Cytokine-based transformation of immune surveillance into tumor-promoting inflammation

Description of lymphocyte and cytokine profiles in individuals with acute myeloid leukemia associated with FLT3-ITD and NPM1 mutation status

The pathogenesis of acute myeloid leukemia (AML) involves mutations in genes such as FLT3 and NPM1 , which are also associated with the prognosis of the disease. The immune system influences disease progression, but the mechanisms underlying the interaction between the immune system and AML are not clear. In this study, the profiles of lymphocytes and cytokines were described in individuals with AML stratified by molecular changes associated with prognosis. The participants included in this study were newly diagnosed AML patients ( n  = 43) who were about to undergo chemotherapy. Subtypes of lymphocytes in peripheral blood, including B cells, T cells, and natural killer cells, and serum concentrations of cytokines, including Th1, Th2, and Th17, were studied by flow cytometry assays (BD FACSCanto II). The correlations between lymphocyte subsets, cytokines, and genetic/prognostic risk stratification (based on the FLT3 and NPM1 genes) were analyzed. The differences in B lymphocytes (%), T lymphocytes (%), plasmablasts (%), leukocytes (cells/µl), and tumor necrosis factor (pg/ml) were determined between groups with FLT3-ITD+ and FLT3-ITD- mutations. The presence of mutations in NPM1 and FLT3-ITD and age suggested changes in the lymphocyte and cytokine profile in individuals with AML.

The Intersection of Psoriasis and Neoplasia: Risk Factors, Therapeutic Approaches, and Management Strategies

The association between psoriasis and increased cancer risk is gaining recognition as studies reveal shared inflammatory and immune pathways. This review examines the relationship between psoriasis and neoplasia, focusing on cancer risk factors in psoriasis patients, the biological pathways underlying this connection, and the impact of various psoriasis treatments on cancer development. Psoriasis patients have a heightened incidence of certain cancers, such as lymphomas, skin cancers, and urological malignancies, potentially linked to immune dysregulation and chronic inflammation. Immunomodulatory treatments for psoriasis, including conventional systemic therapies and biologics, present varied cancer risks, with others, such as phototherapy, associated with an elevated risk of skin cancers. For oncologic patients with psoriasis, management necessitates a tailored approach, balancing effective psoriasis control with minimizing cancer progression risks. The emergence of IL-17 inhibitors, IL-23 inhibitors, and small-molecule therapies offers promising therapeutic alternatives with favorable safety profiles for these patients. This review underscores the need for interdisciplinary collaboration to optimize care for patients managing both psoriasis and malignancy.

Interleukin-12 treatment reduces tumor growth and modulates the expression of CASKA and MIR-203 in athymic mice bearing tumors induced by the HGC-27 gastric cancer cell line

Gastric cancer (GC) is one of the most common malignant tumors in the digestive system and due to its poor prognosis, there is an increase in the demand for more effective anticancer therapies. Interleukins are potential anticancer agents which can modulate expression of cancer related genes and have therapeutic effects. Interleukin 12 (IL-12) exhibits potent anti-tumor, anti-angiogenic and anti-metastatic activities and represents the ideal candidate for tumor immunotherapy, due to its ability to activate both innate and adaptive immunities. The aim of this study was to evaluate the effect of IL-12 administration on GC tumor growth induced in the cancer xenograft nude mouse model. Tumor development was analyzed weekly and after 8 weeks, the animals were sacrificed for cytokine analysis (IL-4, TNF-alfa, IL-2, INF-gamma, IL-12, IL-10, TGF-beta) by ELISA. The tumor cells in the implanted areas of the animals that developed solid growth of the tumor (anatomopathological analysis was performed). We have also evaluated CASK and miR203 expression, two related cell invasion factors, in the induced tumors after administration of 6 n/kg IL-12. The development of tumor masses was observed in all groups of animals inoculated with HGC-27 neoplastic cells. In animals treated with 6 n/kg IL-12, there was no tumor development confirmed by anatomopathological analysis. Changes in the levels of pro and anti-inflammatory cytokines were also observed. Our results indicated that miR203 expression was elevated while CASK was downregulated. These results suggest that IL-12 treatment repress the tumor growth by induction of miR203 expression which in turn repress CASK expression.

Stimulating the Antitumor Immune Response Using Immunocytokines: A Preclinical and Clinical Overview

Cytokines are immune modulators which can enhance the immune response and have been proven to be an effective class of immunotherapy. Nevertheless, the clinical use of cytokines in cancer treatment has faced several challenges associated with poor pharmacokinetic properties and the occurrence of adverse effects. Immunocytokines (ICKs) have emerged as a promising approach to overcome the pharmacological limitations observed with cytokines. ICKs are fusion proteins designed to deliver cytokines in the tumor microenvironment by taking advantage of the stability and specificity of immunoglobulin-based scaffolds. Several technological approaches have been developed. This review focuses on ICKs designed with the most impactful cytokines in the cancer field: IL-2, TNFα, IL-10, IL-12, IL-15, IL-21, IFNγ, GM-CSF, and IFNα. An overview of the pharmacological effects of the naked cytokines and ICKs tested for cancer therapy is detailed. A particular emphasis is given on the immunomodulatory effects of ICKs associated with their technological design. In conclusion, this review highlights active ways of development of ICKs. Their already promising results observed in clinical trials are likely to be improved with the advances in targeting technologies such as cytokine/linker engineering and the design of multispecific antibodies with tumor targeting and immunostimulatory functional properties.

Suppression of TGFβ-Induced Interleukin-6 Secretion by Sinulariolide from Soft Corals through Attenuation of the p38-NF-kB Pathway in Carcinoma Cells

Sinulariolide (SC-1) is a natural product extracted from the cultured-type soft coral Sinularia flexibilis and possesses anti-inflammation, anti-proliferative, and anti-migratory in several types of cancer cells. However, the molecular pathway behind its effects on inflammation remains poorly understood. Since inflammatory cytokines such as TGFβ, TNFα, IL-1, IL-6, and IL-8 activate transcription factors such as Smads, NF-κB, STAT3, Snail, Twist, and Zeb that drive the epithelial-to-mesenchymal transition (EMT), in this study, we focus on the investigation in effects of SC-1 on TGFβ-induced interleukin-6 (IL-6) releases in an in vitro cell culture model. We showed that both intracellular IL-6 expression and secretion were stimulated by TGFβ and associated with strong upregulation of IL-6 mRNA and increased transcription in A549 cells. SC-1 blocked TGFβ-induced secretion of IL-6 while showing no effect on the induction of fibronectin and plasminogen activator inhibitor-1 genes, indicating that SC-1 interferes with only a subset of TGFβ activities. In addition, SC-1 inhibits TGFβ-induced IL-6 by suppressing p38 MAPK signaling and subsequently inhibits NF-κB and its nuclear translocation without affecting the canonical Smad pathway and receptor turnover. Overall, these data suggest that p38 may involve in the inhibition of SC-1 in IL-6 release, thus illustrating an inhibitory effect for SC-1 in the suppression of inflammation, EMT phenotype, and tumorigenesis.

Risk of malignancy in patients with psoriasis according to treatment modalities in Korea: a nationwide cohort study

Intrinsic immunologic disparity of psoriasis itself, along with chronic inflammation and immunomodulatory anti-psoriatic treatments could be associated with increased risk of malignancy. We aimed to estimate the risk of malignancy in patients with psoriasis by treatment modality compared with that in individuals without psoriasis in Korea. We conducted a nationwide cohort study using the claims database of the National Health Insurance Service from January 2005 to December 2018. A total of 255,471 patients with psoriasis, and age- and sex-matched non-psoriasis participants (1:1 ratio) were enrolled. The adjusted hazard ratios (aHRs) [95% confidence intervals (CIs)] for malignancy without nonmelanoma skin cancer (NMSC) were 1.10 [1.08-1.12] in patients with psoriasis, 1.13 [1.00-1.27], 1.05 [0.97-1.13], and 1.24 [0.84-1.83] in phototherapy, non-biologic systemics, and biologics cohort, respectively. Among the non-biologic systemics cohort, patients treated with cyclosporin showed higher risk of malignancy without NMSC (aHR [95% CI], 1.20 [1.04-1.39]). The risk of malignancy without NMSC in patients with psoriasis was higher than that in individuals without psoriasis. Phototherapy and biologics were not associated with significant increase of risk; however, cyclosporin appeared to increase its risk. Dermatologists should be vigilant about this potential risk while managing patients with psoriasis.

Chronic inflammation, cancer development and immunotherapy

Chronic inflammation plays a pivotal role in cancer development. Cancer cells interact with adjacent cellular components (pro-inflammatory cells, intrinsic immune cells, stromal cells, etc.) and non-cellular components to form the inflammatory tumor microenvironment (TME). Interleukin 6 (IL-6), macrophage migration inhibitory factor (MIF), immune checkpoint factors and other pro-inflammatory cytokines produced by intrinsic immune cells in TME are the main mediators of intercellular communication in TME, which link chronic inflammation to cancer by stimulating different oncogenic signaling pathways and improving immune escape to promote cancer development. In parallel, the ability of monocytes, T regulatory cells (Tregs) and B regulatory cells (Bregs) to perform homeostatic tolerogenic functions is hijacked by cancer cells, leading to local or systemic immunosuppression. Standard treatments for advanced malignancies such as chemotherapy and radiotherapy have improved in the last decades. However, clinical outcomes of certain malignant cancers are not satisfactory due to drug resistance and side effects. The clinical application of immune checkpoint therapy (ICT) has brought hope to cancer treatment, although therapeutic efficacy are still limited due to the immunosuppressive microenvironment. Emerging evidences reveal that ideal therapies including clearance of tumor cells, disruption of tumor-induced immunosuppression by targeting suppressive TME as well as reactivation of anti-tumor T cells by ICT. Here, we review the impacts of the major pro-inflammatory cells, mediators and their downstream signaling molecules in TME on cancer development. We also discuss the application of targeting important components in the TME in the clinical management of cancer.

Inflammatory Mediators and Gut Microbial Toxins Drive Colon Tumorigenesis by IL-23 Dependent Mechanism

Obesity-associated chronic inflammation predisposes colon cancer risk development. Interleukin-23 (IL-23) is a potential inflammatory mediator linking obesity to chronic colonic inflammation, altered gut microbiome, and colon carcinogenesis. We aimed to elucidate the role of pro-inflammatory eicosanoids and gut bacterial toxins in priming dendritic cells and macrophages for IL-23 secretion to promote colon tumor progression. To investigate the association of IL-23 with obesity and colon tumorigenesis, we utilized TCGA data set and colonic tumors from humans and preclinical models. To understand IL-23 production by inflammatory mediators and gut microbial toxins, we performed several in vitro mechanistic studies to mimic the tumor microenvironment. Colonic tumors were utilized to perform the ex vivo experiments. Our findings showed that IL-23 is elevated in obese individuals, colonic tumors and correlated with reduced disease-free survival. In vitro studies showed that IL-23 treatment increased the colon tumor cell self-renewal, migration, and invasion while disrupting epithelial barrier permeability. Co-culture experiments of educated dendritic cells/macrophages with colon cancer cells significantly increased the tumor aggression by increasing the secretory levels of IL-23, and these observations are further supported by ex vivo rat colonic tumor organotypic experiments. Our results demonstrate gut microbe toxins and eicosanoids facilitate IL-23 production, which plays an important role in obesity-associated colonic tumor progression. This newly identified nexus represents a potential target for the prevention and treatment of obesity-associated colon cancer.

Engineering strategies for broad application of TCR-T and CAR-T cell therapies

Adoptive cell therapy, including the transfer of tumor-infiltrating T lymphocytes after in vitro expansion or T cells redirected to tumor antigens using antigen-specific transgenic T cell receptor T cells (TCR-T cells) or chimeric antigen receptor T cells (CAR-T cells), has shown a significant clinical impact. Particularly, several types of CAR-T cell therapies have been approved for the treatment of hematological malignancies. The striking success of CAR-T cell therapies in hematological malignancies motivates their further expansion to a wide range of solid tumors, yet multiple obstacles, including the lack of proper target antigens exhibiting a tumor-specific expression pattern and the immunosuppressive tumor microenvironment (TME) impairing the effector functions of adoptively transferred T cells, have prevented clinical application. Gene engineering technologies such as the CRISPR/Cas9 system have enabled flexible reprograming of TCR/CAR-T cell signaling or loading genes that are targets of the tumor immunosuppression as a payload to overcome the difficulties. Here, we discuss recent advances in TCR/CAR-T cell engineering: various promising approaches to enhance the antitumor activity of adoptively transferred T cells in the TME for maximizing the efficacy and the safety of adoptive cell therapy are now being tested in the clinic, especially targeting solid tumors.

Risk for COVID-19 infection in patients with tobacco smoke-associated cancers of the upper and lower airway

PURPOSE

Cancer patients are regarded as a group at risk for both COVID-19 infection and severe clinical course because of advanced age, comorbidities and iatrogenic immune impairment. Among them, patients with cancer of the upper and lower airways share other risk factors, mostly related to tobacco-smoke exposure, including male gender, airway epithelial damages, chronic obstructive respiratory disease (COPD), cardiovascular and cerebrovascular diseases. Clinical and pathophysiological factors shared by these conditions are reviewed.

METHODS

Review of the published literature since the beginning of 2020.

RESULTS

COVID-19 is a respiratory infectious disease and SARS-CoV-2 replication and shedding occurs in nasal and bronchial epithelial respiratory cells through the interaction with ACE2 and TMPRSS2 receptors, both overexpressed in smokers and former smokers. Tobacco-smoke airway exposure is also characterized by a chronic inflammation with activation of inflammatory cells and cytokine release including interleukin-6 (IL-6). A high release of cytokine in response to viral infection is documented in COVID-19 patients with adverse clinical outcomes and IL-6 is a key element of the cytokine storm syndrome leading to multi-organ damage.

CONCLUSIONS

Patients with cancers of the upper and lower airways might be at increased risk of infection, morbidity and mortality from COVID-19 also because of tobacco exposure, a key factor in triggering inflammation, immunity and cancer.

Cytoglobin as a Prognostic Factor for Pancreatic Ductal Adenocarcinoma: A Retrospective Analysis of 75 Patients

OBJECTIVES

The aim was to evaluate the relationship between cytoglobin (Cygb) expression and both clinicopathologic factors and prognosis in patients with pancreatic ductal adenocarcinoma (PDAC).

METHODS

Seventy-five patients with PDAC who underwent pancreatectomy between 2009 and 2014 at our department were included. Diagnosis was based on World Health Organization standards, with staging by TNM classification of Union for International Cancer Control. Expressions of Cygb, phosphoinositide-3 kinase, phosphorylated protein kinase B, interleukin-6, and vascular endothelial growth factor were evaluated by immunohistochemical staining of resected surgical specimens and densitometrical analysis.

RESULTS

Elevated expression of Cygb was found mainly in carcinoma cells of PDAC. Patients with low expression of Cygb showed significantly shorter disease-free survival and disease-specific survival than those with high expression. There was also a significant negative correlation between Cygb expression and the expressions of phosphoinositide 3-kinase, phosphorylated protein kinase B, interleukin-6, and vascular endothelial growth factor. In univariate analysis, Cygb expression, clinical stage, histologic tumor grade, lymphatic invasion, and vascular invasion were prognostic factors. In multivariate analysis, Cygb expression and the clinical stage were independent prognostic factors.

CONCLUSIONS

Loss of Cygb may contribute to tumor recurrence and poor prognosis of PDAC by increases in angiogenic factor.

Neuroinflammation as a Common Denominator of Complex Diseases (Cancer, Diabetes Type 2, and Neuropsychiatric Disorders)

The term neuroinflammation refers to inflammation of the nervous tissue, in general, and in the central nervous system (CNS), in particular. It is a driver of neurotoxicity, it is detrimental, and implies that glial cell activation happens prior to neuronal degeneration and, possibly, even causes it. The inflammation-like glial responses may be initiated in response to a variety of cues such as infection, traumatic brain injury, toxic metabolites, or autoimmunity. The inflammatory response of activated microglia engages the immune system and initiates tissue repair. Through translational research the role played by neuroinflammation has been acknowledged in different disease entities. Intriguingly, these entities include both those directly related to the CNS (commonly designated neuropsychiatric disorders) and those not directly related to the CNS (e.g., cancer and diabetes type 2). Interestingly, all the above-mentioned entities belong to the same group of "complex disorders". This review aims to summarize cumulated data supporting the hypothesis that neuroinflammation is a common denominator of a wide variety of complex diseases. We will concentrate on cancer, type 2 diabetes (T2DM), and neuropsychiatric disorders (focusing on mood disorders).

mRNA in cancer immunotherapy: beyond a source of antigen

mRNA therapeutics have become the focus of molecular medicine research. Various mRNA applications have reached major milestones at high speed in the immuno-oncology field. This can be attributed to the knowledge that mRNA is one of nature's core building blocks carrying important information and can be considered as a powerful vector for delivery of therapeutic proteins to the patient.For a long time, the major focus in the use of in vitro transcribed mRNA was on development of cancer vaccines, using mRNA encoding tumor antigens to modify dendritic cells ex vivo. However, the versatility of mRNA and its many advantages have paved the path beyond this application. In addition, due to smart design of both the structural properties of the mRNA molecule as well as pharmaceutical formulations that improve its in vivo stability and selective targeting, the therapeutic potential of mRNA can be considered as endless.As a consequence, many novel immunotherapeutic strategies focus on the use of mRNA beyond its use as the source of tumor antigens. This review aims to summarize the state-of-the-art on these applications and to provide a rationale for their clinical application.

Expression of inflammatory interleukins and selected miRNAs in non-small cell lung cancer

Tumours are characterised by an ability to avoid immune destruction and the presence of cancer-associated inflammation. Better understanding of the link between lung cancer and such inflammation is vital for early detection and personalized treatment. Thus, we examined the mRNA expression of interleukins IL-1β, IL-6, IL-17 and miR-9, miR-122 as potential useful biomarkers of NSCLC. Tumour tissues, non-cancerous tissue and blood samples were collected from 39 patients with primary NSCLC undergoing surgical treatment. The selected RNA was isolated from tissue samples and selected miRNAs from peripheral blood exosomes. This RNA was transcribed to cDNA and quantified using RT-qPCR. Significantly higher expression of the selected interleukins was observed in non-cancerous than tumour tissue, and IL-6 was significantly higher in the tumour tissue of patients with a history of ≤ 40 pack-years (PYs) (2.197, IQR: 0.821-4.415) than in those with > 40 PYs (0.461, IQR: 0.372-0.741; p = 0.037). It is clear that inflammatory processes play a role in NSCLC, as indicated by the upregulation of IL-1β and IL-6 in tumour and adjacent tissue, and that smoking has a strong influence on inflammation in tumourigenesis, demonstrated by the upregulation of IL-6 in tumour samples among patients with ≤ 40 PYs compared to > 40 PYs.

Alpha1-antitrypsin protects lung cancer cells from staurosporine-induced apoptosis: the role of bacterial lipopolysaccharide

Elevated levels of plasma alpha1-antitrypsin (AAT) correlate with a poor prognosis of various cancers. Herein, we investigated effects of exogenous AAT on non-small lung cancer cell lines with high (H1975) and very low (H661) baseline expression of SERPINA1 gene encoding AAT protein. Comparison of cells grown for 3 weeks in a regular medium versus medium supplemented with 2 mg/ml of AAT revealed that in the presence of AAT cells acquire better proliferative properties, resistance to staurosporine (STS)-induced apoptosis, and show higher expression of CLU, a pro-tumorigenic gene coding clusterin protein. Similarly, the co-administration of STS with AAT or addition of AAT to the cells pre-treated with STS abrogated effects of STS in both cell lines. Following experiments with H1975 cells have shown that AAT blocks critical steps in STS-induced cell death: inhibition of AKT/MAPK pathways, and activation of caspase 3 and autophagy. AAT does not inhibit apoptosis-triggered by chloroquine (inhibitor of autophagy) or streptonigrin (inducer of p53 pathway). The anti-apoptotic effects of AAT were unaffected by lipopolysaccharide (LPS). However, AAT induced TLR4 levels and enhanced LPS effects on the production of IL-6, a tumor-promoting cytokine. Our data provide further evidence that AAT plays a significant role in the tumorigenesis.

Pro-inflammatory TNF-α and IFN-γ Promote Tumor Growth and Metastasis via Induction of MACC1

Colorectal cancer (CRC) is one of the most common malignancies worldwide. Early stage CRC patients have a good prognosis. If distant metastasis occurs, the 5-year survival drops below 10%. Despite treatment success over the last decades, treatment options for metastatic disease are still limited. Therefore, novel targets are needed to foster therapy of advanced stage CRC patients and hinder progression of early stage patients into metastasis. A novel target is the crucial oncogene Metastasis-Associated in Colon Cancer 1 (MACC1) involved in molecular pathogenesis of CRC metastasis. MACC1 induces cell proliferation and motility, supports cellular survival and rewires metabolism resulting in increased metastasis in vivo. MACC1 is a prognostic biomarker not only for CRC but for more than 20 solid cancer entities. Inflammation plays a pivotal role in tumorigenesis, tumor progression and metastasis. For CRC, inflammatory bowel disease and ulcerative colitis are important inflammation associated risk factors. Certain cytokines, such as TNF-α and IFN-γ, are key factors in determining the contribution of the inflammatory process to CRC. Knowledge of the connection between inflammation and MACC1 driven tumors remains unclear. Gene expression analysis of CRC cells after cytokine stimulation was analyzed by qRT-PCR and Western blot. Cellular motility was assessed by Boyden chamber assays. MACC1 promoter activity after stimulation with pro-inflammatory cytokines was measured using promoter-luciferase constructs. To investigate signal transduction from receptor to effector molecules, blocking experiments using neutralizing antibodies and knockdown experiments were performed. Following TNF-α stimulation, MACC1 and c-Jun expression were significantly increased at the mRNA and protein level. Knockdown of c-Jun reduced MACC1 inducibility following TNF-α stimulation. TNF-α promoted MACC1-induced cell migration that was reverted following MACC1 knockdown. Moreover, MACC1 and c-Jun expression were downregulated by blocking TNFR1, but not TNFR2. Knock down of the NF-κB subunit, p65, reduced basal MACC1 and c-Jun mRNA expression levels. Adalimumab, a clinically approved monoclonal anti-TNF-α antibody, hindered MACC1 induction. The present study highlights that TNF-α regulates the induction of MACC1 via the NF-κB subunit p65 and the transcription factor c-Jun in CRC cells. This finding unravels a novel signaling pathway upstream of MACC1 and provides a potential therapeutic target for the treatment of CRC patients with an associated inflammation.

Randomized Study Design to Test Effects of Vitamin D and Omega-3 Fatty Acid Supplementation as Adjuvant Therapy in Colorectal Cancer Patients

This study examines the effects of vitamin D and omega-3 fatty acid co-supplementation on inflammation and nutritional status in colorectal cancer patients. Patients were randomly assigned into four groups: (1) controls, receiving placebos; (2) omega-3 fatty acid arm, receiving two 330 mg omega-3 fatty acid capsules daily and placebo (for vitamin D₃) weekly; (3) vitamin D arm, receiving a 50,000 IU vitamin D₃ soft gel weekly and two placebos (for omega-3 fatty acids) daily; and (4) co-supplementation arm, receiving a 50,000 IU vitamin D₃ soft gel weekly and two 330 mg omega-3 fatty acids capsules daily for 8 weeks. As outcomes, we measure height; weight; fat-free mass (FFM); serum levels of 25(OH)D, TNF-α, and IL-6; C-CRP; and albumin, before and after the intervention. The presented results show that vitamin D₃ plus omega-3 fatty acid co-supplementation in colorectal cancer patients has beneficial impacts on inflammation and nutritional status.

Effects of Vitamin D and Omega-3 Fatty Acids Co-Supplementation on Inflammatory Factors and Tumor Marker CEA in Colorectal Cancer Patients Undergoing Chemotherapy: A Randomized, Double-Blind, Placebo-Controlled Clinical Trial

Objectives: This study aimed to investigate the effects of vitamin D and omega-3 fatty acids co-supplementation on inflammatory factors and tumor marker CEA in colorectal cancer patients undergoing chemotherapy.Methods: In this study, 81 patients with stage ӀӀ or ӀӀӀ colorectal cancer were randomly assigned into four groups: (1) control: receiving a vitamin D placebo, weekly + two omega-3 fatty acid placebo capsules, daily; (2) omega-3 fatty acid, receiving two omega-3 fatty acid capsules (each capsule containing 330 mg of omega-3 fatty acids), daily + a vitamin D placebo, weekly; (3) vitamin D, receiving a 50,000 IU vitamin D soft gel, weekly + two omega-3 fatty acid placebo capsules, daily; (4) co-supplementation, receiving a 50,000 IU vitamin D soft gel, weekly + two omega-3 fatty acids capsules, for 8 weeks. Before and after the intervention, serum levels of 25(OH)D, TNF-α, IL-1β, IL-6, IL-8, NF-kB activity, and tumor marker CEA, were measured.Results: After 8 weeks of intervention, patients who received combined vitamin D and omega-3 fatty acids supplements compared with omega-3, vitamin D, and placebo had significantly decreased TNF-α, and IL-1β (P < .05). In addition, serum levels of TNF-α, IL-1β, IL-6, IL-8, and tumor marker CEA were decreased significantly in omega-3, vitamin D, and co-supplementation of them, compared with baseline. NF-kB activity was decreased significantly in vitamin D and co-supplementation groups, compared with baseline. Regarding CEA, there was no significant difference between the four groups at the end of intervention (P > .05).Conclusion: Results show that co-supplementation of vitamin D and omega-3 fatty acids co-supplementation, in colorectal cancer patients have beneficial impacts on inflammation and tumor marker CEA.

Tumor Lymphatic Function Regulates Tumor Inflammatory and Immunosuppressive Microenvironments

Proliferation of aberrant, dysfunctional lymphatic vessels around solid tumors is a common histologic finding. Studies have shown that abnormalities in lymphatic function result in accumulation of inflammatory cells with an immunosuppressive profile. We tested the hypothesis that dysfunctional lymphatic vessels surrounding solid tumors regulate changes in the tumor microenvironment and tumor-specific immune responses. Using subcutaneously implanted mouse melanoma and breast cancer tumors in a lymphatic endothelial cell-specific diphtheria toxin receptor transgenic mouse, we found that local ablation of lymphatic vessels increased peritumoral edema, as compared with controls. Comparative analysis of the peritumoral fluid demonstrated increases in the number of macrophages, CD4⁺ inflammatory cells, F4/80⁺/Gr-1⁺ (myeloid-derived suppressor cells), CD4⁺/Foxp3⁺ (Tregs) immunosuppressive cells, and expression of inflammatory cytokines such as TNFα, IFNγ, and IL1β following lymphatic ablation. Tumors grown in lymphatic ablated mice exhibited reduced intratumoral accumulation of cytotoxic T cells and increased tumor PD-L1 expression, causing rapid tumor growth, compared with tumors grown in nonlymphatic-ablated mice. Our study suggests that lymphatic dysfunction plays a role in regulating tumor microenvironments and may be therapeutically targeted in combination with immunotherapy to prevent tumor growth and progression.

The immunomodulatory role of tumor Syndecan-1 (CD138) on ex vivo tumor microenvironmental CD4+ T cell polarization in inflammatory and non-inflammatory breast cancer patients

Herein, we aimed to identify the immunomodulatory role of tumor Syndecan-1 (CD138) in the polarization of CD4⁺ T helper (Th) subsets isolated from the tumor microenvironment of inflammatory breast cancer (IBC) and non-IBC patients. Lymphocytes and mononuclear cells isolated from the axillary tributaries of non-IBC and IBC patients during modified radical mastectomy were either stimulated with the secretome as indirect co-culture or directly co-cultured with control and Syndecan-1-silenced SUM-149 IBC cells. In addition, peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs) of normal subjects were used for the direct co-culture. Employing flow cytometry, we analyzed the expression of the intracellular IFN-γ, IL-4, IL-17, and Foxp3 markers as readout for basal and co-cultured Th₁, Th₂, Th₁₇, and T_reg CD4⁺ subsets, respectively. Our data revealed that IBC displayed a lower basal frequency of Th₁ and Th₂ subsets than non-IBC. Syndecan-1-silenced SUM-149 cells significantly upregulated only T_reg subset polarization of normal subjects relative to controls. However, Syndecan-1 silencing significantly enhanced the polarization of Th₁₇ and T_reg subsets of non-IBC under both direct and indirect conditions and induced only Th₁ subset polarization under indirect conditions compared to control. Interestingly, qPCR revealed that there was a negative correlation between Syndecan-1 and each of IL-4, IL-17, and Foxp3 mRNA expression in carcinoma tissues of IBC and that the correlation was reversed in non-IBC. Mechanistically, Syndecan-1 knockdown in SUM-149 cells promoted Th₁₇ cell expansion via upregulation of IL-23 and the Notch ligand DLL4. Overall, this study indicates a low frequency of the circulating antitumor Th₁ subset in IBC and suggests that tumor Syndecan-1 silencing enhances ex vivo polarization of CD4⁺ Th₁₇ and T_reg cells of non-IBC, whereby Th₁₇ polarization is possibly mediated via upregulation of IL-23 and DLL4. These findings suggest the immunoregulatory role of tumor Syndecan-1 expression in Th cell polarization that may have therapeutic implications for breast cancer.

Lysyl-Transfer RNA Synthetase Induces the Maturation of Dendritic Cells through MAPK and NF-κB Pathways, Strongly Contributing to Enhanced Th1 Cell Responses

In addition to essential roles in protein synthesis, lysyl-tRNA synthetase (KRS) is secreted to trigger a proinflammatory function that induces macrophage activation and TNF-α secretion. KRS has been associated with autoimmune diseases such as polymyositis and dermatomyositis. In this study, we investigated the immunomodulatory effects of KRS on bone marrow-derived dendritic cells (DCs) of C57BL/6 mice and subsequent polarization of Th cells and analyzed the underlying mechanisms. KRS-treated DCs increased the expression of cell surface molecules and proinflammatory cytokines associated with DC maturation and activation. Especially, KRS treatment significantly increased production of IL-12, a Th1-polarizing cytokine, in DCs. KRS triggered the nuclear translocation of the NF-κB p65 subunit along with the degradation of IκB proteins and the phosphorylation of MAPKs in DCs. Additionally, JNK, p38, and ERK inhibitors markedly recovered the degradation of IκB proteins, suggesting the involvement of MAPKs as the upstream regulators of NF-κB in the KRS-induced DC maturation and activation. Importantly, KRS-treated DCs strongly increased the differentiation of Th1 cells when cocultured with CD4⁺ T cells. The addition of anti-IL-12-neutralizing Ab abolished the secretion of IFN-γ in the coculture, indicating that KRS induces Th1 cell response via DC-derived IL-12. Moreover, KRS enhanced the OVA-specific Th1 cell polarization in vivo following the adoptive transfer of OVA-pulsed DCs. Taken together, these results indicated that KRS effectively induced the maturation and activation of DCs through MAPKs/NF-κB-signaling pathways and favored DC-mediated Th1 cell response.

Neuroimmunology of Behavioral Comorbidities Associated With Cancer and Cancer Treatments

Behavioral comorbidities (depression, anxiety, fatigue, cognitive disturbances, and neuropathic pain) are prevalent in cancer patients and survivors. These mental and neurological health issues reduce quality-of-life, which is a significant societal concern given the increasing rates of long-term survival after various cancers. Hypothesized causes of behavioral comorbidities with cancer include tumor biology, stress associated with the cancer experience, and cancer treatments. A relatively recent leading mechanism by which these causes contribute to changes in neurobiology that underlie behavior is inflammation. Indeed, both basic and clinical research indicates that peripheral inflammation leads to central inflammation and behavioral changes in other illness contexts. Given the limitations of assessing neuroimmunology in clinical populations, this review primarily synthesizes evidence of neuroimmune and neuroinflammatory changes due to two components of cancer (tumor biology and cancer treatments) that are associated with altered affective-like or cognitive behaviors in rodents. Specifically, alterations in microglia, neuroinflammation, and immune trafficking to the brain are compiled in models of tumors, chemotherapy, and/or radiation. Evidence-based neuronal mechanisms by which these neuroimmune changes may lead to changes in behavior are proposed. Finally, converging evidence in clinical cancer populations is discussed.

Role of the unfolded protein response in determining the fate of tumor cells and the promise of multi-targeted therapies

Although there have been advances in our understanding of carcinogenesis and development of new treatments, cancer remains a common cause of death. Many regulatory pathways are incompletely understood in cancer development and progression, with a prime example being those related to the endoplasmic reticulum (ER). The pathological sequelae that arise from disruption of ER homeostasis are not well defined. The ER is an organelle that is responsible for secretory protein biosynthesis and the quality control of protein folding. The ER triggers an unfolded protein response (UPR) when misfolded proteins accumulate, and while the UPR acts to restore protein folding and ER homeostasis, this response can work as a switch to determine the death or survival of cells. The treatment of cancer with agents that target the UPR has shown promising outcomes. The UPR has wide crosstalk with other signaling pathways. Multi-targeted cancer therapies which target the intersections within signaling networks have shown synergistic tumoricidal effects. In the present review, the basic cellular and signaling pathways of the ER and UPR are introduced; then the crosstalk between the ER and other signaling pathways is summarized; and ultimately, the evidence that the UPR is a potential target for cancer therapy is discussed. Regulation of the UPR downstream signaling is a common therapeutic target for different tumor types. Tumoricidal effects achieved from modulating the UPR downstream signaling could be enhanced by phosphodiesterase 5 (PDE5) inhibitors. Largely untapped by Western medicine for cancer therapies are Chinese herbal medicines. This review explores and discusses the value of some Chinese herbal extracts as PDE5 inhibitors.

Antitumor Activity of the Chinese Medicine JC-001 Is Mediated by Immunomodulation in a Murine Model of Hepatocellular Carcinoma

JC-001 is a Chinese medicine that has been used to treat liver disease; however, its significance in cancer treatment has not been characterized. In this study, we used an immunocompetent tumor model to characterize the antitumor activity of JC-001. A total of 48 Hepa 1-6 tumor-bearing C57BL/6 mice were randomly grouped into 4 groups and treated with H2O or JC-001 via oral administration. After hepatoma cell lines, including HepG2, Hep3B, SK-Hep-1, and Hepa 1-6, underwent 96 hours of JC-001 treatment, a low cytotoxic effect was observed. In contrast, no direct cytotoxic effect of JC-001 on a normal human liver cell line, THLE-3, was observed under the same incubation conditions. Using a murine tumor model, we found that tumor growth could be inhibited by JC-001 in C57BL/6 mice but not in immunodeficient mice. Histopathological analysis of tumors from C57BL/6 mice revealed immune cell infiltration in tumors from the JC-001-treated group, as observed by hematoxylin and eosin staining; in addition, Ki67, hypoxia-inducible factor-1-α, and high mobility group box 1 expression levels were suppressed in the tumors. Both the coculture assay and murine spleen mRNA quantitative PCR analyses demonstrated that JC-001 could suppress Th17 immunity. Our data suggest that JC-001 is a Chinese medicine with low cytotoxicity that can significantly suppress tumor growth by immune regulation. This herbal remedy has great potential for future clinical application in hepatoma therapy.

High systemic IL-6 is associated with worse prognosis in patients with non-small cell lung cancer

Characteristic cytokine patterns have been described in different cancer patients and they are related to their diagnosis, prognosis, prediction of treatment responses and survival. A panel of cytokines was evaluated in the plasma of non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC) patients and healthy controls to investigate their profile and relationship with clinical characteristics and overall survival. The case-controlled cross-sectional study design recruited 77 patients with confirmed diagnosis of NSCLC (cases) and 91 healthy subjects (controls) aimed to examine peripheral pro-inflammatory and anti-inflammatory cytokines (IL-2, IL-4, IL-6, IL-10, IL-17A, TNF and IFN-γ) by Cytometry Beads Arrays (CBA Flex) in. The cytokine IL-6 showed a statistically significant difference among groups with increased expression in the case group (p < 0.001). The correlation between the cytokines expression with patient’s clinical characteristics variables revealed the cytokine IL-6 was found to be associated with gender, showing higher levels in male (p = 0.036), whereas IL-17A levels were associated with TNM stage, being higher in III–IV stages (p = 0.044). We observed worse overall survival for individuals with high levels of IL-6 when compared to those with low levels of this cytokine in 6, 12 and 24 months. Further studies of IL-6 levels in independent cohort could clarify the real role of IL-6 as an independent marker of prognostic of NSCLC.

Differential Induction of Immunogenic Cell Death and Interferon Expression in Cancer Cells by Structured ssRNAs

Activation of the RNA-sensing pattern recognition receptor (PRR) in cancer cells leads to cell death and cytokine expression. This cancer cell death releases tumor antigens and damage-associated molecular patterns (DAMPs) that induce anti-tumor immunity. However, these cytokines and DAMPs also cause adverse inflammatory and thrombotic complications that can limit the overall therapeutic benefits of PRR-targeting anti-cancer therapies. To overcome this problem, we generated and evaluated two novel and distinct ssRNA molecules (immunogenic cell-killing RNA [ICR]2 and ICR4). ICR2 and ICR4 differentially stimulated cell death and PRR signaling pathways and induced different patterns of cytokine expression in cancer and innate immune cells. Interestingly, DAMPs released from ICR2- and ICR4-treated cancer cells had distinct patterns of stimulation of innate immune receptors and coagulation. Finally, ICR2 and ICR4 inhibited in vivo tumor growth as effectively as poly(I:C). ICR2 and ICR4 are potential therapeutic agents that differentially induce cell death, immune stimulation, and coagulation when introduced into tumors.

Immunization-based scores as independent prognostic predictors in soft tissue sarcoma patients

Background: The purpose of this study was to examine and compare the prognostic value of different immunization-based scoring systems in patients with soft tissue sarcoma (STS).

Methods: We conducted a retrospective study evaluating a cohort of 165 patients diagnosed with STS between July 2007 and July 2014. The relative Glasgow prognostic score (GPS) of these patients was calculated using 3 different systems: the traditional GPS system (tGPS), the modified GPS system 1 (m1GPS), and the modified GPS system 2 (m2GPS). Then, we evaluated the relationships between each GPS system and clinicopathological characteristics. The mean follow-up for survivors in the cohort was 73.7 months as of March 2015.

Results: The most favorable overall survival (OS) rate was associated with the score 0 groups, and the poorest progression-free survival (PFS) rate was associated with the score 2 groups, regardless of which system was used to calculate the score. Specifically, the m1GPS provided the greatest accuracy in predicting OS and PFS. Moreover, the same effect was observed in a separate analysis restricted to patients with metastases. Remarkably, in patients with a score of 2 as measured by all 3 systems, local treatment resulted in a poorer prognosis compared to patients with a score of 2 who did not receive local treatment.

Conclusion: The GPS is a valuable prognostic marker and has the capability to predict the appropriate treatment strategy for STS patients with metastases. The modified GPS systems demonstrated superior prognostic and predictive value compared with the traditional GPS system.

Emerging tale of UPR and cancer: an essentiality for malignancy

A set of cellular response to counter any alteration in homeostasis of a cell originating at endoplasmic reticulum is collectively termed as unfolded protein response (UPR). It initially is adaptive in nature as to restore cellular normalcy failing in course often activates pro-apoptotic signaling pathway resulting in cell death. UPR has emerged as an essential adaptation mechanism that cross talk with various cellular processes for cancer pathogenesis. Interestingly, it plays diverse role in plethora of signaling pathways instrumental in transformation, cell invasion, cell migration, metastasis, neovascularization, proliferation, and maintenance of energy metabolism of cancerous cells. In cancerous cells, it is triggered by change in microenvironment of a cell usually driven by hypoxia, acidosis, and nutrient deprivation, which often leads to positive selection pressure involving the reprogramming of energy metabolism which promotes channelization of limited metabolites into the hexosamine biosynthetic pathway (HBP). Substantial evidences suggest the role of UPR in oncogene (Myc, mTOR, RAS, HER2) driven cancer transformation and progression. In this review, we have comprehensively underlined the role played by UPR in adaptation, transformation, proliferation, invasion, and metastasis of cancerous cells.

Biflorin, Isolated from the Flower Buds of Syzygium aromaticum L., Suppresses LPS-Induced Inflammatory Mediators via STAT1 Inactivation in Macrophages and Protects Mice from Endotoxin Shock

Two chromone C-glucosides, biflorin (1) and isobiflorin (2), were isolated from the flower buds of Syzygium aromaticum L. (Myrtaceae). Here, inhibitory effects of 1 and 2 on lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-induced production of nitric oxide (NO) and prostaglandin E2 (PGE2) in RAW 264.7 macrophages were evaluated, and 1 (IC50 = 51.7 and 37.1 μM, respectively) was more potent than 2 (IC50 > 60 and 46.0 μM). The suppression of NO and PGE2 production by 1 correlated with inhibition of iNOS and COX-2 protein expression. Compound 1 reduced inducible NO synthase (iNOS) and cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2) mRNA expression via inhibition of their promoter activities. Compound 1 inhibited the LPS-induced production and mRNA expression of tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α) and interleukin (IL)-6. Furthermore, 1 reduced p-STAT1 and p-p38 expression but did not affect the activity of nuclear factor κ light-chain enhancer of activated B cells (NF-κB) or activator protein 1 (AP-1). In a mouse model of LPS-induced endotoxemia, 1 reduced the mRNA levels of iNOS, COX-2, and TNF-α, and the phosphorylation-mediated activation of the signal transducer and activator of transcription 1 (STAT1), consequently improving the survival rates of mice. Compound 1 showed a significant anti-inflammatory effect on carrageenan-induced paw edema and croton-oil-induced ear edema in rats. The collective data indicate that the suppression of pro-inflammatory gene expression via p38 mitogen-activated protein kinase and STAT1 inactivation may be a mechanism for the anti-inflammatory activity of 1.

Fusion cytokine IL-2-GMCSF enhances anticancer immune responses through promoting cell-cell interactions

Background

Potent antitumor responses can be induced through cytokine immunotherapy. Interleukin (IL)-2 and granulocyte–macrophage colony-stimulating factor (GM-CSF) are among the most effective cytokines to induce tumor-specific systemic immune responses and can act synergistically. To overcome the limitations of combined use of these two cytokines, we have constructed an IL2-GMCSF fusion protein and characterized its antitumor effects in this study.

Methods

The expression of IL-2 receptor and GM-CSF receptor of cell lines were detected with quantitative real-time PCR. On this basis, the bioactivities of IL2-GMCSF, especially effects on DC2.4 cells were assayed. Another function of IL2-GMCSF—bridge two types of cells—was assessed by cell contact counting and cytotoxicity assays. The anti-tumor activity in vivo of IL2-GMCSF was evaluated in the melanoma model. The statistical significance among treatment groups were determined by One-Way ANOVA.

Results

The fusion protein IL2-GMCSF maintained the activities of IL-2 and GM-CSF, and could significantly promote DC2.4 cell activities, including phagocytosis, proliferation and cytokine secretion. In addition to the inherent cytokine activity, IL2-GMCSF bridges direct cell–cell interactions and enhances splenocyte killing efficacy against multiple tumor cell lines in vitro. Co-injection of IL2-GMCSF and inactivated B16F10 mouse melanoma cells induced complete immunoprotective responses in about 30 % of mice.

Conclusion

These results suggested that IL2-GMCSF can efficiently regulate immune responses against tumors. Furthermore, as the bridging effect relies on both IL-2R and GM-CSFR and promotes interactions between immune and tumor cells, IL2-GMCSF may be utilized as a useful tool for dissecting specific immune responses for future clinical applications.

Innate lymphoid cells involve in tumorigenesis

Innate lymphoid cells (ILCs) promptly initiate cytokine responses to pathogen exposure in the mucosa and mucosal-associated lymphoid tissues. ILCs were recently categorized as being of the lymphoid lineage and have been classified into three groups. ILCs play important roles in immunity against pathogens, and an anti-tumor immune-related function was recently demonstrated. In this review we discuss whether and how ILCs involve in the tumorigenesis, providing new insights into the mechanisms underlying the particular functions of ILCs as well as the potential targets for tumor intervention.

Immune modulation by ER stress and inflammation in the tumor microenvironment

It is now increasingly evident that the immune system represents a barrier to tumor emergence, growth, and recurrence. Although this idea was originally proposed almost 50 years ago as the "immune surveillance hypothesis", it is commonly recognized that, with few rare exceptions, tumor cells always prevail. Thus, one of the central unsolved paradoxes of tumor immunology is how a tumor escapes immune control, which is reflected in the lack of effective autochthonous or vaccine-induced anti-tumor T cell responses. In this review, we discuss the role of the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) stress response/unfolded protein response (UPR) in the immunomodulation of myeloid cells and T cells. Specifically, we will discuss how the tumor cell UPR polarizes myeloid cells in a cell-extrinsic manner, and how in turn, thus polarized myeloid cells negatively affect T cell activation and clonal expansion.

Involvement of IL17A, IL17F and IL23R Polymorphisms in Colorectal Cancer Therapy

IL23/IL17 pathway plays an important role in the development of inflammatory bowel diseases (IBD). In general, the genes encoding the cytokines are genetically polymorphic and polymorphisms in genes IL23R and IL17 have been proved to be associated with its susceptibility to inflammatory diseases as well as cancer including colorectal cancer. Moreover, it has been shown that these interleukins are involved in anti-tumor or pro-tumor effects of various cancers. Previously, we showed that there is a significant association between IL17A, IL17F and IL23R polymorphisms as well as the occurrence of colorectal cancer and the clinical features of the disease. The purpose of the present work is to investigate an association between IL17A, IL17F and IL23R polymorphisms in 102 Tunisian patients with colorectal cancer treatment. The association was analyzed by statistical tools. We found that patients with mutated genotypes of IL17A G197A SNP could be a risk factor for the inefficiency of chemotherapy and radiotherapy. Unlike IL17F variant, patients with wild type genotypes require surgery and adjuvant chemotherapy. On the one hand, we found no evidence that supports a significant association between IL23R polymorphism and the combined genotypes of these three genes and the colorectal cancer treatment. On the other hand, we showed that there is an important interaction between IL17A/IL17F polymorphisms and the stage of the disease as well as its treatment. Finally, patients with IL17F wild type genotype highlighted that there is a valid longer OS without all treatments and with radiotherapy and a neoadjuvant chemotherapy. In contrast, we observed that there are no relationships between IL17A, IL23R and the survival of these patients neither with nor without the treatment. Our results suggest that polymorphisms in IL17A and IL17F genes may be a predictive source of colorectal cancer therapy type. Therefore, IL17F may serve as an independent prognostic factor for overall survival in patients with colorectal cancer.

Role of Oxidative RNA Damage in Chronic-Degenerative Diseases

Normal cellular metabolism and exposure to ionizing and ultraviolet radiations and exogenous agents produce reactive oxygen species (ROS). Due to their reactivity, they can interact with many critical biomolecules and induce cell damage. The reaction of ROS with free nucleobases, nucleosides, nucleotides, or oligonucleotides can generate numerous distinct modifications in nucleic acids. Oxidative damage to DNA has been widely investigated and is strongly implicated in the development of many chronic-degenerative diseases. In contrast, RNA damage is a poorly examined field in biomedical research. In this review, I discuss the importance of RNA as a target of oxidative damage and the role of oxidative damage to RNA in the pathogenesis of some chronic-degenerative diseases, such as neurological disorders, atherosclerosis, and cancer. Furthermore, I review recent evidence suggesting that RNA may be the target for toxic agents and indicating RNA degradation as a powerful tool to treat any pathology in which there is an aberrant expression of mRNA and/or its gene products.

The evolving paradigm of cell-nonautonomous UPR-based regulation of immunity by cancer cells

The endoplasmic reticulum (ER) stress response/unfolded protein response (UPR) has been thought to influence tumorigenesis mainly through cell-intrinsic, pro-survival effects. In recent years, however, new evidence has emerged showing that the UPR is also the source of cell-extrinsic effects, particularly directed at those immune cells within the tumor microenvironment. Here we will review and discuss this new body of information with focus on the role of cell-extrinsic effects on innate and adaptive immunity, suggesting that the transmission of ER stress from cancer cells to myeloid cells in particular is an expedient used by cancer cells to control the immune microenvironment, which acquires pro-inflammatory as well as immune-suppressive characteristics. These new findings can now be seen in the broader context of similar phenomena described in Caenorhabditis elegans, and an analogy with quorum sensing and 'community effects' in prokaryotes and eukaryotes can be drawn, arguing that a cell-nonautonomous UPR-based regulation of heterologous cells may be phylogenetically conserved. Finally, we will discuss the role of aneuploidy as an inducer of proteotoxic stress and potential initiator of cell-nonautonomous UPR-based regulation. In presenting these new views, we wish to bring attention to the cell-extrinsic regulation of tumor growth, including tumor UPR-based cell-nonautonomous signaling as a mechanism of maintaining tumor heterogeneity and resistance to therapy, and suggest therapeutically targeting such mechanisms within the tumor microenvironment.

RNA polymerase III control elements are required for trans-activation by the murine retroviral long terminal repeat sequences

RNA leukemia viruses induce T-cell lymphoblastic lymphomas or myeloid leukemias. Infection of cells with Moloney murine leukemia virus (M-MuLV) up-regulates the expression of a number of cellular genes, including those involved in T-lymphocyte activation. Previously, we demonstrated that this up-regulation occurs via the trans-activation activity of the M-MuLV long terminal repeat (LTR) sequences which produce an LTR-encoded transcript. Sequence analysis of the LTR revealed a potential transcription unit for RNA polymerase III (Pol III) within the U3 region that is actively occupied by Pol II factors. Here, we provide the direct evidence of involvement of Pol III in the trans-activation process and demonstrate the precise localization of the intragenic control elements for accurate and active Pol III transcription. Deletions of a copy of the directed repeats and further immediate upstream sequences significantly abrogated the generation of LTR-encoded transcript and abolished the trans-activational activity, whereas the deletion of a copy of directed repeats alone proportionally reduced the transcript size, but still retained moderately high trans-activational activity. In electrophoretic mobility shift assay, the fraction containing a multiple transcription factor TFIIIC complex strongly bound to the LTR-U3 probe containing the essential control elements. The specificity of the DNA-TFIIIC interaction was confirmed by conducting competition assays with DNA fragments containing a genuine Pol III-transcribed gene, VA1, and by vaccinia virus infection which stimulates the expression of Pol III factors. However, a deletion mutant lacking an essential control element bound to the TFIIIC complex poorly, consequently resulting in weak Pol III transcription as assessed by an IRES-GFP reporter system. This correlation strongly supports the possibility that the generation of LTR-encoded transcript is directed by Pol III. Therefore, this finding suggests the involvement of Pol III transcription in the retrovirus-induced activation of cellular genes, potentially contributing to leukemogenesis.

Anti-inflammatory effects of 7-hydroxyl-1-methylindole-3-acetonitrile, a synthetic arvelexin derivative, on the macrophages through destabilizing mPGES-1 mRNA and suppressing NF-κB activation

We previously demonstrated that 7-hydroxyl-1-methylindole-3-acetonitrile (7-HMIA), a synthesized analog of arvelexin, showed the strong inhibitory effects on LPS-induced NO and PGE2 production in macrophages. In this study, we focused on elucidating the anti-inflammatory properties of 7-HMIA and the mechanisms involved using in vitro and in vivo experimental models. In LPS-induced RAW 264.7 macrophages, 7-HMIA significantly inhibited the release of proinflammatory mediators such as prostaglandin E2 (PGE2), nitric oxide (NO), tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α), and interleukin-6 (IL-6). We also found that 7-HMIA suppressed PGE2 production not by inhibiting cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2) expression or activity, but rather by suppressing the mRNA stability of microsomal prostaglandin E synthase (mPGES-1). Furthermore, 7-HMIA mediated attenuation of inducible NO synthase (iNOS), TNF-α, and IL-6 was closely associated with suppression of transcriptional activities of nuclear factor-kappa B (NF-κB), by decreasing p65 nuclear translocation and Akt phosphorylation. Animal studies revealed that 7-HMIA potently suppressed the carrageenan-induced paw edema and myeloperoxidase (MPO) activity in paw tissues. Taken together, our data indicated that the molecular basis for the anti-inflammatory properties of 7-HMIA involved the inhibition of mRNA stability of mPGES-1 and PI3K/Akt-mediated NF-κB pathways.

Organismal proteostasis: role of cell-nonautonomous regulation and transcellular chaperone signaling

Protein quality control is regulated by the proteostasis network and cell stress response pathways to promote cellular health. In this review, van Oosten-Hawle and Morimoto cover recent advances in model systems that reveal how communication between subcellular compartments and across different cells and tissues maintains a functional proteome during stress. The authors propose that transcellular stress signaling provides a critical control mechanism for the proteostasis network to maintain organismal health and life span.

Protein quality control is essential in all organisms and regulated by the proteostasis network (PN) and cell stress response pathways that maintain a functional proteome to promote cellular health. In this review, we describe how metazoans employ multiple modes of cell-nonautonomous signaling across tissues to integrate and transmit the heat-shock response (HSR) for balanced expression of molecular chaperones. The HSR and other cell stress responses such as the unfolded protein response (UPR) can function autonomously in single-cell eukaryotes and tissue culture cells; however, within the context of a multicellular animal, the PN is regulated by cell-nonautonomous signaling through specific sensory neurons and by the process of transcellular chaperone signaling. These newly identified forms of stress signaling control the PN between neurons and nonneuronal somatic tissues to achieve balanced tissue expression of chaperones in response to environmental stress and to ensure that metastable aggregation-prone proteins expressed within any single tissue do not generate local proteotoxic risk. Transcellular chaperone signaling leads to the compensatory expression of chaperones in other somatic tissues of the animal, perhaps preventing the spread of proteotoxic damage. Thus, communication between subcellular compartments and across different cells and tissues maintains proteostasis when challenged by acute stress and upon chronic expression of metastable proteins. We propose that transcellular chaperone signaling provides a critical control step for the PN to maintain cellular and organismal health span.

The CD200-tolerance signaling molecule associated with pregnancy success is present in patients with early-stage breast cancer but does not favor nodal metastasis

PROBLEM

The CD200-tolerance signaling molecule prevents pregnancy failure and is also expressed by a wide variety of malignant tumors. The effect of CD200 mRNA expression on progression of human tumors has been variable.

METHOD OF STUDY

A cross-sectional study was performed to examine the correlation between CD200 protein expression in the primary tumors from postoperative Stage I-IIIA human breast cancer and the likelihood of regional lymph node metastasis.

RESULTS

Fifty-eight percentage of patients had strong CD200(+) tumor staining (71% of Stage I and 53% Stage II-IIIA). Strong staining was associated with large T2-3 primary tumors compared to T1 tumors (64 versus 50%) and T2-3 N(+) versus T1 N(-) tumors (70 versus 63%), but this was not statistically significant. Nodal metastases were not more frequent in patients with strong CD200(+) staining (57% compared to 58% for weak/negative staining cases), and the metastatic tumor cells in regional lymph nodes were often CD200(-) when the primary tumor was CD200(+).

CONCLUSION

CD200 expression by early-stage human breast cancer cells in primary tumors did not correlate with increased regional lymph node metastasis.

Interleukin-23 is sufficient to induce rapid de novo gut tumorigenesis, independent of carcinogens, through activation of innate lymphoid cells

Chronic inflammation has been associated with increased risk for developing gastrointestinal cancer. Interleukin-23 (IL-23) receptor signaling has been correlated with inflammatory bowel disease pathogenesis, as well as promotion of tumor growth. However, little is known about the relative potential for IL-23-directed causality in gut tumorigenesis. We report that IL-23 transgene expression was sufficient to induce rapid (3-4 weeks) de novo development of intestinal adenomas with 100% incidence. Initiation of tumorigenesis was independent of exogenous carcinogens, Helicobacter colonization, or pre-existing tumor-suppressor gene mutations. Tumorigenesis was mediated by Thy1(+)IL-23R(+) innate lymphoid cells (ILC3), in part, through IL-17 responses as tumor development was inhibited in RAG(-/-) × IL-17(-/-) double knockout mice. Remarkably, IL-23 initiation of tumorigenesis by resident ILCs consistently occurred before recruitment of conspicuous inflammatory infiltrates. Our results reveal an explicit role for IL-23-mediated initiation of gut tumorigenesis and implicate a key role for IL-23R(+) ILC3 in the absence of overt cellular infiltrate recruitment.

Increased dietary vitamin D suppresses MAPK signaling, colitis, and colon cancer

Epidemiologic studies associate low serum vitamin D levels with an increased risk of colon cancer and inflammatory diseases such as inflammatory bowel disease (IBD). 129-Smad3(tm1Par)/J (Smad3(-/-)) mice are a model of bacteria-driven colitis and colon cancer when infected with Helicobacter bilis (H. bilis). Thus, we used this mouse model to determine whether increased dietary vitamin D would reduce inflammation and colon cancer. Smad3(-/-) mice were fed purified diet with either maintenance (1 IU vitamin D/g diet; maintenance) or increased concentrations of vitamin D (5 IU vitamin D/g diet; high vitamin D). One week after diet initiation, mice were inoculated with broth or H. bilis and were necropsied at several time points postinoculation to assess inflammation, dysplasia, and neoplasia incidence. At 16 weeks postinfection, 11% of mice fed high vitamin D diet had cancer compared with 41% of mice fed maintenance diet (P = 0.0121). Evaluation at an early time point (1 week postinfection) showed that animals fed high vitamin D had decreased MAPK (p-P38 and p-JNK) activation in lamina propria leukocytes as well as decreased NFκB activation in colonic epithelial cells. Reduction in MAPK and NFκB activation correlated with decreased IBD scores (2.7 vs. 15.5; P < 0.0001) as well as decreased inflammatory cell infiltrates and reduced expression of proinflammatory cytokines in cecal tissue. These findings suggest that increased dietary vitamin D is beneficial in preventing inflammation-associated colon cancer through suppression of inflammatory responses during initiation of neoplasia or early-stage carcinogenesis.

Tumour necrosis factor-α promotes liver ischaemia-reperfusion injury through the PGC-1α/Mfn2 pathway

Tumour necrosis factor (TNF)-α has been considered to induce ischaemia-reperfusion injury (IRI) of liver which is characterized by energy dysmetabolism. Peroxisome proliferator–activated receptor-γ co-activator (PGC)-1α and mitofusion2 (Mfn2) are reported to be involved in the regulation of mitochondrial function. However, whether PGC-1α and Mfn2 form a pathway that mediates liver IRI, and if so, what the underlying involvement is in that pathway remain unclear. In this study, L02 cells administered recombinant human TNF-α had increased TNF-α levels and resulted in down-regulation of PGC-1α and Mfn2 in a rat liver IRI model. This was associated with hepatic mitochondrial swelling, decreased adenosine triphosphate (ATP) production, and increased levels of reactive oxygen species (ROS) and alanine aminotransferase (ALT) activity as well as cell apoptosis. Inhibition of TNF-α by neutralizing antibody reversed PGC-1α and Mfn2 expression, and decreased hepatic injury and cell apoptosis both in cell culture and in animals. Treatment by rosiglitazone sustained PGC-1α and Mfn2 expression both in IR livers, and L02 cells treated with TNF-α as indicated by increased hepatic mitochondrial integrity and ATP production, reduced ROS and ALT activity as well as decreased cell apoptosis. Overexpression of Mfn2 by lentiviral-Mfn2 transfection decreased hepatic injury in IR livers and L02 cells treated with TNF-α. However, there was no up-regulation of PGC-1α. These findings suggest that PGC-1α and Mfn2 constitute a regulatory pathway, and play a critical role in TNF-α-induced hepatic IRI. Inhibition of the TNF-α or PGC-1α/Mfn2 pathways may represent novel therapeutic interventions for hepatic IRI.

IL-17+Foxp3+ T cells: an intermediate differentiation stage between Th17 cells and regulatory T cells

Foxp3(+) Tregs have been known as a major regulator of immune homeostasis through their immunosuppressive function. Th17 lineage is a CD4(+) T cell subset that exerts its function by secreting proinflammatory cytokines and protecting host against microbial infections. The altered ratio between Foxp3(+) Tregs and Th17 cells plays an important role in the pathogenesis of immune-related diseases. Recent mice and human studies have demonstrated that Tregs can be reprogrammed into a novel population, IL-17(+)Foxp3(+) T cells, phenotypically and functionally resembling Th17 cells under the complicated cytokine stimulation. The identification of IL-17(+)Foxp3(+) T cells may provide a new understanding of therapy targeting Tregs and Th17 cells in autoimmune diseases and cancer. Here, we highlight significant data regarding the phenotype profile, origination, differentiation, and the pleiotropic functions of IL-17(+)Foxp3(+) T cells and the reciprocal relationships of these cells to Tregs and Th17 cells. Furthermore, the role of IL-17(+)Foxp3(+) T cells in tumorigenesis and clinical implications in cancer therapy are discussed in this review.

Autocrine signaling via release of ATP and activation of P2X7 receptor influences motile activity of human lung cancer cells

Extracellular nucleotides, such as ATP, are released from cells and play roles in various physiological and pathological processes through activation of P2 receptors. Here, we show that autocrine signaling through release of ATP and activation of P2X7 receptor influences migration of human lung cancer cells. Release of ATP was induced by stimulation with TGF-β1, which is a potent inducer of cell migration, in human lung cancer H292 cells, but not in noncancerous BEAS-2B cells. Treatment of H292 cells with a specific antagonist of P2X7 receptor resulted in suppression of TGF-β1-induced migration. PC-9 human lung cancer cells released a large amount of ATP under standard cell culture conditions, and P2X7 receptor-dependent dye uptake was observed even in the absence of exogenous ligand, suggesting constitutive activation of P2X7 receptor in this cell line. PC-9 cells showed high motile activity, which was inhibited by treatment with ecto-nucleotidase and P2X7 receptor antagonists, whereas a P2X7 receptor agonist enhanced migration. PC-9 cells also harbor a constitutively active mutation in epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR). Treatment with EGFR tyrosine kinase inhibitor AG1478 suppressed both cell migration and P2X7 receptor expression in PC-9 cells. Compared to control PC-9 cells, cells treated with P2X7 antagonist exhibited broadened lamellipodia around the cell periphery, while AG1478-treated cells lacked lamellipodia. These results indicate that P2X7-mediated signaling and EGFR signaling may regulate migration of PC-9 cells through distinct mechanisms. We propose that autocrine ATP-P2X7 signaling is involved in migration of human lung cancer cells through regulation of actin cytoskeleton rearrangement.