSL, Paris, France.
| | - Laurent Bourdieu
- Institut de Biologie de l'ENS (IBENS), École Normale Supérieure, CNRS, INSERM, Université PSL, Paris, France.
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Abdelfattah AS, Ahuja S, Akkin T, Allu SR, Brake J, Boas DA, Buckley EM, Campbell RE, Chen AI, Cheng X, Čižmár T, Costantini I, De Vittorio M, Devor A, Doran PR, El Khatib M, Emiliani V, Fomin-Thunemann N, Fainman Y, Fernandez-Alfonso T, Ferri CGL, Gilad A, Han X, Harris A, Hillman EMC, Hochgeschwender U, Holt MG, Ji N, Kılıç K, Lake EMR, Li L, Li T, Mächler P, Miller EW, Mesquita RC, Nadella KMNS, Nägerl UV, Nasu Y, Nimmerjahn A, Ondráčková P, Pavone FS, Perez Campos C, Peterka DS, Pisano F, Pisanello F, Puppo F, Sabatini BL, Sadegh S, Sakadzic S, Shoham S, Shroff SN, Silver RA, Sims RR, Smith SL, Srinivasan VJ, Thunemann M, Tian L, Tian L, Troxler T, Valera A, Vaziri A, Vinogradov SA, Vitale F, Wang LV, Uhlířová H, Xu C, Yang C, Yang MH, Yellen G, Yizhar O, Zhao Y. Neurophotonic tools for microscopic measurements and manipulation: status report. NEUROPHOTONICS 2022; 9:013001. [PMID: 35493335 PMCID: PMC9047450 DOI: 10.1117/1.nph.9.s1.013001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/30/2023]
Abstract
Neurophotonics was launched in 2014 coinciding with the launch of the BRAIN Initiative focused on development of technologies for advancement of neuroscience. For the last seven years, Neurophotonics' agenda has been well aligned with this focus on neurotechnologies featuring new optical methods and tools applicable to brain studies. While the BRAIN Initiative 2.0 is pivoting towards applications of these novel tools in the quest to understand the brain, this status report reviews an extensive and diverse toolkit of novel methods to explore brain function that have emerged from the BRAIN Initiative and related large-scale efforts for measurement and manipulation of brain structure and function. Here, we focus on neurophotonic tools mostly applicable to animal studies. A companion report, scheduled to appear later this year, will cover diffuse optical imaging methods applicable to noninvasive human studies. For each domain, we outline the current state-of-the-art of the respective technologies, identify the areas where innovation is needed, and provide an outlook for the future directions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ahmed S. Abdelfattah
- Brown University, Department of Neuroscience, Providence, Rhode Island, United States
| | - Sapna Ahuja
- University of Pennsylvania, Perelman School of Medicine, Department of Biochemistry and Biophysics, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, United States
- University of Pennsylvania, School of Arts and Sciences, Department of Chemistry, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, United States
| | - Taner Akkin
- University of Minnesota, Department of Biomedical Engineering, Minneapolis, Minnesota, United States
| | - Srinivasa Rao Allu
- University of Pennsylvania, Perelman School of Medicine, Department of Biochemistry and Biophysics, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, United States
- University of Pennsylvania, School of Arts and Sciences, Department of Chemistry, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, United States
| | - Joshua Brake
- Harvey Mudd College, Department of Engineering, Claremont, California, United States
| | - David A. Boas
- Boston University, Department of Biomedical Engineering, Boston, Massachusetts, United States
| | - Erin M. Buckley
- Georgia Institute of Technology and Emory University, Wallace H. Coulter Department of Biomedical Engineering, Atlanta, Georgia, United States
- Emory University, Department of Pediatrics, Atlanta, Georgia, United States
| | - Robert E. Campbell
- University of Tokyo, Department of Chemistry, Tokyo, Japan
- University of Alberta, Department of Chemistry, Edmonton, Alberta, Canada
| | - Anderson I. Chen
- Boston University, Department of Biomedical Engineering, Boston, Massachusetts, United States
| | - Xiaojun Cheng
- Boston University, Department of Biomedical Engineering, Boston, Massachusetts, United States
| | - Tomáš Čižmár
- Institute of Scientific Instruments of the Czech Academy of Sciences, Brno, Czech Republic
| | - Irene Costantini
- University of Florence, European Laboratory for Non-Linear Spectroscopy, Department of Biology, Florence, Italy
- National Institute of Optics, National Research Council, Rome, Italy
| | - Massimo De Vittorio
- Istituto Italiano di Tecnologia, Center for Biomolecular Nanotechnologies, Arnesano, Italy
| | - Anna Devor
- Boston University, Department of Biomedical Engineering, Boston, Massachusetts, United States
- Massachusetts General Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Athinoula A. Martinos Center for Biomedical Imaging, Charlestown, Massachusetts, United States
| | - Patrick R. Doran
- Boston University, Department of Biomedical Engineering, Boston, Massachusetts, United States
| | - Mirna El Khatib
- University of Pennsylvania, Perelman School of Medicine, Department of Biochemistry and Biophysics, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, United States
- University of Pennsylvania, School of Arts and Sciences, Department of Chemistry, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, United States
| | | | - Natalie Fomin-Thunemann
- Boston University, Department of Biomedical Engineering, Boston, Massachusetts, United States
| | - Yeshaiahu Fainman
- University of California San Diego, Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, La Jolla, California, United States
| | - Tomas Fernandez-Alfonso
- University College London, Department of Neuroscience, Physiology and Pharmacology, London, United Kingdom
| | - Christopher G. L. Ferri
- University of California San Diego, Departments of Neurosciences, La Jolla, California, United States
| | - Ariel Gilad
- The Hebrew University of Jerusalem, Institute for Medical Research Israel–Canada, Department of Medical Neurobiology, Faculty of Medicine, Jerusalem, Israel
| | - Xue Han
- Boston University, Department of Biomedical Engineering, Boston, Massachusetts, United States
| | - Andrew Harris
- Weizmann Institute of Science, Department of Brain Sciences, Rehovot, Israel
| | | | - Ute Hochgeschwender
- Central Michigan University, Department of Neuroscience, Mount Pleasant, Michigan, United States
| | - Matthew G. Holt
- University of Porto, Instituto de Investigação e Inovação em Saúde (i3S), Porto, Portugal
| | - Na Ji
- University of California Berkeley, Department of Physics, Berkeley, California, United States
| | - Kıvılcım Kılıç
- Boston University, Department of Biomedical Engineering, Boston, Massachusetts, United States
| | - Evelyn M. R. Lake
- Yale School of Medicine, Department of Radiology and Biomedical Imaging, New Haven, Connecticut, United States
| | - Lei Li
- California Institute of Technology, Andrew and Peggy Cherng Department of Medical Engineering, Department of Electrical Engineering, Pasadena, California, United States
| | - Tianqi Li
- University of Minnesota, Department of Biomedical Engineering, Minneapolis, Minnesota, United States
| | - Philipp Mächler
- Boston University, Department of Biomedical Engineering, Boston, Massachusetts, United States
| | - Evan W. Miller
- University of California Berkeley, Departments of Chemistry and Molecular & Cell Biology and Helen Wills Neuroscience Institute, Berkeley, California, United States
| | | | | | - U. Valentin Nägerl
- Interdisciplinary Institute for Neuroscience University of Bordeaux & CNRS, Bordeaux, France
| | - Yusuke Nasu
- University of Tokyo, Department of Chemistry, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Axel Nimmerjahn
- Salk Institute for Biological Studies, Waitt Advanced Biophotonics Center, La Jolla, California, United States
| | - Petra Ondráčková
- Institute of Scientific Instruments of the Czech Academy of Sciences, Brno, Czech Republic
| | - Francesco S. Pavone
- National Institute of Optics, National Research Council, Rome, Italy
- University of Florence, European Laboratory for Non-Linear Spectroscopy, Department of Physics, Florence, Italy
| | - Citlali Perez Campos
- Columbia University, Zuckerman Mind Brain Behavior Institute, New York, United States
| | - Darcy S. Peterka
- Columbia University, Zuckerman Mind Brain Behavior Institute, New York, United States
| | - Filippo Pisano
- Istituto Italiano di Tecnologia, Center for Biomolecular Nanotechnologies, Arnesano, Italy
| | - Ferruccio Pisanello
- Istituto Italiano di Tecnologia, Center for Biomolecular Nanotechnologies, Arnesano, Italy
| | - Francesca Puppo
- University of California San Diego, Departments of Neurosciences, La Jolla, California, United States
| | - Bernardo L. Sabatini
- Harvard Medical School, Howard Hughes Medical Institute, Department of Neurobiology, Boston, Massachusetts, United States
| | - Sanaz Sadegh
- University of California San Diego, Departments of Neurosciences, La Jolla, California, United States
| | - Sava Sakadzic
- Massachusetts General Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Athinoula A. Martinos Center for Biomedical Imaging, Charlestown, Massachusetts, United States
| | - Shy Shoham
- New York University Grossman School of Medicine, Tech4Health and Neuroscience Institutes, New York, New York, United States
| | - Sanaya N. Shroff
- Boston University, Department of Biomedical Engineering, Boston, Massachusetts, United States
| | - R. Angus Silver
- University College London, Department of Neuroscience, Physiology and Pharmacology, London, United Kingdom
| | - Ruth R. Sims
- Sorbonne University, INSERM, CNRS, Institut de la Vision, Paris, France
| | - Spencer L. Smith
- University of California Santa Barbara, Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, Santa Barbara, California, United States
| | - Vivek J. Srinivasan
- New York University Langone Health, Departments of Ophthalmology and Radiology, New York, New York, United States
| | - Martin Thunemann
- Boston University, Department of Biomedical Engineering, Boston, Massachusetts, United States
| | - Lei Tian
- Boston University, Departments of Electrical Engineering and Biomedical Engineering, Boston, Massachusetts, United States
| | - Lin Tian
- University of California Davis, Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Medicine, Davis, California, United States
| | - Thomas Troxler
- University of Pennsylvania, Perelman School of Medicine, Department of Biochemistry and Biophysics, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, United States
- University of Pennsylvania, School of Arts and Sciences, Department of Chemistry, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, United States
| | - Antoine Valera
- University College London, Department of Neuroscience, Physiology and Pharmacology, London, United Kingdom
| | - Alipasha Vaziri
- Rockefeller University, Laboratory of Neurotechnology and Biophysics, New York, New York, United States
- The Rockefeller University, The Kavli Neural Systems Institute, New York, New York, United States
| | - Sergei A. Vinogradov
- University of Pennsylvania, Perelman School of Medicine, Department of Biochemistry and Biophysics, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, United States
- University of Pennsylvania, School of Arts and Sciences, Department of Chemistry, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, United States
| | - Flavia Vitale
- Center for Neuroengineering and Therapeutics, Departments of Neurology, Bioengineering, Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, United States
| | - Lihong V. Wang
- California Institute of Technology, Andrew and Peggy Cherng Department of Medical Engineering, Department of Electrical Engineering, Pasadena, California, United States
| | - Hana Uhlířová
- Institute of Scientific Instruments of the Czech Academy of Sciences, Brno, Czech Republic
| | - Chris Xu
- Cornell University, School of Applied and Engineering Physics, Ithaca, New York, United States
| | - Changhuei Yang
- California Institute of Technology, Departments of Electrical Engineering, Bioengineering and Medical Engineering, Pasadena, California, United States
| | - Mu-Han Yang
- University of California San Diego, Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, La Jolla, California, United States
| | - Gary Yellen
- Harvard Medical School, Department of Neurobiology, Boston, Massachusetts, United States
| | - Ofer Yizhar
- Weizmann Institute of Science, Department of Brain Sciences, Rehovot, Israel
| | - Yongxin Zhao
- Carnegie Mellon University, Department of Biological Sciences, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, United States
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14
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Charles AS, Cermak N, Affan RO, Scott BB, Schiller J, Mishne G. GraFT: Graph Filtered Temporal Dictionary Learning for Functional Neural Imaging. IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON IMAGE PROCESSING : A PUBLICATION OF THE IEEE SIGNAL PROCESSING SOCIETY 2022; 31:3509-3524. [PMID: 35533160 PMCID: PMC9278524 DOI: 10.1109/tip.2022.3171414] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/04/2023]
Abstract
Optical imaging of calcium signals in the brain has enabled researchers to observe the activity of hundreds-to-thousands of individual neurons simultaneously. Current methods predominantly use morphological information, typically focusing on expected shapes of cell bodies, to better identify neurons in the field-of-view. The explicit shape constraints limit the applicability of automated cell identification to other important imaging scales with more complex morphologies, e.g., dendritic or widefield imaging. Specifically, fluorescing components may be broken up, incompletely found, or merged in ways that do not accurately describe the underlying neural activity. Here we present Graph Filtered Temporal Dictionary (GraFT), a new approach that frames the problem of isolating independent fluorescing components as a dictionary learning problem. Specifically, we focus on the time-traces-the main quantity used in scientific discovery-and learn a time trace dictionary with the spatial maps acting as the presence coefficients encoding which pixels the time-traces are active in. Furthermore, we present a novel graph filtering model which redefines connectivity between pixels in terms of their shared temporal activity, rather than spatial proximity. This model greatly eases the ability of our method to handle data with complex non-local spatial structure. We demonstrate important properties of our method, such as robustness to morphology, simultaneously detecting different neuronal types, and implicitly inferring number of neurons, on both synthetic data and real data examples. Specifically, we demonstrate applications of our method to calcium imaging both at the dendritic, somatic, and widefield scales.
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15
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Wright T, Sparks H, Paterson C, Dunsby C. Video-rate remote refocusing through continuous oscillation of a membrane deformable mirror. JPHYS PHOTONICS 2021; 3:045004. [PMID: 34693207 PMCID: PMC8523955 DOI: 10.1088/2515-7647/ac29a2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/28/2021] [Revised: 07/27/2021] [Accepted: 09/23/2021] [Indexed: 06/13/2023] Open
Abstract
This paper presents the use of a deformable mirror (DM) configured to rapidly refocus a microscope employing a high numerical aperture (NA) objective lens. An Alpao DM97-15 membrane DM was used to refocus a 40×/0.80 NA water-immersion objective through a defocus range of -50-50 μm at 26.3 sweeps s-1. We achieved imaging with a mean Strehl metric of >0.6 over a field of view in the sample of 200 × 200 μm2 over a defocus range of 77 μm. We describe an optimisation procedure where the mirror is swept continuously in order to avoid known problems of hysteresis associated with the membrane DM employed. This work demonstrates that a DM-based refocusing system could in the future be used in light-sheet fluorescence microscopes to achieve video-rate volumetric imaging.
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Affiliation(s)
- Terry Wright
- Photonics Group, Department of Physics, Imperial College London, South Kensington Campus, London SW7 2AZ, United Kingdom
| | - Hugh Sparks
- Photonics Group, Department of Physics, Imperial College London, South Kensington Campus, London SW7 2AZ, United Kingdom
| | - Carl Paterson
- Photonics Group, Department of Physics, Imperial College London, South Kensington Campus, London SW7 2AZ, United Kingdom
| | - Chris Dunsby
- Photonics Group, Department of Physics, Imperial College London, South Kensington Campus, London SW7 2AZ, United Kingdom
- Centre for Pathology, Department of Medicine, Imperial College London, Du Cane Road, London W12 0NN, United Kingdom
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16
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Broussard GJ, Petreanu L. Eavesdropping wires: Recording activity in axons using genetically encoded calcium indicators. J Neurosci Methods 2021; 360:109251. [PMID: 34119572 PMCID: PMC8363211 DOI: 10.1016/j.jneumeth.2021.109251] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/19/2021] [Revised: 05/31/2021] [Accepted: 06/05/2021] [Indexed: 12/23/2022]
Abstract
Neurons broadcast electrical signals to distal brain regions through extensive axonal arbors. Genetically encoded calcium sensors permit the direct observation of action potential activity at axonal terminals, providing unique insights on the organization and function of neural projections. Here, we consider what information can be gleaned from axonal recordings made at scales ranging from the summed activity extracted from multi-cell axon projections to single boutons. In particular, we discuss the application of different recently developed multi photon and fiber photometry methods for recording neural activity in axons of rodents. We define experimental difficulties associated with imaging approaches in the axonal compartment and highlight the latest methodological advances for addressing these issues. Finally, we reflect on ways in which new technologies can be used in conjunction with axon calcium imaging to address current questions in neurobiology.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Leopoldo Petreanu
- Champalimaud Research, Champalimaud Center for the Unknown, Lisbon, Portugal.
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17
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Temporally multiplexed dual-plane imaging of neural activity with four-dimensional precision. Neurosci Res 2021; 171:9-18. [PMID: 33607170 DOI: 10.1016/j.neures.2021.02.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/21/2021] [Revised: 02/05/2021] [Accepted: 02/07/2021] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
Spatiotemporal patterns of neural activity generate brain functions, such as perception, memory, and behavior. Four-dimensional (4-D: x, y, z, t) analyses of such neural activity will facilitate understanding of brain functions. However, conventional two-photon microscope systems observe single-plane brain tissue alone at a time with cellular resolution. It faces a trade-off between the spatial resolution in the x-, y-, and z-axes and the temporal resolution by a limited point-by-point scan speed. To overcome this trade-off in 4-D imaging, we developed a holographic two-photon microscope for dual-plane imaging. A spatial light modulator (SLM) provided an additional focal plane at a different depth. Temporal multiplexing of split lasers with an optical chopper allowed fast imaging of two different focal planes. We simultaneously recorded the activities of neurons on layers 2/3 and 5 of the cerebral cortex in awake mice in vivo. The present study demonstrated the proof-of-concept of dual-plane two-photon imaging of neural circuits by using the temporally multiplexed SLM-based microscope. The temporally multiplexed holographic microscope, combined with in vivo labeling with genetically encoded probes, enabled 4-D imaging and analysis of neural activities at cellular resolution and physiological timescales. Large-scale 4-D imaging and analysis will facilitate studies of not only the nervous system but also of various biological systems.
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18
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Lyu Q, Peng L, Hong X, Fan T, Li J, Cui Y, Zhang H, Zhao J. Smart nano-micro platforms for ophthalmological applications: The state-of-the-art and future perspectives. Biomaterials 2021; 270:120682. [PMID: 33529961 DOI: 10.1016/j.biomaterials.2021.120682] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/14/2020] [Revised: 01/10/2021] [Accepted: 01/14/2021] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Abstract
Smart nano-micro platforms have been extensively applied for diverse biomedical applications, mostly focusing on cancer therapy. In comparison with conventional nanotechnology, the smart nano-micro matrix can exhibit specific response to exogenous or endogenous triggers, and thus can achieve multiple functions e.g. site-specific drug delivery, bio-imaging and detection of bio-molecules. These intriguing techniques have expanded into ophthalmology in recent years, yet few works have been summarized in this field. In this work, we provide the state-of-the-art of diverse nano-micro platforms based on both the conventional materials (e.g. natural or synthetic polymers, lipid nanomaterials, metal and metal oxide nanoparticles) and emerging nanomaterials (e.g. up-conversion nanoparticles, quantum dots and carbon materials) in ophthalmology, with some smart nano/micro platformers highlighted. The common ocular diseases studied in the field of nano-micro systems are firstly introduced, and their therapeutic method and the related drawback in clinic treatment are presented. The recent progress of different materials for diverse ocular applications is then demonstrated, with the representative nano- and micro-systems highlighted in detail. At last, an in-depth discussion on the clinical translation challenges faced in this field and the future direction are provided. This review would allow the researchers to design more smart nanomedicines in a more rational manner for specific ophthalmology applications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Qinghua Lyu
- Shenzhen Eye Hospital, School of Ophthalmology & Optometry Affiliated to Shenzhen University, Shenzhen, 518040, PR China; Institute of Microscale Optoelectronics, Collaborative Innovation Centre for Optoelectronic Science & Technology, Key Laboratory of Optoelectronic Devices and Systems of Ministry of Education and Guangdong Province, Shenzhen Key Laboratory of Micro-Nano Photonic Information Technology, Guangdong Laboratory of Artificial Intelligence and Digital Economy (SZ), College of Physics and Optoelectronic Engineering, Shenzhen University, Shenzhen, 518060, PR China
| | - Ling Peng
- Institute of Microscale Optoelectronics, Collaborative Innovation Centre for Optoelectronic Science & Technology, Key Laboratory of Optoelectronic Devices and Systems of Ministry of Education and Guangdong Province, Shenzhen Key Laboratory of Micro-Nano Photonic Information Technology, Guangdong Laboratory of Artificial Intelligence and Digital Economy (SZ), College of Physics and Optoelectronic Engineering, Shenzhen University, Shenzhen, 518060, PR China
| | - Xiangqian Hong
- Shenzhen Eye Hospital, School of Ophthalmology & Optometry Affiliated to Shenzhen University, Shenzhen, 518040, PR China; Institute of Microscale Optoelectronics, Collaborative Innovation Centre for Optoelectronic Science & Technology, Key Laboratory of Optoelectronic Devices and Systems of Ministry of Education and Guangdong Province, Shenzhen Key Laboratory of Micro-Nano Photonic Information Technology, Guangdong Laboratory of Artificial Intelligence and Digital Economy (SZ), College of Physics and Optoelectronic Engineering, Shenzhen University, Shenzhen, 518060, PR China
| | - Taojian Fan
- Institute of Microscale Optoelectronics, Collaborative Innovation Centre for Optoelectronic Science & Technology, Key Laboratory of Optoelectronic Devices and Systems of Ministry of Education and Guangdong Province, Shenzhen Key Laboratory of Micro-Nano Photonic Information Technology, Guangdong Laboratory of Artificial Intelligence and Digital Economy (SZ), College of Physics and Optoelectronic Engineering, Shenzhen University, Shenzhen, 518060, PR China
| | - Jingying Li
- Department of Ophthalmology, Peking University Shenzhen Hospital, Shenzhen, 518000, PR China
| | - Yubo Cui
- Department of Ophthalmology, Shenzhen People's Hospital (The Second Clinical Medical College,Jinan University; The First Affiliated Hospital, Southern University of Science and Technology), Shenzhen, 518020, PR China
| | - Han Zhang
- Institute of Microscale Optoelectronics, Collaborative Innovation Centre for Optoelectronic Science & Technology, Key Laboratory of Optoelectronic Devices and Systems of Ministry of Education and Guangdong Province, Shenzhen Key Laboratory of Micro-Nano Photonic Information Technology, Guangdong Laboratory of Artificial Intelligence and Digital Economy (SZ), College of Physics and Optoelectronic Engineering, Shenzhen University, Shenzhen, 518060, PR China.
| | - Jun Zhao
- Shenzhen Eye Hospital, School of Ophthalmology & Optometry Affiliated to Shenzhen University, Shenzhen, 518040, PR China; Department of Ophthalmology, Shenzhen People's Hospital (The Second Clinical Medical College,Jinan University; The First Affiliated Hospital, Southern University of Science and Technology), Shenzhen, 518020, PR China.
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19
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Fan JL, Rivera JA, Sun W, Peterson J, Haeberle H, Rubin S, Ji N. High-speed volumetric two-photon fluorescence imaging of neurovascular dynamics. Nat Commun 2020; 11:6020. [PMID: 33243995 PMCID: PMC7693336 DOI: 10.1038/s41467-020-19851-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/05/2020] [Accepted: 10/13/2020] [Indexed: 02/02/2023] Open
Abstract
Understanding the structure and function of vasculature in the brain requires us to monitor distributed hemodynamics at high spatial and temporal resolution in three-dimensional (3D) volumes in vivo. Currently, a volumetric vasculature imaging method with sub-capillary spatial resolution and blood flow-resolving speed is lacking. Here, using two-photon laser scanning microscopy (TPLSM) with an axially extended Bessel focus, we capture volumetric hemodynamics in the awake mouse brain at a spatiotemporal resolution sufficient for measuring capillary size and blood flow. With Bessel TPLSM, the fluorescence signal of a vessel becomes proportional to its size, which enables convenient intensity-based analysis of vessel dilation and constriction dynamics in large volumes. We observe entrainment of vasodilation and vasoconstriction with pupil diameter and measure 3D blood flow at 99 volumes/second. Demonstrating high-throughput monitoring of hemodynamics in the awake brain, we expect Bessel TPLSM to make broad impacts on neurovasculature research.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jiang Lan Fan
- University of California, Berkeley, CA, USA.,University of California, San Francisco, CA, USA
| | - Jose A Rivera
- Department of Physics, University of California, Berkeley, CA, USA
| | - Wei Sun
- Thorlabs Imaging Systems, Sterling, VA, USA
| | | | | | - Sam Rubin
- Thorlabs Imaging Systems, Sterling, VA, USA.,LightPath Technologies Inc., Orlando, FL, USA
| | - Na Ji
- Department of Physics, University of California, Berkeley, CA, USA. .,Department of Molecular and Cell Biology, University of California, Berkeley, CA, USA. .,Helen Wills Neuroscience Institute, University of California, Berkeley, CA, USA. .,Molecular Biophysics and Integrated Bioimaging Division, Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, Berkeley, CA, USA.
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20
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Jiang H, Wang C, Wei B, Gan W, Cai D, Cui M. Long-range remote focusing by image-plane aberration correction. OPTICS EXPRESS 2020; 28:34008-34014. [PMID: 33182878 PMCID: PMC7679183 DOI: 10.1364/oe.409225] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/02/2020] [Revised: 10/02/2020] [Accepted: 10/14/2020] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
Laser scanning plays an important role in a broad range of applications. Toward 3D aberration-free scanning, a remote focusing technique has been developed for high-speed imaging applications. However, the implementation of remote focusing often suffers from a limited axial scan range as a result of unknown aberration. Through simple analysis, we show that the sample-to-image path length conservation is crucially important to the remote focusing performance. To enhance the axial scan range, we propose and demonstrate an image-plane aberration correction method. Using a static correction, we can effectively improve the focus quality over a large defocusing range. Experimentally, we achieved ∼three times greater defocusing range than that of conventional methods. This technique can broadly benefit the implementations of high-speed large-volume 3D imaging.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hehai Jiang
- Bindley Bioscience Center, Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN 47907, USA
- School of Electrical and Computer Engineering, Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN 47907, USA
| | - Chenmao Wang
- Bindley Bioscience Center, Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN 47907, USA
- School of Electrical and Computer Engineering, Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN 47907, USA
| | - Bowen Wei
- Bindley Bioscience Center, Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN 47907, USA
- School of Electrical and Computer Engineering, Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN 47907, USA
| | - Wenbiao Gan
- Skirball Institute, Department of Neuroscience and Physiology, Department of Anesthesiology, New York University School of Medicine, New York, NY 10016, USA
| | - Dawen Cai
- Department of Cell and Development Biology, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI 48109, USA
| | - Meng Cui
- Bindley Bioscience Center, Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN 47907, USA
- School of Electrical and Computer Engineering, Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN 47907, USA
- Department of Biology, Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN 47907, USA
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21
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Deguchi T, Bianchini P, Palazzolo G, Oneto M, Diaspro A, Duocastella M. Volumetric Lissajous confocal microscopy with tunable spatiotemporal resolution. BIOMEDICAL OPTICS EXPRESS 2020; 11:6293-6310. [PMID: 33282491 PMCID: PMC7687945 DOI: 10.1364/boe.400777] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/23/2020] [Revised: 10/06/2020] [Accepted: 10/06/2020] [Indexed: 05/29/2023]
Abstract
Dynamic biological systems present challenges to existing three-dimensional (3D) optical microscopes because of their continuous temporal and spatial changes. Most techniques are rigid in adapting the acquisition parameters over time, as in confocal microscopy, where a laser beam is sequentially scanned at a predefined spatial sampling rate and pixel dwell time. Such lack of tunability forces a user to provide scan parameters, which may not be optimal, based on the best assumption before an acquisition starts. Here, we developed volumetric Lissajous confocal microscopy to achieve unsurpassed 3D scanning speed with a tunable sampling rate. The system combines an acoustic liquid lens for continuous axial focus translation with a resonant scanning mirror. Accordingly, the excitation beam follows a dynamic Lissajous trajectory enabling sub-millisecond acquisitions of image series containing 3D information at a sub-Nyquist sampling rate. By temporal accumulation and/or advanced interpolation algorithms, the volumetric imaging rate is selectable using a post-processing step at the desired spatiotemporal resolution for events of interest. We demonstrate multicolor and calcium imaging over volumes of tens of cubic microns with 3D acquisition speeds of 30 Hz and frame rates up to 5 kHz.
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Affiliation(s)
- Takahiro Deguchi
- Nanoscopy & NIC@IIT, Center for Human Technologies, Istituto Italiano di Tecnologia, via E. Melen 83B, 16152 Genoa, Italy
| | - Paolo Bianchini
- Nanoscopy & NIC@IIT, Center for Human Technologies, Istituto Italiano di Tecnologia, via E. Melen 83B, 16152 Genoa, Italy
| | - Gemma Palazzolo
- Enhanced Regenerative Medicine, Istituto Italiano di Tecnologia, via Morego 30, 16163 Genoa, Italy
| | - Michele Oneto
- Nanoscopy & NIC@IIT, Center for Human Technologies, Istituto Italiano di Tecnologia, via E. Melen 83B, 16152 Genoa, Italy
| | - Alberto Diaspro
- Nanoscopy & NIC@IIT, Center for Human Technologies, Istituto Italiano di Tecnologia, via E. Melen 83B, 16152 Genoa, Italy
- Dipartimento di Fisica, Universita di Genova, Via Dodecaneso 33, 16146, Genoa, Italy
| | - Martí Duocastella
- Nanoscopy & NIC@IIT, Center for Human Technologies, Istituto Italiano di Tecnologia, via E. Melen 83B, 16152 Genoa, Italy
- Departament de Física Aplicada, Universitat de Barcelona, C/Marti i Franques 1, 08028 Barcelona, Spain
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22
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Lin P, Ni H, Li H, Vickers NA, Tan Y, Gong R, Bifano T, Cheng JX. Volumetric chemical imaging in vivo by a remote-focusing stimulated Raman scattering microscope. OPTICS EXPRESS 2020; 28:30210-30221. [PMID: 33114904 PMCID: PMC7679187 DOI: 10.1364/oe.404869] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/15/2023]
Abstract
Operable under ambient light and providing chemical selectivity, stimulated Raman scattering (SRS) microscopy opens a new window for imaging molecular events on a human subject, such as filtration of topical drugs through the skin. A typical approach for volumetric SRS imaging is through piezo scanning of an objective lens, which often disturbs the sample and offers a low axial scan rate. To address these challenges, we have developed a deformable mirror-based remote-focusing SRS microscope, which not only enables high-quality volumetric chemical imaging without mechanical scanning of the objective but also corrects the system aberrations simultaneously. Using the remote-focusing SRS microscope, we performed volumetric chemical imaging of living cells and captured in real time the dynamic diffusion of topical chemicals into human sweat pores.
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Affiliation(s)
- Peng Lin
- Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, Boston University, 8 St. Mary’s St., Boston, MA 02215, USA
- These authors contributed equally
| | - Hongli Ni
- Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, Boston University, 8 St. Mary’s St., Boston, MA 02215, USA
- These authors contributed equally
| | - Huate Li
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, Boston University, 110 Cummington Mall, Boston, MA 02215, USA
| | - Nicholas A. Vickers
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, Boston University, 110 Cummington Mall, Boston, MA 02215, USA
| | - Yuying Tan
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Boston University, 44 Cummington Mall, Boston Boston, MA 02215, USA
| | - Ruyi Gong
- Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, Boston University, 8 St. Mary’s St., Boston, MA 02215, USA
- School of Optical and Electronic Information, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Luoyu Road 1037, Wuhan 430074, China
| | - Thomas Bifano
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, Boston University, 110 Cummington Mall, Boston, MA 02215, USA
- Photonics Center, Boston University, 8 St. Mary’s St, Boston, MA 02215, USA
| | - Ji-Xin Cheng
- Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, Boston University, 8 St. Mary’s St., Boston, MA 02215, USA
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, Boston University, 110 Cummington Mall, Boston, MA 02215, USA
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Boston University, 44 Cummington Mall, Boston Boston, MA 02215, USA
- Photonics Center, Boston University, 8 St. Mary’s St, Boston, MA 02215, USA
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23
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Chen D, Ren M, Zhang D, Chen J, Gu S, Chen SC. Design of a multi-modality DMD-based two-photon microscope system. OPTICS EXPRESS 2020; 28:30187-30198. [PMID: 33114902 DOI: 10.1364/oe.404652] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/05/2020] [Accepted: 09/14/2020] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
We present the modular design and characterization of a multi-modality video-rate two-photon excitation (TPE) microscope based on integrating a digital micromirror device (DMD), which functions as an ultrafast beam shaper and random-access scanner, with a pair of galvanometric scanners. The TPE microscope system realizes a suite of new imaging functionalities, including (1) multi-layer imaging with 3D programmable imaging planes, (2) DMD-based wavefront correction, and (3) multi-focus optical stimulation (up to 22.7 kHz) with simultaneous TPE imaging, all in real-time. We also report the detailed optomechanical design and software development that achieves high level system automation. To verify the performance of different microscope functions, we have devised and performed imaging experiments on Drosophila brain, mouse kidney and human stem cells. The results not only show improved imaging resolution and depths via the DMD-based adaptive optics, but also demonstrate fast multi-focus stimulation for the first time. With the new imaging capabilities, e.g., tools for optogenetics, the multi-modality TPE microscope may play a critical role in the applications pertinent to neuroscience and biophotonics.
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24
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Cheng Z, Jiang H, Gan W, Cui M. Pupil plane actuated remote focusing for rapid focal depth control. OPTICS EXPRESS 2020; 28:26407-26413. [PMID: 32906913 PMCID: PMC7679197 DOI: 10.1364/oe.402787] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/14/2020] [Revised: 08/06/2020] [Accepted: 08/09/2020] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
Laser scanning is widely employed in imaging and material processing. Common laser scanners are often fast for 2D transverse scanning. Rapid focal depth control is highly desired in many applications. Although remote focusing has been developed to achieve fast focal depth control, the implementation is limited by the laser damage to the actuator near laser focus. Here, we present a new method named pupil plane actuated remote focusing, which enables sub-millisecond response time while avoiding laser damage. We demonstrate its application by implementing a dual-plane two-photon laser scanning fluorescence microscope for in vivo recording of calcium transient of neurons in mouse neocortex.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zongyue Cheng
- Bindley Bioscience Center, Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN 47907, USA
- Skirball Institute, Department of Neuroscience and Physiology, Department of Anesthesiology, New York University School of Medicine, New York, NY 10016, USA
| | - Hehai Jiang
- Bindley Bioscience Center, Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN 47907, USA
- School of Electrical and Computer Engineering, Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN 47907, USA
| | - Wenbiao Gan
- Skirball Institute, Department of Neuroscience and Physiology, Department of Anesthesiology, New York University School of Medicine, New York, NY 10016, USA
| | - Meng Cui
- Bindley Bioscience Center, Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN 47907, USA
- School of Electrical and Computer Engineering, Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN 47907, USA
- Department of Biology, Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN 47907, USA
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25
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Sakaki KDR, Podgorski K, Dellazizzo Toth TA, Coleman P, Haas K. Comprehensive Imaging of Sensory-Evoked Activity of Entire Neurons Within the Awake Developing Brain Using Ultrafast AOD-Based Random-Access Two-Photon Microscopy. Front Neural Circuits 2020; 14:33. [PMID: 32612514 PMCID: PMC7308460 DOI: 10.3389/fncir.2020.00033] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/29/2020] [Accepted: 05/07/2020] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Determining how neurons transform synaptic input and encode information in action potential (AP) firing output is required for understanding dendritic integration, neural transforms and encoding. Limitations in the speed of imaging 3D volumes of brain encompassing complex dendritic arbors in vivo using conventional galvanometer mirror-based laser-scanning microscopy has hampered fully capturing fluorescent sensors of activity throughout an individual neuron's entire complement of synaptic inputs and somatic APs. To address this problem, we have developed a two-photon microscope that achieves high-speed scanning by employing inertia-free acousto-optic deflectors (AODs) for laser beam positioning, enabling random-access sampling of hundreds to thousands of points-of-interest restricted to a predetermined neuronal structure, avoiding wasted scanning of surrounding extracellular tissue. This system is capable of comprehensive imaging of the activity of single neurons within the intact and awake vertebrate brain. Here, we demonstrate imaging of tectal neurons within the brains of albino Xenopus laevis tadpoles labeled using single-cell electroporation for expression of a red space-filling fluorophore to determine dendritic arbor morphology, and either the calcium sensor jGCaMP7s or the glutamate sensor iGluSnFR as indicators of neural activity. Using discrete, point-of-interest scanning we achieve sampling rates of 3 Hz for saturation sampling of entire arbors at 2 μm resolution, 6 Hz for sequentially sampling 3 volumes encompassing the dendritic arbor and soma, and 200–250 Hz for scanning individual planes through the dendritic arbor. This system allows investigations of sensory-evoked information input-output relationships of neurons within the intact and awake brain.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kelly D R Sakaki
- Department of Cellular and Physiological Sciences, Djavad Mowafaghian Centre for Brain Health, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC, Canada
| | | | - Tristan A Dellazizzo Toth
- Department of Cellular and Physiological Sciences, Djavad Mowafaghian Centre for Brain Health, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC, Canada
| | - Patrick Coleman
- Department of Cellular and Physiological Sciences, Djavad Mowafaghian Centre for Brain Health, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC, Canada
| | - Kurt Haas
- Department of Cellular and Physiological Sciences, Djavad Mowafaghian Centre for Brain Health, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC, Canada
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26
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Gintoli M, Mohanan S, Salter P, Williams E, Beard JD, Jekely G, Corbett AD. Spinning disk-remote focusing microscopy. BIOMEDICAL OPTICS EXPRESS 2020; 11:2874-2888. [PMID: 32637230 PMCID: PMC7316025 DOI: 10.1364/boe.389904] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/06/2020] [Revised: 04/23/2020] [Accepted: 04/26/2020] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
Fast confocal imaging was achieved by combining remote focusing with differential spinning disk optical sectioning to rapidly acquire images of live samples at cellular resolution. Axial and lateral full width half maxima less than 5 µm and 490 nm respectively are demonstrated over 130 µm axial range with a 256 × 128 µm field of view. A water-index calibration slide was used to achieve an alignment that minimises image volume distortion. Application to live biological samples was demonstrated by acquiring image volumes over a 24 µm axial range at 1 volume/s, allowing for the detection of calcium-based neuronal activity in Platynereis dumerilii larvae.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michele Gintoli
- Department of Physics and Astronomy, University of Exeter, Exeter, EX4 4QL, UK
| | - Sharika Mohanan
- Department of Physics and Astronomy, University of Exeter, Exeter, EX4 4QL, UK
| | - Patrick Salter
- Department of Engineering Science, University of Oxford, Parks Road, Oxford, OX1 3PJ, UK
| | | | - James D. Beard
- Living Systems Institute, University of Exeter, Exeter, EX4 4QD, UK
| | - Gaspar Jekely
- Living Systems Institute, University of Exeter, Exeter, EX4 4QD, UK
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27
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Yang D, Zhong X, Gu D, Peng X, Hu H. Unsupervised framework for depth estimation and camera motion prediction from video. Neurocomputing 2020. [DOI: 10.1016/j.neucom.2019.12.049] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
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28
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Zhao Z, Klindt DA, Maia Chagas A, Szatko KP, Rogerson L, Protti DA, Behrens C, Dalkara D, Schubert T, Bethge M, Franke K, Berens P, Ecker AS, Euler T. The temporal structure of the inner retina at a single glance. Sci Rep 2020; 10:4399. [PMID: 32157103 PMCID: PMC7064538 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-020-60214-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/06/2019] [Accepted: 02/09/2020] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
The retina decomposes visual stimuli into parallel channels that encode different features of the visual environment. Central to this computation is the synaptic processing in a dense layer of neuropil, the so-called inner plexiform layer (IPL). Here, different types of bipolar cells stratifying at distinct depths relay the excitatory feedforward drive from photoreceptors to amacrine and ganglion cells. Current experimental techniques for studying processing in the IPL do not allow imaging the entire IPL simultaneously in the intact tissue. Here, we extend a two-photon microscope with an electrically tunable lens allowing us to obtain optical vertical slices of the IPL, which provide a complete picture of the response diversity of bipolar cells at a "single glance". The nature of these axial recordings additionally allowed us to isolate and investigate batch effects, i.e. inter-experimental variations resulting in systematic differences in response speed. As a proof of principle, we developed a simple model that disentangles biological from experimental causes of variability and allowed us to recover the characteristic gradient of response speeds across the IPL with higher precision than before. Our new framework will make it possible to study the computations performed in the central synaptic layer of the retina more efficiently.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zhijian Zhao
- Institute for Ophthalmic Research, University of Tübingen, Tübingen, Germany
- Centre for Integrative Neuroscience (CIN), University of Tübingen, Tübingen, Germany
| | - David A Klindt
- Institute for Ophthalmic Research, University of Tübingen, Tübingen, Germany
- Centre for Integrative Neuroscience (CIN), University of Tübingen, Tübingen, Germany
- Bernstein Centre for Computational Neuroscience, University of Tübingen, Tübingen, Germany
- Graduate Training Centre of Neuroscience, University of Tübingen, Tübingen, Germany
- Institute for Theoretical Physics, University of Tübingen, Tübingen, Germany
| | - André Maia Chagas
- Institute for Ophthalmic Research, University of Tübingen, Tübingen, Germany
- Centre for Integrative Neuroscience (CIN), University of Tübingen, Tübingen, Germany
- Graduate Training Centre of Neuroscience, University of Tübingen, Tübingen, Germany
| | - Klaudia P Szatko
- Institute for Ophthalmic Research, University of Tübingen, Tübingen, Germany
- Bernstein Centre for Computational Neuroscience, University of Tübingen, Tübingen, Germany
- Graduate Training Centre of Neuroscience, University of Tübingen, Tübingen, Germany
| | - Luke Rogerson
- Institute for Ophthalmic Research, University of Tübingen, Tübingen, Germany
- Centre for Integrative Neuroscience (CIN), University of Tübingen, Tübingen, Germany
- Bernstein Centre for Computational Neuroscience, University of Tübingen, Tübingen, Germany
- Graduate Training Centre of Neuroscience, University of Tübingen, Tübingen, Germany
| | - Dario A Protti
- Department of Physiology and Bosch Institute, The University of Sydney, Sydney, Australia
| | - Christian Behrens
- Institute for Ophthalmic Research, University of Tübingen, Tübingen, Germany
- Centre for Integrative Neuroscience (CIN), University of Tübingen, Tübingen, Germany
- Bernstein Centre for Computational Neuroscience, University of Tübingen, Tübingen, Germany
| | - Deniz Dalkara
- Sorbonne Université, INSERM, CNRS, Institut de la Vision, Paris, France
| | - Timm Schubert
- Institute for Ophthalmic Research, University of Tübingen, Tübingen, Germany
- Centre for Integrative Neuroscience (CIN), University of Tübingen, Tübingen, Germany
| | - Matthias Bethge
- Centre for Integrative Neuroscience (CIN), University of Tübingen, Tübingen, Germany
- Bernstein Centre for Computational Neuroscience, University of Tübingen, Tübingen, Germany
- Institute for Theoretical Physics, University of Tübingen, Tübingen, Germany
- Center for Neuroscience and Artificial Intelligence, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, TX, USA
| | - Katrin Franke
- Institute for Ophthalmic Research, University of Tübingen, Tübingen, Germany
- Centre for Integrative Neuroscience (CIN), University of Tübingen, Tübingen, Germany
- Bernstein Centre for Computational Neuroscience, University of Tübingen, Tübingen, Germany
| | - Philipp Berens
- Institute for Ophthalmic Research, University of Tübingen, Tübingen, Germany
- Centre for Integrative Neuroscience (CIN), University of Tübingen, Tübingen, Germany
- Bernstein Centre for Computational Neuroscience, University of Tübingen, Tübingen, Germany
- Institute of Bioinformatics and Medical Informatics, University of Tübingen, Tübingen, Germany
| | - Alexander S Ecker
- Centre for Integrative Neuroscience (CIN), University of Tübingen, Tübingen, Germany
- Bernstein Centre for Computational Neuroscience, University of Tübingen, Tübingen, Germany
- Institute for Theoretical Physics, University of Tübingen, Tübingen, Germany
- Center for Neuroscience and Artificial Intelligence, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, TX, USA
- Department of Computer Science, University of Göttingen, Göttingen, Germany
| | - Thomas Euler
- Institute for Ophthalmic Research, University of Tübingen, Tübingen, Germany.
- Bernstein Centre for Computational Neuroscience, University of Tübingen, Tübingen, Germany.
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29
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Wang J, Zhang G, You Z. Design rules for dense and rapid Lissajous scanning. MICROSYSTEMS & NANOENGINEERING 2020; 6:101. [PMID: 34567710 PMCID: PMC8433367 DOI: 10.1038/s41378-020-00211-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/12/2019] [Revised: 06/10/2020] [Accepted: 08/21/2020] [Indexed: 05/17/2023]
Abstract
Lissajous microscanners are very popular in compact laser-scanning applications, such as solid-state light detection and ranging (LIDAR), owing to their high-quality factor and low power consumption. In the Lissajous scanner driven by a two-axis micro-electro-mechanical system scanning mirror (MEMS-SM), the design theory is insufficient to meet the temporal and spatial resolution at the same time. In this paper, the greatest common divisor of the two-axis driving frequency is used as the temporal resolution, the concept of the fill factor (FF) is used to describe the spatial resolution of the scanner, and a general algorithm for calculating the FF is presented. Combined with the characteristics of the Lissajous trajectory, three design rules of the general Lissajous scanner are proposed, and the design theory of the Lissajous scanner enabling MEMS LIDAR is perfected. Experimental results show that the proposed design rules can effectively meet the LIDAR design requirements.
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Affiliation(s)
- Junya Wang
- Department of Precision Instrument, Tsinghua University, Beijing, China
- State Key Laboratory of Precision Testing Technology and Instruments, Tsinghua University, 10084 Beijing, China
- Information Engineering University, Zhengzhou, China
| | - Gaofei Zhang
- Department of Precision Instrument, Tsinghua University, Beijing, China
- State Key Laboratory of Precision Testing Technology and Instruments, Tsinghua University, 10084 Beijing, China
| | - Zheng You
- Department of Precision Instrument, Tsinghua University, Beijing, China
- State Key Laboratory of Precision Testing Technology and Instruments, Tsinghua University, 10084 Beijing, China
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30
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Lecoq J, Orlova N, Grewe BF. Wide. Fast. Deep: Recent Advances in Multiphoton Microscopy of In Vivo Neuronal Activity. J Neurosci 2019; 39:9042-9052. [PMID: 31578235 PMCID: PMC6855689 DOI: 10.1523/jneurosci.1527-18.2019] [Citation(s) in RCA: 60] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/02/2019] [Revised: 09/27/2019] [Accepted: 09/27/2019] [Indexed: 01/04/2023] Open
Abstract
Multiphoton microscopy (MPM) has emerged as one of the most powerful and widespread technologies to monitor the activity of neuronal networks in awake, behaving animals over long periods of time. MPM development spanned across decades and crucially depended on the concurrent improvement of calcium indicators that report neuronal activity as well as surgical protocols, head fixation approaches, and innovations in optics and microscopy technology. Here we review the last decade of MPM development and highlight how in vivo imaging has matured and diversified, making it now possible to concurrently monitor thousands of neurons across connected brain areas or, alternatively, small local networks with sampling rates in the kilohertz range. This review includes different laser scanning approaches, such as multibeam technologies as well as recent developments to image deeper into neuronal tissues using new, long-wavelength laser sources. As future development will critically depend on our ability to resolve and discriminate individual neuronal spikes, we will also describe a simple framework that allows performing quantitative comparisons between the reviewed MPM instruments. Finally, we provide our own opinion on how the most recent MPM developments can be leveraged at scale to enable the next generation of discoveries in brain function.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jérôme Lecoq
- Allen Institute for Brain Science, Seattle 98109, Washington,
| | - Natalia Orlova
- Allen Institute for Brain Science, Seattle 98109, Washington
| | - Benjamin F Grewe
- Institute of Neuroinformatics, UZH and ETH Zurich, Zurich 8057, Switzerland
- Department of Electrical Engineering and Information Technology, ETH Zurich, Zurich 8092, Switzerland, and
- Faculty of Sciences, University of Zurich, Zurich 8057, Switzerland
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31
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Huang C, Tai CY, Yang KP, Chang WK, Hsu KJ, Hsiao CC, Wu SC, Lin YY, Chiang AS, Chu SW. All-Optical Volumetric Physiology for Connectomics in Dense Neuronal Structures. iScience 2019; 22:133-146. [PMID: 31765994 PMCID: PMC6883334 DOI: 10.1016/j.isci.2019.11.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/31/2019] [Revised: 09/19/2019] [Accepted: 11/04/2019] [Indexed: 01/04/2023] Open
Abstract
All-optical physiology (AOP) manipulates and reports neuronal activities with light, allowing for interrogation of neuronal functional connections with high spatiotemporal resolution. However, contemporary high-speed AOP platforms are limited to single-depth or discrete multi-plane recordings that are not suitable for studying functional connections among densely packed small neurons, such as neurons in Drosophila brains. Here, we constructed a 3D AOP platform by incorporating single-photon point stimulation and two-photon high-speed volumetric recordings with a tunable acoustic gradient-index (TAG) lens. We demonstrated the platform effectiveness by studying the anterior visual pathway (AVP) of Drosophila. We achieved functional observation of spatiotemporal coding and the strengths of calcium-sensitive connections between anterior optic tubercle (AOTU) sub-compartments and >70 tightly assembled 2-μm bulb (BU) microglomeruli in 3D coordinates with a single trial. Our work aids the establishment of in vivo 3D functional connectomes in neuron-dense brain areas. All-optical volumetric physiology = precise stimulation + fast volumetric recording Precise single-photon point stimulation among genetically defined neurons 3D two-photon imaging by an acoustic gradient-index lens for dense neural structures Observation of 3D functional connectivity in Drosophila anterior visual pathway
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Affiliation(s)
- Chiao Huang
- Department of Physics, National Taiwan University, 1, Sec 4, Roosevelt Road, Taipei 10617, Taiwan
| | - Chu-Yi Tai
- Institute of Biotechnology, National Tsing Hua University, 101, Sec 2, Guangfu Road, Hsinchu 30013, Taiwan
| | - Kai-Ping Yang
- Department of Physics, National Taiwan University, 1, Sec 4, Roosevelt Road, Taipei 10617, Taiwan
| | - Wei-Kun Chang
- Brain Research Center, National Tsing Hua University, 101, Sec 2, Guangfu Road, Hsinchu 30013, Taiwan
| | - Kuo-Jen Hsu
- Department of Physics, National Taiwan University, 1, Sec 4, Roosevelt Road, Taipei 10617, Taiwan; Brain Research Center, National Tsing Hua University, 101, Sec 2, Guangfu Road, Hsinchu 30013, Taiwan
| | - Ching-Chun Hsiao
- Department of Engineering and System Science, National Tsing Hua University, 101, Sec 2, Guangfu Road, Hsinchu 30013, Taiwan
| | - Shun-Chi Wu
- Department of Engineering and System Science, National Tsing Hua University, 101, Sec 2, Guangfu Road, Hsinchu 30013, Taiwan
| | - Yen-Yin Lin
- Brain Research Center, National Tsing Hua University, 101, Sec 2, Guangfu Road, Hsinchu 30013, Taiwan.
| | - Ann-Shyn Chiang
- Institute of Biotechnology, National Tsing Hua University, 101, Sec 2, Guangfu Road, Hsinchu 30013, Taiwan; Brain Research Center, National Tsing Hua University, 101, Sec 2, Guangfu Road, Hsinchu 30013, Taiwan; Institute of Systems Neuroscience, National Tsing Hua University, 101, Sec 2, Guangfu Road, Hsinchu 30013, Taiwan; Department of Biomedical Science and Environmental Biology, Kaohsiung Medical University, Kaohsiung 80780, Taiwan; Graduate Institute of Clinical Medical Science, China Medical University, Taichung 40402, Taiwan; Institute of Molecular and Genomic Medicine, National Health Research Institutes, Zhunan, Miaoli 35053, Taiwan; Kavli Institute for Brain and Mind, University of California, San Diego, CA 92161, USA.
| | - Shi-Wei Chu
- Department of Physics, National Taiwan University, 1, Sec 4, Roosevelt Road, Taipei 10617, Taiwan; Molecular Imaging Center, National Taiwan University, 1, Sec 4, Roosevelt Road, Taipei 10617, Taiwan.
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32
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Lawton PF, Buckley C, Saunter CD, Wilson C, Corbett AD, Salter PS, McCarron JG, Girkin JM. Multi-plane remote refocusing epifluorescence microscopy to image dynamic Ca 2 + events. BIOMEDICAL OPTICS EXPRESS 2019; 10:5611-5624. [PMID: 31799034 PMCID: PMC6865095 DOI: 10.1364/boe.10.005611] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/15/2019] [Revised: 09/12/2019] [Accepted: 09/12/2019] [Indexed: 05/26/2023]
Abstract
Rapid imaging of multiple focal planes without sample movement may be achieved through remote refocusing, where imaging is carried out in a plane conjugate to the sample plane. The technique is ideally suited to studying the endothelial and smooth muscle cell layers of blood vessels. These are intrinsically linked through rapid communication and must be separately imaged at a sufficiently high frame rate in order to understand this biologically crucial interaction. We have designed and implemented an epifluoresence-based remote refocussing imaging system that can image each layer at up to 20fps using different dyes and excitation light for each layer, without the requirement for optically sectioning microscopy. A novel triggering system is used to activate the appropriate laser and image acquisition at each plane of interest. Using this method, we are able to achieve axial plane separations down to 15 μ m, with a mean lateral stability of ≤ 0.32 μ m displacement using a 60x, 1.4NA imaging objective and a 60x, 0.7NA reimaging objective. The system allows us to image and quantify endothelial cell activity and smooth muscle cell activity at a high framerate with excellent lateral and good axial resolution without requiring complex beam scanning confocal microscopes, delivering a cost effective solution for imaging two planes rapidly. We have successfully imaged and analysed Ca 2 + activity of the endothelial cell layer independently of the smooth muscle layer for several minutes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Penelope F. Lawton
- Department of Physics, Durham University, South Road, Durham, DH1 3LE, UK
| | - Charlotte Buckley
- Strathclyde Institute of Pharmacy & Biomedical Sciences, University of Strathclyde, 161 Cathedral Street, Glasgow, G4 0RE, UK
| | - Chris D. Saunter
- Department of Physics, Durham University, South Road, Durham, DH1 3LE, UK
| | - Calum Wilson
- Strathclyde Institute of Pharmacy & Biomedical Sciences, University of Strathclyde, 161 Cathedral Street, Glasgow, G4 0RE, UK
| | - Alexander D. Corbett
- Department of Physics, University of Exeter, North Park Road, Exeter, EX4 4QL, UK
| | - Patrick S. Salter
- Department of Engineering Science, University of Oxford, Parks Road, Oxford OX1 3PJ, UK
| | - John G. McCarron
- Strathclyde Institute of Pharmacy & Biomedical Sciences, University of Strathclyde, 161 Cathedral Street, Glasgow, G4 0RE, UK
| | - John M. Girkin
- Department of Physics, Durham University, South Road, Durham, DH1 3LE, UK
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33
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Abstract
Purpose: The aim of the current review was to summarize the current applications, the latest advances and importantly, highlight research gaps in the use of quantum dots in the eye. Quantum dots are nanoscale semiconductor crystals with characteristic size and tunable optical properties, which deliver bright and stable fluorescence suitable for bioimaging and labelling. Methods: A systematic search was conducted following the PRISMA guidelines. This review systematically searched published data to summarize the characteristics and applications of quantum dots in ophthalmology. Two hundred and eighty published articles were initially selected for this review following searches using the criteria quantum dots AND nanoparticles AND ophthalmology in the databases PubMed, MEDLINE, Scopus, Embase and Web of Science. Results: After duplicates were removed, a total of 22 eligible articles were included for the review. Quantum dots potentially provide a range of diagnostic and therapeutic applications in ophthalmology. Quantum dots offer visible and near-infrared emission, which is highly desirable for bioimaging, due to reduced light scattering and low tissue absorption. Their applications include in vivo bioimaging, labelling of cells and tissues, delivery of genes or drugs and as antimicrobial composites. Conclusion: Quantum dots have been used in ophthalmology for bioimaging, electrical stimulation and tracking of gene/stems cells, and ocular lymphatics. However, there is no detailed description of their desirable characteristics for use in ophthalmology, and there is limited information about their cytotoxicity to ocular cells and tissues.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sidra Sarwat
- School of Optometry and Vision Science, University of New South Wales (UNSW) , Sydney , Australia
| | - Fiona Stapleton
- School of Optometry and Vision Science, University of New South Wales (UNSW) , Sydney , Australia
| | - Mark Willcox
- School of Optometry and Vision Science, University of New South Wales (UNSW) , Sydney , Australia
| | - Maitreyee Roy
- School of Optometry and Vision Science, University of New South Wales (UNSW) , Sydney , Australia
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Hsu KJ, Lin YY, Lin YY, Su K, Feng KL, Wu SC, Lin YC, Chiang AS, Chu SW. Millisecond two-photon optical ribbon imaging for small-animal functional connectome study. OPTICS LETTERS 2019; 44:3190-3193. [PMID: 31259918 DOI: 10.1364/ol.44.003190] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/22/2019] [Accepted: 05/22/2019] [Indexed: 06/09/2023]
Abstract
We developed a high-speed two-photon optical ribbon imaging system, which combines galvo-mirrors for an arbitrary curve scan on a lateral plane and a tunable acoustic gradient-index lens for a 100 kHz-1 MHz axial scan. The system provides micrometer/millisecond spatiotemporal resolutions, which enable continuous readout of functional dynamics from small and densely packed neurons in a living adult Drosophila brain. Compared to sparse sampling techniques, the ribbon imaging modality avoids motion artifacts. Combined with a Drosophila anatomical connectome database, which is the most complete among all model animals, this technique paves the way toward establishing whole-brain functional connectome.
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Narrowly Confined and Glomerulus-Specific Onset Latencies of Odor-Evoked Calcium Transients in the Juxtaglomerular Cells of the Mouse Main Olfactory Bulb. eNeuro 2019; 6:eN-NWR-0387-18. [PMID: 30834302 PMCID: PMC6397951 DOI: 10.1523/eneuro.0387-18.2019] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/02/2018] [Revised: 02/01/2019] [Accepted: 02/05/2019] [Indexed: 12/04/2022] Open
Abstract
Odor information is transmitted from olfactory sensory neurons to principal neurons at the glomeruli of the olfactory bulb. The intraglomerular neuronal circuit also includes hundreds of interneurons referred to as juxtaglomerular (JG) cells. Stimulus selectivity is well correlated among many JG cells that are associated with the same glomerulus, consistent with their highly homogeneous sensory inputs. However, much less is known about the temporal aspects of their activity, including the temporal coordination of their odor-evoked responses. As many JG cells within a glomerular module respond to the same stimulus, the extent to which their activity is temporally aligned will affect the temporal profile of their population inhibitory inputs. Using random-access high-speed two-photon microscopy, we recorded the odor-evoked calcium transients of mouse JG cells and compared the onset latency and rise time among neurons putatively associated with the same and different glomeruli. Whereas the overall onset latencies of odor-evoked transients were distributed across a ∼150 ms time window, those from cells putatively associated with the same glomerulus were confined to a much narrower window of several tens of milliseconds. This result suggests that onset latency primarily depends on the associated glomerulus. We also observed glomerular specificity in the rise time. The glomerulus-specific temporal pattern of odor-evoked activity implies that the temporal patterns of inputs from the intraglomerular circuit are unique to individual glomerulus–odor pairs, which may contribute to efficient shaping of the temporal pattern of activity in the principal neurons.
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Ronzitti E, Emiliani V, Papagiakoumou E. Methods for Three-Dimensional All-Optical Manipulation of Neural Circuits. Front Cell Neurosci 2018; 12:469. [PMID: 30618626 PMCID: PMC6304748 DOI: 10.3389/fncel.2018.00469] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/04/2018] [Accepted: 11/19/2018] [Indexed: 12/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Optical means for modulating and monitoring neuronal activity, have provided substantial insights to neurophysiology and toward our understanding of how the brain works. Optogenetic actuators, calcium or voltage imaging probes and other molecular tools, combined with advanced microscopies have allowed an "all-optical" readout and modulation of neural circuits. Completion of this remarkable work is evolving toward a three-dimensional (3D) manipulation of neural ensembles at a high spatiotemporal resolution. Recently, original optical methods have been proposed for both activating and monitoring neurons in a 3D space, mainly through optogenetic compounds. Here, we review these methods and anticipate possible combinations among them.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Eirini Papagiakoumou
- Wavefront Engineering Microscopy Group, Photonics Department, Institut de la Vision, Sorbonne Université, Inserm S968, CNRS UMR7210, Paris, France
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Ikezoe K, Amano M, Nishimoto S, Fujita I. Mapping stimulus feature selectivity in macaque V1 by two-photon Ca2+ imaging: Encoding-model analysis of fluorescence responses to natural movies. Neuroimage 2018; 180:312-323. [DOI: 10.1016/j.neuroimage.2018.01.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/31/2017] [Revised: 12/27/2017] [Accepted: 01/06/2018] [Indexed: 11/24/2022] Open
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Attota RK. Fidelity test for through-focus or volumetric type of optical imaging methods. OPTICS EXPRESS 2018; 26:19100-19114. [PMID: 30114170 PMCID: PMC6159218 DOI: 10.1364/oe.26.019100] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/21/2018] [Accepted: 06/23/2018] [Indexed: 06/08/2023]
Abstract
Rapid increase in interest and applications of through-focus (TF) or volumetric type of optical imaging in biology and other areas has resulted in the development of several TF image collection methods. Achieving quantitative results from images requires standardization and optimization of image acquisition protocols. Several standardization protocols are available for conventional optical microscopy where a best-focus image is used, but to date, rigorous testing protocols do not exist for TF optical imaging. In this paper, we present a method to determine the fidelity of the TF optical data using the TF scanning optical microscopy images.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ravi Kiran Attota
- Engineering Physics Division, PML, NIST, Gaithersburg, MD 20899-8212, USA
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Attota RK. Through-focus or volumetric type of optical imaging methods: a review. JOURNAL OF BIOMEDICAL OPTICS 2018; 23:1-10. [PMID: 29981229 PMCID: PMC6157599 DOI: 10.1117/1.jbo.23.7.070901] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/05/2018] [Accepted: 06/11/2018] [Indexed: 05/04/2023]
Abstract
In recent years, the use of through-focus (TF) or volumetric type of optical imaging has gained momentum in several areas such as biological imaging, microscopy, adaptive optics, material processing, optical data storage, and optical inspection. We provide a review of basic TF optical methods highlighting their design, major unique characteristics, and application space.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ravi Kiran Attota
- Engineering Physics Division, PML, National Institute of Standards and Technology Gaithersburg, MD 20899, USA
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40
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Bawart M, Jesacher A, Bernet S, Ritsch-Marte M. Remote focusing in confocal microscopy by means of a modified Alvarez lens. J Microsc 2018; 271:337-344. [PMID: 29932461 DOI: 10.1111/jmi.12724] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/14/2018] [Revised: 06/01/2018] [Accepted: 06/01/2018] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
Alvarez lenses are actuated lens-pairs which allow one to tune the optical power by mechanical displacement of subelements. Here, we show that a recently realized modified Alvarez lens design which does not require mechanical actuation can be integrated into a confocal microscope. Instead of mechanically moving them, the sublenses are imaged onto each other in a 4f-configuration, where the lateral image shift leading to a change in optical power is created by a galvo-mirror. The avoidance of mechanical lens shifts leads to a large speed gain for axial (and hence also 3D) image scans compared to classical Alvarez lenses. We demonstrate that the suggested operation principle is compatible with confocal microscopy. In order to optimize the system, we have drawn advantage of the flexibility a liquid-crystal spatial light modulator offers for the implementation. For given specifications, dedicated diffractive optical elements or freeform elements can be used in combination with resonant galvo-scanners or acousto-optic beam deflectors, to achieve even faster z-scans than reported here, reaching video rate.
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Affiliation(s)
- M Bawart
- Division of Biomedical Physics, Medical University of Innsbruck, Innsbruck, Austria
| | - A Jesacher
- Division of Biomedical Physics, Medical University of Innsbruck, Innsbruck, Austria
| | - S Bernet
- Division of Biomedical Physics, Medical University of Innsbruck, Innsbruck, Austria
| | - M Ritsch-Marte
- Division of Biomedical Physics, Medical University of Innsbruck, Innsbruck, Austria
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41
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Hillman EM, Voleti V, Patel K, Li W, Yu H, Perez-Campos C, Benezra SE, Bruno RM, Galwaduge PT. High-speed 3D imaging of cellular activity in the brain using axially-extended beams and light sheets. Curr Opin Neurobiol 2018; 50:190-200. [PMID: 29642044 PMCID: PMC6002850 DOI: 10.1016/j.conb.2018.03.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/02/2017] [Revised: 03/19/2018] [Accepted: 03/21/2018] [Indexed: 10/17/2022]
Abstract
As optical reporters and modulators of cellular activity have become increasingly sophisticated, the amount that can be learned about the brain via high-speed cellular imaging has increased dramatically. However, despite fervent innovation, point-scanning microscopy is facing a fundamental limit in achievable 3D imaging speeds and fields of view. A range of alternative approaches are emerging, some of which are moving away from point-scanning to use axially-extended beams or sheets of light, for example swept confocally aligned planar excitation (SCAPE) microscopy. These methods are proving effective for high-speed volumetric imaging of the nervous system of small organisms such as Drosophila (fruit fly) and D. Rerio (Zebrafish), and are showing promise for imaging activity in the living mammalian brain using both single and two-photon excitation. This article describes these approaches and presents a simple model that demonstrates key advantages of axially-extended illumination over point-scanning strategies for high-speed volumetric imaging, including longer integration times per voxel, improved photon efficiency and reduced photodamage.
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Affiliation(s)
- Elizabeth Mc Hillman
- Laboratory for Functional Optical Imaging, Departments of Biomedical Engineering and Radiology, Columbia University, New York, NY, USA; Mortimer B. Zuckerman Mind Brain Behavior Institute, Columbia University, New York, NY, USA.
| | - Venkatakaushik Voleti
- Laboratory for Functional Optical Imaging, Departments of Biomedical Engineering and Radiology, Columbia University, New York, NY, USA; Mortimer B. Zuckerman Mind Brain Behavior Institute, Columbia University, New York, NY, USA
| | - Kripa Patel
- Laboratory for Functional Optical Imaging, Departments of Biomedical Engineering and Radiology, Columbia University, New York, NY, USA; Mortimer B. Zuckerman Mind Brain Behavior Institute, Columbia University, New York, NY, USA
| | - Wenze Li
- Laboratory for Functional Optical Imaging, Departments of Biomedical Engineering and Radiology, Columbia University, New York, NY, USA; Mortimer B. Zuckerman Mind Brain Behavior Institute, Columbia University, New York, NY, USA
| | - Hang Yu
- Laboratory for Functional Optical Imaging, Departments of Biomedical Engineering and Radiology, Columbia University, New York, NY, USA; Mortimer B. Zuckerman Mind Brain Behavior Institute, Columbia University, New York, NY, USA
| | - Citlali Perez-Campos
- Laboratory for Functional Optical Imaging, Departments of Biomedical Engineering and Radiology, Columbia University, New York, NY, USA; Mortimer B. Zuckerman Mind Brain Behavior Institute, Columbia University, New York, NY, USA
| | - Sam E Benezra
- Mortimer B. Zuckerman Mind Brain Behavior Institute, Columbia University, New York, NY, USA; Bruno Lab, Department of Neuroscience, Columbia University, New York, NY, USA
| | - Randy M Bruno
- Mortimer B. Zuckerman Mind Brain Behavior Institute, Columbia University, New York, NY, USA; Bruno Lab, Department of Neuroscience, Columbia University, New York, NY, USA
| | - Pubudu T Galwaduge
- Laboratory for Functional Optical Imaging, Departments of Biomedical Engineering and Radiology, Columbia University, New York, NY, USA; Mortimer B. Zuckerman Mind Brain Behavior Institute, Columbia University, New York, NY, USA
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42
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Three dimensional two-photon brain imaging in freely moving mice using a miniature fiber coupled microscope with active axial-scanning. Sci Rep 2018; 8:8108. [PMID: 29802371 PMCID: PMC5970169 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-018-26326-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 69] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/09/2017] [Accepted: 05/09/2018] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
We present a miniature head mounted two-photon fiber-coupled microscope (2P-FCM) for neuronal imaging with active axial focusing enabled using a miniature electrowetting lens. We show three-dimensional two-photon imaging of neuronal structure and record neuronal activity from GCaMP6s fluorescence from multiple focal planes in a freely-moving mouse. Two-color simultaneous imaging of GFP and tdTomato fluorescence is also demonstrated. Additionally, dynamic control of the axial scanning of the electrowetting lens allows tilting of the focal plane enabling neurons in multiple depths to be imaged in a single plane. Two-photon imaging allows increased penetration depth in tissue yielding a working distance of 450 μm with an additional 180 μm of active axial focusing. The objective NA is 0.45 with a lateral resolution of 1.8 μm, an axial resolution of 10 μm, and a field-of-view of 240 μm diameter. The 2P-FCM has a weight of only ~2.5 g and is capable of repeatable and stable head-attachment. The 2P-FCM with dynamic axial scanning provides a new capability to record from functionally distinct neuronal layers, opening new opportunities in neuroscience research.
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Savtchouk I, Carriero G, Volterra A. Studying Axon-Astrocyte Functional Interactions by 3D Two-Photon Ca 2+ Imaging: A Practical Guide to Experiments and "Big Data" Analysis. Front Cell Neurosci 2018; 12:98. [PMID: 29706870 PMCID: PMC5908897 DOI: 10.3389/fncel.2018.00098] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/24/2018] [Accepted: 03/22/2018] [Indexed: 01/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Recent advances in fast volumetric imaging have enabled rapid generation of large amounts of multi-dimensional functional data. While many computer frameworks exist for data storage and analysis of the multi-gigabyte Ca2+ imaging experiments in neurons, they are less useful for analyzing Ca2+ dynamics in astrocytes, where transients do not follow a predictable spatio-temporal distribution pattern. In this manuscript, we provide a detailed protocol and commentary for recording and analyzing three-dimensional (3D) Ca2+ transients through time in GCaMP6f-expressing astrocytes of adult brain slices in response to axonal stimulation, using our recently developed tools to perform interactive exploration, filtering, and time-correlation analysis of the transients. In addition to the protocol, we release our in-house software tools and discuss parameters pertinent to conducting axonal stimulation/response experiments across various brain regions and conditions. Our software tools are available from the Volterra Lab webpage at https://wwwfbm.unil.ch/dnf/group/glia-an-active-synaptic-partner/member/volterra-andrea-volterra in the form of software plugins for Image J (NIH)—a de facto standard in scientific image analysis. Three programs are available: MultiROI_TZ_profiler for interactive graphing of several movable ROIs simultaneously, Gaussian_Filter5D for Gaussian filtering in several dimensions, and Correlation_Calculator for computing various cross-correlation parameters on voxel collections through time.
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Affiliation(s)
- Iaroslav Savtchouk
- Department of Fundamental Neurosciences, University of Lausanne, Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - Giovanni Carriero
- Department of Fundamental Neurosciences, University of Lausanne, Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - Andrea Volterra
- Department of Fundamental Neurosciences, University of Lausanne, Lausanne, Switzerland
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44
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Schuck R, Quicke P, Copeland C, Garasto S, Annecchino LA, Hwang JK, Schultz SR. Rapid three dimensional two photon neural population scanning. ANNUAL INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE OF THE IEEE ENGINEERING IN MEDICINE AND BIOLOGY SOCIETY. IEEE ENGINEERING IN MEDICINE AND BIOLOGY SOCIETY. ANNUAL INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE 2018; 2015:5867-70. [PMID: 26737626 DOI: 10.1109/embc.2015.7319726] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Abstract
Recording the activity of neural populations at high sampling rates is a fundamental requirement for understanding computation in neural circuits. Two photon microscopy provides one promising approach towards this. However, neural circuits are three dimensional, and functional imaging in two dimensions fails to capture the 3D nature of neural dynamics. Electrically tunable lenses (ETLs) provide a simple and cheap method to extend laser scanning microscopy into the relatively unexploited third dimension. We have therefore incorporated them into our Adaptive Spiral Scanning (SSA) algorithm, which calculates kinematically efficient scanning strategies using radially modulated spiral paths. We characterised the response of the ETL, incorporated its dynamics using MATLAB models of the SSA algorithm and tested the models on populations of Izhikevich neurons of varying size and density. From this, we show that our algorithms can theoretically at least achieve sampling rates of 36.2Hz compared to 21.6Hz previously reported for 3D scanning techniques.
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Chisholm KI, Khovanov N, Lopes DM, La Russa F, McMahon SB. Large Scale In Vivo Recording of Sensory Neuron Activity with GCaMP6. eNeuro 2018; 5:ENEURO.0417-17.2018. [PMID: 29662940 PMCID: PMC5898788 DOI: 10.1523/eneuro.0417-17.2018] [Citation(s) in RCA: 50] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/05/2017] [Revised: 01/22/2018] [Accepted: 01/30/2018] [Indexed: 12/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Greater emphasis on the study of intact cellular networks in their physiological environment has led to rapid advances in intravital imaging of the central nervous system (CNS), while the peripheral system remains largely unexplored. To assess large networks of sensory neurons, we selectively label primary afferents with GCaMP6s in male and female C57bl/6 mice and visualize their functional responses to peripheral stimulation in vivo. We show that we are able to monitor the activity of hundreds of sensory neurons simultaneously, with sufficient sensitivity to detect, in most cases, single action potentials with a typical rise time of around 200 ms, and an exponential decay with a time constant of approximately 700 ms. With this technique we are able to characterize the responses of large populations of sensory neurons to innocuous and noxious mechanical and thermal stimuli under normal and inflammatory conditions. We demonstrate that the majority of primary afferents are polymodal with between 50-80% of thermally sensitive DRG neurons responding also to noxious mechanical stimulation. We also specifically assess the small population of peripheral cold neurons and demonstrate significant sensitization to cooling after a model of sterile and persistent inflammation, with significantly increased sensitivity already at decreases of 5°C when compared to uninflamed responses. This not only reveals interesting new insights into the (patho)physiology of the peripheral nervous system but also demonstrates the sensitivity of this imaging technique to physiological changes in primary afferents.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kim I Chisholm
- Neurorestoration Group, Wolfson Centre for Age-Related Diseases, King's College London, London SE1 1UL, United Kingdom
| | - Nikita Khovanov
- Neurorestoration Group, Wolfson Centre for Age-Related Diseases, King's College London, London SE1 1UL, United Kingdom
| | - Douglas M Lopes
- Neurorestoration Group, Wolfson Centre for Age-Related Diseases, King's College London, London SE1 1UL, United Kingdom
| | - Federica La Russa
- Neurorestoration Group, Wolfson Centre for Age-Related Diseases, King's College London, London SE1 1UL, United Kingdom
| | - Stephen B McMahon
- Neurorestoration Group, Wolfson Centre for Age-Related Diseases, King's College London, London SE1 1UL, United Kingdom
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46
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Single-cell analysis of diversity in human stem cell-derived neurons. Cell Tissue Res 2017; 371:171-179. [PMID: 29185070 DOI: 10.1007/s00441-017-2728-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/05/2017] [Accepted: 11/02/2017] [Indexed: 01/12/2023]
Abstract
Neural stem and progenitor cells produce one of the most remarkable organs in nature, the human brain. Among neural stem cell progeny, post-mitotic neurons are likewise remarkably diverse. Single-cell transcriptomic approaches are now cataloging a long-sought-after molecular taxonomy of neuronal diversity in the brain. Contemporary single-cell omic classifications of neuronal diversity build from electrophysiological approaches that for decades have measured and cataloged diverse biophysical properties of single neurons. With the widespread application of human pluripotent stem cell-based models of neurogenesis to investigate disease pathology and to develop new drugs, a high-resolution understanding of neuronal diversity in vivo is essential to benchmark the state of in vitro models of human neurological disease.
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Microglia and astrocyte activation in the spinal cord of lame horses. Vet Anaesth Analg 2017; 45:92-102. [PMID: 29223561 DOI: 10.1016/j.vaa.2017.10.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/21/2017] [Revised: 10/06/2017] [Accepted: 10/10/2017] [Indexed: 12/30/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE To determine the microglial and astrocyte response to painful lameness in horses. STUDY DESIGN Ionized calcium binding adaptor molecule 1 (Iba-1) and glial fibrillary acidic protein (GFAP) expression, cell density and morphology were determined through immunofluorescence within the dorsal horn of equine spinal cord. ANIMALS A total of five adult horses with acute or chronic unilateral lameness, previously scheduled for euthanasia. METHODS Musculoskeletal lameness was evaluated in five horses through visual evaluation according to clinical guidelines. Spinal cord samples were obtained immediately after euthanasia, and distal limb lesions were confirmed through dissection and radiography. Iba-1 immunostaining was used for detection and characterization of dorsal horn microglia. GFAP was used for immunostaining of dorsal horn astrocytes. Iba-1 and GFAP labeled cells were quantified in the dorsal horn, and intensity of fluorescence was compared between the ipsi- and contralateral dorsal horn to the affected limb, and between dorsal horn segments of all horses. RESULTS Iba-1 expression was higher in the ipsilateral dorsal horn of the affected limb in contrast to the contralateral side dorsal horn. GFAP markers did not demonstrate increased astrocytic activity on the dorsal horn ipsilateral side to the distal limb lesion of affected horses. Horses with acute lameness predominantly had a spherical shape microglial phenotype, while cells from chronic lameness cases had variable morphology. Astrocytes evidenced small somas and large processes in both acute and chronic lameness, with higher GFAP localization in the main branches. As in the case of rodents, the localization of microglia and astrocytes in horses was mainly situated within laminae I, II and III. CONCLUSIONS AND CLINICAL RELEVANCE Iba-1 and GFAP are functional and morphological markers of spinal microglial cells and astrocytes in horses with lameness.
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48
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Giannini JP, York AG, Shroff H. Anticipating, measuring, and minimizing MEMS mirror scan error to improve laser scanning microscopy's speed and accuracy. PLoS One 2017; 12:e0185849. [PMID: 28973013 PMCID: PMC5626505 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0185849] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/02/2017] [Accepted: 09/20/2017] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
We describe a method to speed up microelectromechanical system (MEMS) mirror scanning by > 20x, while also improving scan accuracy. We use Landweber deconvolution to determine an input voltage which would produce a desired output, based on the measured MEMS impulse response. Since the MEMS is weakly nonlinear, the observed behavior deviates from expectations, and we iteratively improve our input to minimize this deviation. This allows customizable MEMS angle vs. time with <1% deviation from the desired scan pattern. We demonstrate our technique by optimizing a point scanning microscope's raster patterns to image mammal submandibular gland and pollen at ~10 frames/s.
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Affiliation(s)
- John P. Giannini
- Section on High Resolution Optical Imaging, National Institute of Biomedical Imaging and Bioengineering, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, Maryland, United States of America
- Biophysics Program, University of Maryland, College Park, Maryland, United States of America
- * E-mail:
| | - Andrew G. York
- Calico Life Sciences LLC, South San Francisco, California, United States of America
| | - Hari Shroff
- Section on High Resolution Optical Imaging, National Institute of Biomedical Imaging and Bioengineering, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, Maryland, United States of America
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49
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Wang Y, Shi G, Miller DJ, Wang Y, Wang C, Broussard G, Wang Y, Tian L, Yu G. Automated Functional Analysis of Astrocytes from Chronic Time-Lapse Calcium Imaging Data. Front Neuroinform 2017; 11:48. [PMID: 28769780 PMCID: PMC5509822 DOI: 10.3389/fninf.2017.00048] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/17/2017] [Accepted: 06/30/2017] [Indexed: 01/12/2023] Open
Abstract
Recent discoveries that astrocytes exert proactive regulatory effects on neural information processing and that they are deeply involved in normal brain development and disease pathology have stimulated broad interest in understanding astrocyte functional roles in brain circuit. Measuring astrocyte functional status is now technically feasible, due to recent advances in modern microscopy and ultrasensitive cell-type specific genetically encoded Ca2+ indicators for chronic imaging. However, there is a big gap between the capability of generating large dataset via calcium imaging and the availability of sophisticated analytical tools for decoding the astrocyte function. Current practice is essentially manual, which not only limits analysis throughput but also risks introducing bias and missing important information latent in complex, dynamic big data. Here, we report a suite of computational tools, called Functional AStrocyte Phenotyping (FASP), for automatically quantifying the functional status of astrocytes. Considering the complex nature of Ca2+ signaling in astrocytes and low signal to noise ratio, FASP is designed with data-driven and probabilistic principles, to flexibly account for various patterns and to perform robustly with noisy data. In particular, FASP explicitly models signal propagation, which rules out the applicability of tools designed for other types of data. We demonstrate the effectiveness of FASP using extensive synthetic and real data sets. The findings by FASP were verified by manual inspection. FASP also detected signals that were missed by purely manual analysis but could be confirmed by more careful manual examination under the guidance of automatic analysis. All algorithms and the analysis pipeline are packaged into a plugin for Fiji (ImageJ), with the source code freely available online at https://github.com/VTcbil/FASP.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yinxue Wang
- Bradley Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State UniversityArlington, VA, United States
| | - Guilai Shi
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Medicine, University of California Davis School of MedicineDavis, CA, United States
| | - David J Miller
- Department of Electrical Engineering, School of Electrical Engineering and Computer Science, Pennsylvania State UniversityUniversity Park, PA, United States
| | - Yizhi Wang
- Bradley Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State UniversityArlington, VA, United States
| | - Congchao Wang
- Bradley Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State UniversityArlington, VA, United States
| | - Gerard Broussard
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Medicine, University of California Davis School of MedicineDavis, CA, United States
| | - Yue Wang
- Bradley Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State UniversityArlington, VA, United States
| | - Lin Tian
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Medicine, University of California Davis School of MedicineDavis, CA, United States
| | - Guoqiang Yu
- Bradley Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State UniversityArlington, VA, United States
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Hsu KJ, Li KY, Lin YY, Chiang AS, Chu SW. Optimizing depth-of-field extension in optical sectioning microscopy techniques using a fast focus-tunable lens. OPTICS EXPRESS 2017; 25:16783-16794. [PMID: 28789179 DOI: 10.1364/oe.25.016783] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/09/2017] [Accepted: 07/05/2017] [Indexed: 05/18/2023]
Abstract
Volume imaging based on a fast focus-tunable lens (FTL) allows three-dimensional (3D) observation within milliseconds by extending the depth-of-field (DOF) with sub-micrometer transverse resolution on optical sectioning microscopes. However, the previously published DOF extensions were neither axially uniform nor fit with theoretical prediction. In this work, complete theoretical treatments of focus extension with confocal and various multiphoton microscopes are established to correctly explain the previous results. Moreover, by correctly placing the FTL and properly adjusting incident beam diameter, a uniform DOF is achieved in which the actual extension nicely agrees with the theory. Our work not only provides a theoretical platform for volumetric imaging with FTL but also demonstrates the optimized imaging condition.
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