Apoptotic cell-derived exosomes: messages from dying cells

Orchestrating apoptosis and ferroptosis through enhanced sonodynamic therapy using amorphous UIO-66-CoOx

The development of efficient and multifunctional sonosensitizers is crucial for enhancing the efficacy of sonodynamic therapy (SDT). Herein, we have successfully constructed a CoOx-loaded amorphous metal-organic framework (MOF) UIO-66 (A-UIO-66-CoOx) sonosensitizer with excellent catalase (CAT)- and glutathione-oxidase (GSH-OXD)-like activities. The A-UIO-66-CoOx exhibits a 2.6-fold increase in singlet oxygen (1O2) generation under ultrasound (US) exposure compared to crystalline UIO-66 sonosensitizer, which is attributed to its superior charge transfer efficiency and consistent oxygen (O2) supply. Additionally, the A-UIO-66-CoOx composite reduces the expression of glutathione peroxidase (GPX4) by depleting glutathione (GSH) through Co3+ and Co2+ valence changes. The high levels of highly cytotoxic 1O2 and deactivation of GPX4 can lead to lethal lipid peroxidation, resulting in concurrent apoptosis and ferroptosis. Both in vitro and vivo tumor models comprehensively confirmed the enhanced SDT antitumor effect using A-UIO-66-CoOx sonosensitizer. Overall, this study emphasizes the possibility of utilizing amorphization engineering to improve the effectiveness of MOFs-based sonosensitizers for combined cancer therapies.

Apoptotic bodies encapsulating Ti2N nanosheets for synergistic chemo-photothermal therapy

Extracellular vesicles (EVs) have great potential in oncology drug delivery because of their unique biological origin. Apoptotic bodies (ABs), as a member of the EV family, offer distinct advantages in terms of size, availability and membrane properties, but have been neglected for a long time. Here, using ABs and Ti2N nanosheets, we propose a novel drug delivery system (Ti2N-DOX@ABs), which exhibit a homologous targeting ability for dual-strategy tumor therapy with intrinsic biological property. The experimental results demonstrate that such a drug delivery system possesses a drug loading capacity of 496.5% and a near-infrared photothermal conversion efficiency of 38.4%. In addition, the investigation of drug internalization process proved that Ti2N-DOX@ABs featured a supreme biocompatibility. Finally, the dual-strategy response based on photothermal and chemotherapeutic effects was studied under near-infrared laser radiation. This work explores the opportunity of apoptosome membranes in nanomedicine systems, which provides a technical reference for cancer-oriented precision medicine research.

Extracellular Vesicle Preparation and Analysis: A State-of-the-Art Review

In recent decades, research on Extracellular Vesicles (EVs) has gained prominence in the life sciences due to their critical roles in both health and disease states, offering promising applications in disease diagnosis, drug delivery, and therapy. However, their inherent heterogeneity and complex origins pose significant challenges to their preparation, analysis, and subsequent clinical application. This review is structured to provide an overview of the biogenesis, composition, and various sources of EVs, thereby laying the groundwork for a detailed discussion of contemporary techniques for their preparation and analysis. Particular focus is given to state-of-the-art technologies that employ both microfluidic and non-microfluidic platforms for EV processing. Furthermore, this discourse extends into innovative approaches that incorporate artificial intelligence and cutting-edge electrochemical sensors, with a particular emphasis on single EV analysis. This review proposes current challenges and outlines prospective avenues for future research. The objective is to motivate researchers to innovate and expand methods for the preparation and analysis of EVs, fully unlocking their biomedical potential.

Assessment of brain-derived extracellular vesicle enrichment for blood biomarker analysis in age-related neurodegenerative diseases: An international overview

INTRODUCTION

Brain-derived extracellular vesicles (BEVs) in blood allows for minimally-invasive investigations of central nervous system (CNS) -specific markers of age-related neurodegenerative diseases (NDDs). Polymer-based EV- and immunoprecipitation (IP)-based BEV-enrichment protocols from blood have gained popularity. We systematically investigated protocol consistency across studies, and determined CNS-specificity of proteins associated with these protocols.

METHODS

NDD articles investigating BEVs in blood using polymer-based and/or IP-based BEV enrichment protocols were systematically identified, and protocols compared. Proteins used for BEV-enrichment and/or post-enrichment were assessed for CNS- and brain-cell-type-specificity, extracellular domains (ECD+), and presence in EV-databases.

RESULTS

A total of 82.1% of studies used polymer-based (ExoQuick) EV-enrichment, and 92.3% used L1CAM for IP-based BEV-enrichment. Centrifugation times differed across studies. A total of 26.8% of 82 proteins systematically identified were CNS-specific: 50% ECD+, 77.3% were listed in EV-databases.

CONCLUSIONS

We identified protocol steps requiring standardization, and recommend additional CNS-specific proteins that can be used for BEV-enrichment or as BEV-biomarkers.

HIGHLIGHTS

Across NDDs, we identified protocols commonly used for EV/BEV enrichment from blood. We identified protocol steps showing variability that require harmonization. We assessed CNS-specificity of proteins used for BEV-enrichment or found in BEV cargo. CNS-specific EV proteins with ECD+ or without were identified. We recommend evaluation of blood-BEV enrichment using these additional ECD+ proteins.

Evolving Strategies for Extracellular Vesicles as Future Cardiac Therapeutics: From Macro- to Nano-Applications

Cardiovascular disease represents the foremost cause of mortality and morbidity worldwide, with a steadily increasing incidence due to the growth of the ageing population. Cardiac dysfunction leading to heart failure may arise from acute myocardial infarction (MI) as well as inflammatory- and cancer-related chronic cardiomyopathy. Despite pharmacological progress, effective cardiac repair represents an unmet clinical need, with heart transplantation being the only option for end-stage heart failure. The functional profiling of the biological activity of extracellular vesicles (EVs) has recently attracted increasing interest in the field of translational research for cardiac regenerative medicine. The cardioprotective and cardioactive potential of human progenitor stem/cell-derived EVs has been reported in several preclinical studies, and EVs have been suggested as promising paracrine therapy candidates for future clinical translation. Nevertheless, some compelling aspects must be properly addressed, including optimizing delivery strategies to meet patient needs and enhancing targeting specificity to the cardiac tissue. Therefore, in this review, we will discuss the most relevant aspects of the therapeutic potential of EVs released by human progenitors for cardiovascular disease, with a specific focus on the strategies that have been recently implemented to improve myocardial targeting and administration routes.

Electroacupuncture pre-treatment exerts a protective effect on LPS-induced cardiomyopathy in mice through the delivery of miR-381 via exosomes

OBJECTIVE

This study aims to investigate the cardiac protective effects and molecular mechanisms of electroacupuncture (EA) pre-treatment in lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-Induced Cardiomyopathy.

METHODS AND RESULTS

Pre-treatment with EA was performed 30 min before intraperitoneal injection of LPS. Cardiac function changes in mice of the EA + LPS group were observed using electrocardiography, echocardiography, and enzyme linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) and compared with the LPS group. The results demonstrated that EA pre-treatment significantly improved the survival rate of septic mice, alleviated the severity of endotoxemia, and exhibited notable cardiac protective effects. These effects were characterized by a reduction in ST-segment elevation on electrocardiography, an increase in ejection fraction (EF) and fraction shortening (FS) on echocardiography and a decrease in the expression of serum cardiac troponin I (cTn-I) levels. Serum exosomes obtained after EA pre-treatment were extracted and administered to septic mice, revealing significant cardiac protective effects of EA-derived exosomes. Furthermore, the antagonism of circulating exosomes in mice markedly suppressed the cardiac protective effects conferred by EA pre-treatment. Analysis of serum exosomes using quantitative reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction (qRT-PCR) revealed a significant upregulation of miR-381 expression after EA pre-treatment. Inhibition or overexpression of miR-381 through serotype 9 adeno-associated virus (AAV9)-mediated gene delivery demonstrated that overexpression of miR-381 exerted a cardiac protective effect, while inhibition of miR-381 significantly attenuated the cardiac protective effects conferred by EA pre-treatment.

CONCLUSIONS

Our research findings have revealed a novel endogenous cardiac protection mechanism, wherein circulating exosomes derived from EA pre-treatment mitigate LPS-induced cardiac dysfunction via miR-381.

Exosome-Inhibiting Polymeric Sonosensitizer for Tumor-Specific Sonodynamic Immunotherapy

Combination cancer immunotherapy based on electromagnetic energy and immunotherapy shows potent anti-cancer efficacy. However, as a factor that mediates tumor metastasis and immune suppression, the impact of tumor exosomes on therapy under electromagnetic energy stimulation remains unclear. Herein, findings indicate that sonodynamic therapy (SDT) increases serum exosome levels by inducing apoptotic exosomes and loosening the tumor extracellular matrix, promoting lung metastasis. To address this problem, an exosome-inhibiting polymeric sonosensitizer (EIPS) selectively inhibiting tumor exosome generation in response to the tumor biomarker is synthesized. EIPS consists of a semiconducting polymer backbone capable of inducing SDT and a poly(ethylene glycol) layer conjugated with a tumor-specific enzyme-responsive exosome inhibitor prodrug. After being cleaved by tumor Cathepsin B, EIPS releases active exosome inhibitors, preventing tumor exosome-mediated immune suppression and lung metastasis. As a result, EIPS elicits robust antitumor effects through the synergistic effect of SDT and tumor exosome inhibition, completely preventing lung metastasis and establishing a long-term immune memory effect. This is the first example showing that combining SDT with tumor-specific exosome inhibition can elicit a potent immune response without the help of typical immune agonists.

Extracellular vescicles in psoriasis: from pathogenesis to possible roles in therapy

Psoriasis is a chronic inflammatory disease affecting skin and joints characterized by a chronically altered immune and inflammatory response. Several factors occur from the onset to the development of this disease due to different types of cells spatially and temporally localized in the affected area, such as, keratinocytes, macrophages, neutrophils and T helper lymphocytes. This scenario leads to the chronic release of high levels of inflammatory mediators (i.e., IL-17, IL-23, IL-22, TNF-α, S100 proteins, Defensins) and lastly parakeratosis and thickening of the stratum spinosum. Extracellular vesicles (EVs) are small double membraned biological nanoparticles that are secreted by all cell types and classified, based on dimension and biogenesis, into exosomes, microvesicles and apoptotic bodies. Their role as vessels for long range molecular signals renders them key elements in the pathogenesis of psoriasis, as well as innovative platforms for potential biomarker discovery and delivery of fine-tuned anti-inflammatory therapies. In this review, the role of EVs in the pathogenesis of psoriasis and the modulation of cellular microenvironment has been summarized. The biotechnological implementation of EVs for therapy and research for new biomarkers has been also discussed.

Adipocyte-released adipomes in Chagas cardiomyopathy: Impact on cardiac metabolic and immune regulation

Chronic Trypanosoma cruzi infection leads to Chagas cardiomyopathy (CCM), with varying manifestations such as inflammatory hypertrophic cardiomyopathy, arrhythmias, and dilated cardiomyopathy. The factors responsible for the increasing risk of progression to CCM are not fully understood. Previous studies link adipocyte loss to CCM progression, but the mechanism triggering CCM pathogenesis remains unexplored. Our study uncovers that T. cruzi infection triggers adipocyte apoptosis, leading to the release of extracellular vesicles named "adipomes". We developed an innovative method to isolate intact adipomes from infected mice's adipose tissue and plasma, showing they carry unique lipid cargoes. Large and Small adipomes, particularly plasma-derived infection-associated L-adipomes (P-ILA), regulate immunometabolic signaling and induce cardiomyopathy. P-ILA treatment induces hypertrophic cardiomyopathy in wild-type mice and worsens cardiomyopathy severity in post-acute-infected mice by regulating adipogenic/lipogenic and mitochondrial functions. These findings highlight adipomes' pivotal role in promoting inflammation and impairing myocardial function during cardiac remodeling in CD.

Environmental pollutants and exosomes: A new paradigm in environmental health and disease

This study investigates the intricate interplay between environmental pollutants and exosomes, shedding light on a novel paradigm in environmental health and disease. Cellular stress, induced by environmental toxicants or disease, significantly impacts the production and composition of exosomes, crucial mediators of intercellular communication. The heat shock response (HSR) and unfolded protein response (UPR) pathways, activated during cellular stress, profoundly influence exosome generation, cargo sorting, and function, shaping intercellular communication and stress responses. Environmental pollutants, particularly lipophilic ones, directly interact with exosome lipid bilayers, potentially affecting membrane stability, release, and cellular uptake. The study reveals that exposure to environmental contaminants induces significant changes in exosomal proteins, miRNAs, and lipids, impacting cellular function and health. Understanding the impact of environmental pollutants on exosomal cargo holds promise for biomarkers of exposure, enabling non-invasive sample collection and real-time insights into ongoing cellular responses. This research explores the potential of exosomal biomarkers for early detection of health effects, assessing treatment efficacy, and population-wide screening. Overcoming challenges requires advanced isolation techniques, standardized protocols, and machine learning for data analysis. Integration with omics technologies enhances comprehensive molecular analysis, offering a holistic understanding of the complex regulatory network influenced by environmental pollutants. The study underscores the capability of exosomes in circulation as promising biomarkers for assessing environmental exposure and systemic health effects, contributing to advancements in environmental health research and disease prevention.

A guide to the expanding field of extracellular vesicles and their release in regulated cell death programs

Homeostasis disruption is visible at the molecular and cellular levels and may often lead to cell death. This vital process allows us to maintain the more extensive system's integrity by keeping the different features (genetic, metabolic, physiologic, and individual) intact. Interestingly, while cells can die in different manners, dying cells still communicate with their environment. This communication was, for a long time, perceived as only driven by the release of soluble factors. However, it has now been reconsidered with the increasing interest in extracellular vesicles (EVs), which are discovered to be released during different regulated cell death programs, with the observation of specific effects. EVs are game changers in the paradigm of cell-cell communication with tremendous implications in fundamental research with regard to noncell autonomous functions, as well as in biomarkers research, all of which are geared toward diagnostic and therapeutic purposes. This review is composed of two main parts. The first is a comprehensive presentation of the state of the art of the EV field at large. In the second part, we focus on EVs discovered to be released during different regulated cell death programs, also known as cell death EVs (cdEVs), and EV-associated specific effects on recipient cells in the context of cell death and inflammation/inflammatory responses.

Extracellular vesicles secreted by 3D tumor organoids are enriched for immune regulatory signaling biomolecules compared to conventional 2D glioblastoma cell systems

Background

Newer 3D culturing approaches are a promising way to better mimic the in vivo tumor microenvironment and to study the interactions between the heterogeneous cell populations of glioblastoma multiforme. Like many other tumors, glioblastoma uses extracellular vesicles as an intercellular communication system to prepare surrounding tissue for invasive tumor growth. However, little is known about the effects of 3D culture on extracellular vesicles. The aim of this study was to comprehensively characterize extracellular vesicles in 3D organoid models and compare them to conventional 2D cell culture systems.

Methods

Primary glioblastoma cells were cultured as 2D and 3D organoid models. Extracellular vesicles were obtained by precipitation and immunoaffinity, with the latter allowing targeted isolation of the CD9/CD63/CD81 vesicle subpopulation. Comprehensive vesicle characterization was performed and miRNA expression profiles were generated by smallRNA-sequencing. In silico analysis of differentially regulated miRNAs was performed to identify mRNA targets and corresponding signaling pathways. The tumor cell media and extracellular vesicle proteome were analyzed by high-resolution mass spectrometry.

Results

We observed an increased concentration of extracellular vesicles in 3D organoid cultures. Differential gene expression analysis further revealed the regulation of twelve miRNAs in 3D tumor organoid cultures (with nine miRNAs down and three miRNAs upregulated). MiR-23a-3p, known to be involved in glioblastoma invasion, was significantly increased in 3D. MiR-7-5p, which counteracts glioblastoma malignancy, was significantly decreased. Moreover, we identified four miRNAs (miR-323a-3p, miR-382-5p, miR-370-3p, miR-134-5p) located within the DLK1-DIO3 domain, a cancer-associated genomic region, suggesting a possible importance of this region in glioblastoma progression. Overrepresentation analysis identified alterations of extracellular vesicle cargo in 3D organoids, including representation of several miRNA targets and proteins primarily implicated in the immune response.

Conclusion

Our results show that 3D glioblastoma organoid models secrete extracellular vesicles with an altered cargo compared to corresponding conventional 2D cultures. Extracellular vesicles from 3D cultures were found to contain signaling molecules associated with the immune regulatory signaling pathways and as such could potentially change the surrounding microenvironment towards tumor progression and immunosuppressive conditions. These findings suggest the use of 3D glioblastoma models for further clinical biomarker studies as well as investigation of new therapeutic options.

Tailored apoptotic vesicles promote bone regeneration by releasing the osteoinductive brake

Accumulating evidence has demonstrated that apoptotic vesicles (apoVs) derived from mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs; MSC-apoVs) are vital for bone regeneration, and possess superior capabilities compared to MSCs and other extracellular vesicles derived from MSCs (such as exosomes). The osteoinductive effect of MSC-apoVs is attributed to their diverse contents, especially enriched proteins or microRNAs (miRNAs). To optimize their osteoinduction activity, it is necessary to determine the unique cargo profiles of MSC-apoVs. We previously established the protein landscape and identified proteins specific to MSC-apoVs. However, the features and functions of miRNAs enriched in MSC-apoVs are unclear. In this study, we compared MSCs, MSC-apoVs, and MSC-exosomes from two types of MSC. We generated a map of miRNAs specific to MSC-apoVs and identified seven miRNAs specifically enriched in MSC-apoVs compared to MSCs and MSC-exosomes, which we classified as apoV-specific miRNAs. Among these seven specific miRNAs, hsa-miR-4485-3p was the most abundant and stable. Next, we explored its function in apoV-mediated osteoinduction. Unexpectedly, hsa-miR-4485-3p enriched in MSC-apoVs inhibited osteogenesis and promoted adipogenesis by targeting the AKT pathway. Tailored apoVs with downregulated hsa-miR-4485-3p exhibited a greater effect on bone regeneration than control apoVs. Like releasing the brake, we acquired more powerful osteoinductive apoVs. In summary, we identified the miRNA cargos, including miRNAs specific to MSC-apoVs, and generated tailored apoVs with high osteoinduction activity, which is promising in apoV-based therapies for bone regeneration.

Activation of the IKK2/NF-κB pathway in VSMCs inhibits calcified vascular stiffness in CKD

IKK2/NF-κB pathway-mediated inflammation in vascular smooth muscle cells (VSMCs) has been proposed to be an etiologic factor in medial calcification and stiffness. However, the role of the IKK2/NF-κB pathway in medial calcification remains to be elucidated. In this study, we found that chronic kidney disease (CKD) induces inflammatory pathways through the local activation of the IKK2/NF-κB pathway in VMSCs associated with calcified vascular stiffness. Despite reducing the expression of inflammatory mediators, complete inhibition of the IKK2/NF-κB pathway in vitro and in vivo unexpectedly exacerbated vascular mineralization and stiffness. In contrast, activation of NF-κB by SMC-specific IκBα deficiency attenuated calcified vascular stiffness in CKD. Inhibition of the IKK2/NF-κB pathway induced cell death of VSMCs by reducing anti-cell death gene expression, whereas activation of NF-κB reduced CKD-dependent vascular cell death. In addition, increased calcification of extracellular vesicles through the inhibition of the IKK2/NF-κB pathway induced mineralization of VSMCs, which was significantly reduced by blocking cell death in vitro and in vivo. This study reveals that activation of the IKK2/NF-κB pathway in VSMCs plays a protective role in CKD-dependent calcified vascular stiffness by reducing the release of apoptotic calcifying extracellular vesicles.

Regulation of regulated cell death by extracellular vesicles in acute kidney injury and chronic kidney disease

The imbalance between proliferation and death of kidney resident cells is a crucial factor in the development of acute or chronic renal dysfunction. Acute kidney injury (AKI) is often associated with the rapid loss of tubular epithelial cells (TECs). Sustained injury leads to the loss of glomerular endothelial cells (GECs) and podocytes, which is a key mechanism in the pathogenesis of glomerular diseases. This irreversible damage resulting from progressive cell loss eventually leads to deterioration of renal function characterized by glomerular compensatory hypertrophy, tubular degeneration, and renal fibrosis. Regulated cell death (RCD), which involves a cascade of gene expression events with tight structures, plays a certain role in regulating kidney health by determining the fate of kidney resident cells. Under pathological conditions, cells in the nephron have been demonstrated to constitutively release extracellular vesicles (EVs) which act as messengers that specifically interact with recipient cells to regulate their cell death process. For therapeutic intervention, exogenous EVs have exhibited great potential for the prevention and treatment of kidney disease by modulating RCD, with enhanced effects through engineering modification. Based on the functional role of EVs, this review comprehensively explores the regulation of RCD by EVs in AKI and chronic kidney disease (CKD), with emphasis on pathogenesis and therapeutic intervention.

Functional diversity of apoptotic vesicle subpopulations from bone marrow mesenchymal stem cells in tissue regeneration

Apoptosis releases numerous apoptotic vesicles that regulate processes such as cell proliferation, immunity, and tissue regeneration and repair. Now, it has also emerged as an attractive candidate for biotherapeutics. However, apoptotic vesicles encompass a diverse range of subtypes, and it remains unclear which specific subtypes play a pivotal role. In this study, we successfully isolated different apoptotic vesicle subtypes based on their sizes and characterized them using NTA and TEM techniques, respectively. We compared the functional variances among the distinct subtypes of apoptotic vesicles in terms of stem cell proliferation, migration, and differentiation, as well as for endothelial cell and macrophage function, effectively identifying subtypes that exhibit discernible functional differences. ApoSEV (with diameter <1000 nm) promoted stem cell proliferation, migration, and multi-potent differentiation, and accelerated skin wound healing of diabetes mouse model, while apoBD (with diameter >1000 nm) played the opposite effect on cell function and tissue regeneration. Lastly, employing protein analysis and gene sequencing techniques, we elucidated the intrinsic mechanisms underlying these differences between different subtypes of apoEVs. Collectively, this study identified that apoptotic vesicle subtypes possessed distinct bio-functions in regulating stem cell function and behaviour and modulating tissue regeneration, which primarily attribute to the distinct profiling of protein and mRNA in different subtypes. This comprehensive analysis of specific subtypes of apoEVs would provide novel insights for potential therapeutic applications in cell biology and tissue regeneration.

Brain-derived extracellular vesicles mediate systemic coagulopathy and inflammation after traumatic brain injury

Traumatic brain injury (TBI) can induce systemic coagulopathy and inflammation, thereby increasing the risk of mortality and disability. However, the mechanism causing systemic coagulopathy and inflammation following TBI remains unclear. In prior research, we discovered that brain-derived extracellular vesicles (BDEVs), originating from the injured brain, can activate the coagulation cascade and inflammatory cells. In this study, we primarily investigated how BDEVs affect systemic coagulopathy and inflammation in peripheral circulation. The results of cytokines and coagulation function indicated that BDEVs can lead to systemic coagulopathy and inflammation by influencing inflammatory factors and chemokines within 24 h. Furthermore, according to flow cytometry and blood cell counter results, we found that BDEVs induced changes in the blood count such as a reduced number of platelets and leukocytes and an increased percentage of neutrophils, macrophages, activated platelets, circulating platelet-EVs, and leukocyte-derived EVs. We also discovered that eliminating circulating BDEVs with lactadherin helped improve coagulopathy and inflammation, relieved blood cell dysfunction, and decreased the circulating platelet-EVs and leukocyte-derived EVs. Our research provides a novel viewpoint and potential mechanism of TBI-associated secondary damage.

Exosomes derived from programmed cell death: mechanism and biological significance

Exosomes are nanoscale extracellular vesicles present in bodily fluids that mediate intercellular communication by transferring bioactive molecules, thereby regulating a range of physiological and pathological processes. Exosomes can be secreted from nearly all cell types, and the biological function of exosomes is heterogeneous and depends on the donor cell type and state. Recent research has revealed that the levels of exosomes released from the endosomal system increase in cells undergoing programmed cell death. These exosomes play crucial roles in diseases, such as inflammation, tumors, and autoimmune diseases. However, there is currently a lack of systematic research on the differences in the biogenesis, secretion mechanisms, and composition of exosomes under different programmed cell death modalities. This review underscores the potential of exosomes as vital mediators of programmed cell death processes, highlighting the interconnection between exosome biosynthesis and the regulatory mechanisms governing cell death processes. Furthermore, we accentuate the prospect of leveraging exosomes for the development of innovative biomarkers and therapeutic strategies across various diseases.

The Characteristics and Function of Small Extracellular Vesicles Derived from Human Bone Marrow and Umbilical Cord Mesenchymal Stromal Cells Are Influenced by Cell Culture Conditions

Extracellular vesicles (EVs) derived from mesenchymal stromal cells (MSC-EVs) have been proposed as a novel therapeutic tool with numerous clinically related advantages. However, their characteristics and functionality are dependent on the source of MSCs and their cell culture conditions. Fetal bovine serum (FBS) provides a source of nutrients and growth factors to the cultured cells. However, certain pitfalls are associated with its supplementation to the culture media, including introduction of exogenous FBS-derived EVs to the cultured cells. Thus, recent practices recommend utilization of serum-free (SF) media or EV-depleted FBS. On the contrary, evidence suggests that the immunomodulatory ability of MSC-EVs can be improved by exposing MSCs to an inflammatory (IF) environment. The objective of this study was to (1) compare EVs isolated from two tissue sources of MSCs that were exposed to various cell culture conditions and (2) to evaluate their anti-inflammatory effects. Bone marrow-derived mesenchymal stromal cells (BM-MSCs) and umbilical cord-derived mesenchymal stromal cells (UC-MSCs) were exposed to either a SF media environment, an IF environment, or media supplemented with 5% EV-depleted FBS. Following isolation of MSC-EVs, the isolates were quantified and evaluated for particle size, phenotypic changes, and their immunomodulatory potential. A statistically significant difference was not identified on the yield and protein concentration of different isolates of EVs from BM-MSCs and UC-MSCs, and all isolates had a circular appearance as evaluated via electron microscopy. A significant difference was identified on the phenotype of different EVs isolates; however, all isolates expressed classical markers such as CD9, CD63, and CD81. The addition of BM-derived MSC-EVs from FBS environment or UC-derived MSC-EVs from IF environment resulted in statistically significant downregulation of IL-6 messenger RNA (mRNA) in stimulated leukocytes. This study confirms that EVs produced by different MSC sources and cell culture conditions affect their phenotype and their immunomodulatory capacities.

Apoptotic Vesicles Modulate Endothelial Metabolism and Ameliorate Ischemic Retinopathy via PD1/PDL1 Axis

Pathological angiogenesis with subsequent disturbed microvascular remodeling is a major cause of irreversible blindness in a number of ischemic retinal diseases. The current anti-vascular endothelial growth factor therapy can effectively inhibit angiogenesis, but it also brings significant side effects. The emergence of stem cell derived extracellular vesicles provides a new underlining strategy for ischemic retinopathy. Apoptotic vesicles (apoVs) are extracted from stem cells from human exfoliated deciduous teeth (SHED). SHED-apoVs are delivered into the eyeballs of oxygen-induced retinopathy (a most common model of angiogenic retinal dieseases) mice through intravitreal injection. The retinal neovascularization and nonperfusion area, vascular structure, and density changes are observed during the neovascularization phase (P17) and vascular remodeling phase (P21), and visual function is measured. The expression of extracellular acidification rate and lactic acid testing are used to detect endothelial cells (ECs) glycolytic activity. Furthermore, lentivirus and neutralizing antibody are used to block PD1-PDL1 axis, investigating the effects of SHED-apoVs on glycolysis and angiogenic activities. This work shows that SHED-apoVs are taken up by ECs and modulate the ECs glycolysis, leading to the decrease of abnormal neovessels and vascular remodeling. Furthermore, it is found that, at the molecular level, apoVs-carried PD1 interacts with PDL1 on hypoxic ECs to regulate the angiogenic activation. SHED-apoVs inhibit pathological angiogenesis and promote vascular remodeling in ischemic retinopathy partially by modulating ECs glycolysis through PD1/PDL1 axis. This study provides a new potential strategy for the clinical treatment of pathological retinal neovascularization.

Emergence of Extracellular Vesicles as "Liquid Biopsy" for Neurological Disorders: Boom or Bust

Extracellular vesicles (EVs) have emerged as an attractive liquid biopsy approach in the diagnosis and prognosis of multiple diseases and disorders. The feasibility of enriching specific subpopulations of EVs from biofluids based on their unique surface markers has opened novel opportunities to gain molecular insight from various tissues and organs, including the brain. Over the past decade, EVs in bodily fluids have been extensively studied for biomarkers associated with various neurological disorders, such as Alzheimer's disease, Parkinson's disease, schizophrenia, bipolar disorder, major depressive disorders, substance use disorders, human immunodeficiency virus-associated neurocognitive disorder, and cancer/treatment-induced neurodegeneration. These studies have focused on the isolation and cargo characterization of either total EVs or brain cells, such as neuron-, astrocyte-, microglia-, oligodendrocyte-, pericyte-, and endothelial-derived EVs from biofluids to achieve early diagnosis and molecular characterization and to predict the treatment and intervention outcomes. The findings of these studies have demonstrated that EVs could serve as a repetitive and less invasive source of valuable molecular information for these neurological disorders, supplementing existing costly neuroimaging techniques and relatively invasive measures, like lumbar puncture. However, the initial excitement surrounding blood-based biomarkers for brain-related diseases has been tempered by challenges, such as lack of central nervous system specificity in EV markers, lengthy protocols, and the absence of standardized procedures for biological sample collection, EV isolation, and characterization. Nevertheless, with rapid advancements in the EV field, supported by improved isolation methods and sensitive assays for cargo characterization, brain cell-derived EVs continue to offer unparallel opportunities with significant translational implications for various neurological disorders. SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT: Extracellular vesicles present a less invasive liquid biopsy approach in the diagnosis and prognosis of various neurological disorders. Characterizing these vesicles in biofluids holds the potential to yield valuable molecular information, thereby significantly impacting the development of novel biomarkers for various neurological disorders. This paper has reviewed the methodology employed to isolate extracellular vesicles derived from various brain cells in biofluids, their utility in enhancing the molecular understanding of neurodegeneration, and the potential challenges in this research field.

Extracellular Vesicles and Hydrogels: An Innovative Approach to Tissue Regeneration

Extracellular vesicles have emerged as promising tools in regenerative medicine due to their inherent ability to facilitate intercellular communication and modulate cellular functions. These nanosized vesicles transport bioactive molecules, such as proteins, lipids, and nucleic acids, which can affect the behavior of recipient cells and promote tissue regeneration. However, the therapeutic application of these vesicles is frequently constrained by their rapid clearance from the body and inability to maintain a sustained presence at the injury site. In order to overcome these obstacles, hydrogels have been used as extracellular vesicle delivery vehicles, providing a localized and controlled release system that improves their therapeutic efficacy. This Review will examine the role of extracellular vesicle-loaded hydrogels in tissue regeneration, discussing potential applications, current challenges, and future directions. We will investigate the origins, composition, and characterization techniques of extracellular vesicles, focusing on recent advances in exosome profiling and the role of machine learning in this field. In addition, we will investigate the properties of hydrogels that make them ideal extracellular vesicle carriers. Recent studies utilizing this combination for tissue regeneration will be highlighted, providing a comprehensive overview of the current research landscape and potential future directions.

Cell Death, by Any Other Name…

Studies trying to understand cell death, this ultimate biological process, can be traced back to a century ago. Yet, unlike many other fashionable research interests, research on cell death is more alive than ever. New modes of cell death are discovered in specific contexts, as are new molecular pathways. But what is "cell death", really? This question has not found a definitive answer yet. Nevertheless, part of the answer is irreversibility, whereby cells can no longer recover from stress or injury. Here, we identify the most distinctive features of different modes of cell death, focusing on the executive final stages. In addition to the final stages, these modes can differ in their triggering stimulus, thus referring to the initial stages. Within this framework, we use a few illustrative examples to examine how intercellular communication factors in the demise of cells. First, we discuss the interplay between cell-cell communication and cell death during a few steps in the early development of multicellular organisms. Next, we will discuss this interplay in a fully developed and functional tissue, the gut, which is among the most rapidly renewing tissues in the body and, therefore, makes extensive use of cell death. Furthermore, we will discuss how the balance between cell death and communication is modified during a pathological condition, i.e., colon tumorigenesis, and how it could shed light on resistance to cancer therapy. Finally, we briefly review data on the role of cell-cell communication modes in the propagation of cell death signals and how this has been considered as a potential therapeutic approach. Far from vainly trying to provide a comprehensive review, we launch an invitation to ponder over the significance of cell death diversity and how it provides multiple opportunities for the contribution of various modes of intercellular communication.

One-week storage of refrigerated bovine milk does not affect the size, concentration, or molecular properties of extracellular vesicles

Milk extracellular vesicles (EV) have gained extensive attention as promising diagnostic and therapeutic tools. Pre-analytical raw milk storage at low temperatures is an ordinary and usually necessary step after sample collection. It is known that direct freezing of unprocessed whole milk contaminates the native pool of milk EV with other cell structures. However, less evidence is available regarding prolonged cooling at 4°C. The current study assessed whether pre-analytical storage of bovine raw milk for several days affected EV isolation and further analysis. To confirm the independence from the health status of the mammary gland, we analyzed milk samples stored at 4°C for 1, 2, 3, and 7 d past collection, respectively, from 2 quarters of the same cow with different somatic cell counts (SCC). Seven days of refrigeration did not change the milk EV size, concentration, or morphology. We did not detect any changes in the EV cargo regarding the amount of protein and RNA, nor in the specific EV markers TSG101, CD9, and CD81 in milk from quarters with high and low SCC. Overall, we observed fewer CD81 and CD9 markers in quarters with high SCC. Moreover, we found no reduction in the mastitis-related miRNA bta-miR-223-3p, suggesting that refrigeration for several days up to 1 wk is a possible storage option compatible with further EV analyses. The findings of this study enhance the confidence that milk EV are highly stable in the raw milk matrix.

Role of microRNA-146a in cancer development by regulating apoptosis

Despite great advances in diagnostic and treatment options for cancer, like chemotherapy surgery, and radiation therapy it continues to remain a major global health concern. Further research is necessary to find new biomarkers and possible treatment methods for cancer. MicroRNAs (miRNAs), tiny non-coding RNAs found naturally in the body, can influence the activity of several target genes. These genes are often disturbed in diseases like cancer, which perturbs functions like differentiation, cell division, cell cycle, apoptosis and proliferation. MiR-146a is a commonly and widely used miRNA that is often overexpressed in malignant tumors. The expression of miR-146a has been correlated with many pathological and physiological changes in cancer cells, such as the regulation of various cell death paths. It's been established that the control of cell death pathways has a huge influence on cancer progression. To improve our understanding of the interrelationship between miRNAs and cancer cell apoptosis, it's necessary to explore the impact of miRNAs through the alteration in their expression levels. Research has demonstrated that the appearance and spread of cancer can be mitigated by moderating the expression of certain miRNA - a commencement of treatment that presents a hopeful approach in managing cancer. Consequently, it is essential to explore the implications of miR-146a with respect to inducing different forms of tumor cell death, and evaluate its potential to serve as a target for improved chemotherapy outcomes. Through this review, we provide an outline of miR-146a's biogenesis and function, as well as its significant involvement in apoptosis. As well, we investigate the effects of exosomal miR-146a on the promotion of apoptosis in cancer cells and look into how it could possibly help combat chemotherapeutic resistance.

Extracellular Vesicles: A Novel Mode of Viral Propagation Exploited by Enveloped and Non-Enveloped Viruses

Extracellular vesicles (EVs) are small membrane-enclosed structures that have gained much attention from researchers across varying scientific fields in the past few decades. Cells secrete diverse types of EVs into the extracellular milieu which include exosomes, microvesicles, and apoptotic bodies. These EVs play a crucial role in facilitating intracellular communication via the transport of proteins, lipids, DNA, rRNA, and miRNAs. It is well known that a number of viruses hijack several cellular pathways involved in EV biogenesis to aid in their replication, assembly, and egress. On the other hand, EVs can also trigger host antiviral immune responses by carrying immunomodulatory molecules and viral antigens on their surface. Owing to this intricate relationship between EVs and viruses, intriguing studies have identified various EV-mediated viral infections and interrogated how EVs can alter overall viral spread and longevity. This review provides a comprehensive overview on the EV-virus relationship, and details various modes of EV-mediated viral spread in the context of clinically relevant enveloped and non-enveloped viruses.

Scanning ion conductance microscopy revealed cisplatin-induced morphological changes related to apoptosis in single adenocarcinoma cells

The studies of drug-induced apoptosis play a vital role in the identification of potential drugs that could treat diseases such as cancer. Alterations in the native morphology of cancer cells following treatment with anticancer drugs serve as one of the indicators that reveal drug efficacy. Various techniques such as optical microscopy, electron microscopy (EM), and atomic force microscopy (AFM) have been used to map the three dimensional (3D) morphological changes in cells induced with drugs. However, caution should be exercised when interpreting morphological data from techniques that might alter the native morphology of cells, caused by phototoxicity, electron beam invasiveness, intrusive sample preparation, and cell membrane deformation. Herein, we have used scanning ion conductance microscopy (SICM) to study the 3D morphology and roughness of A549 adenocarcinoma cells under physiological conditions before and after cisplatin induced apoptosis, where we observed an increase in height, overall shrinkage of the cells, and irregular features form on the cell membrane. Tracking the morphology of the same single A549 cells exposed to cisplatin unveiled heterogeneity in response to the drug, formation of membrane blebs, and an increase in membrane roughness. We have also demonstrated the use of SICM for studying the effect of cisplatin on the dynamic changes in the volume of A549 cells over days. SICM is demonstrated as a technique for studying the effect of drug induced apoptosis in the same cells over time, and for multiple different single cells.

Protein cargo in extracellular vesicles as the key mediator in the progression of cancer

Exosomes are small vesicles of endosomal origin that are released by almost all cell types, even those that are pathologically altered. Exosomes widely participate in cell-to-cell communication via transferring cargo, including nucleic acids, proteins, and other metabolites, into recipient cells. Tumour-derived exosomes (TDEs) participate in many important molecular pathways and affect various hallmarks of cancer, including fibroblasts activation, modification of the tumour microenvironment (TME), modulation of immune responses, angiogenesis promotion, setting the pre-metastatic niche, enhancing metastatic potential, and affecting therapy sensitivity and resistance. The unique exosome biogenesis, composition, nontoxicity, and ability to target specific tumour cells bring up their use as promising drug carriers and cancer biomarkers. In this review, we focus on the role of exosomes, with an emphasis on their protein cargo, in the key mechanisms promoting cancer progression. We also briefly summarise the mechanism of exosome biogenesis, its structure, protein composition, and potential as a signalling hub in both normal and pathological conditions. Video Abstract.

Novel method for collecting hippocampal interstitial fluid extracellular vesicles (EVISF ) reveals sex-dependent changes in microglial EV proteome in response to Aβ pathology

Brain-derived extracellular vesicles (EVs) play an active role in Alzheimer's disease (AD), relaying important physiological information about their host tissues. The internal cargo of EVs is protected from degradation, making EVs attractive AD biomarkers. However, it is unclear how circulating EVs relate to EVs isolated from disease-vulnerable brain regions. We developed a novel method for collecting EVs from the hippocampal interstitial fluid (ISF) of live mice. EVs (EVISF ) were isolated via ultracentrifugation and characterized by nanoparticle tracking analysis, immunogold labelling, and flow cytometry. Mass spectrometry and proteomic analyses were performed on EVISF cargo. EVISF were 40-150 nm in size and expressed CD63, CD9, and CD81. Using a model of cerebral amyloidosis (e.g., APPswe, PSEN1dE9 mice), we found protein concentration increased but protein diversity decreased with Aβ deposition. Genotype, age, and Aβ deposition modulated proteostasis- and immunometabolic-related pathways. Changes in the microglial EVISF proteome were sexually dimorphic and associated with a differential response of plaque associated microglia. We found that female APP/PS1 mice have more amyloid plaques, less plaque associated microglia, and a less robust- and diverse- EVISF microglial proteome. Thus, in vivo microdialysis is a novel technique for collecting EVISF and offers a unique opportunity to explore the role of EVs in AD.

Adipose cDC1s contribute to obesity-associated inflammation through STING-dependent IL-12 production

Obesity is associated with chronic low-grade white adipose tissue (WAT) inflammation that can contribute to the development of insulin resistance in mammals. Previous studies have identified interleukin (IL)-12 as a critical upstream regulator of WAT inflammation and metabolic dysfunction during obesity. However, the cell types and mechanisms that initiate WAT IL-12 production remain unclear. Here we show that conventional type 1 dendritic cells (cDC1s) are the cellular source of WAT IL-12 during obesity through analysis of mouse and human WAT single-cell transcriptomic datasets, IL-12 reporter mice and IL-12p70 protein levels by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay. We demonstrate that cDC1s contribute to obesity-associated inflammation by increasing group 1 innate lymphocyte interferon-γ production and inflammatory macrophage accumulation. Inducible depletion of cDC1s increased WAT insulin sensitivity and systemic glucose tolerance during diet-induced obesity. Mechanistically, endocytosis of apoptotic bodies containing self-DNA by WAT cDC1s drives stimulator of interferon genes (STING)-dependent IL-12 production. Together, these results suggest that WAT cDC1s act as critical regulators of adipose tissue inflammation and metabolic dysfunction during obesity.

Extracellular vesicle features are associated with COVID-19 severity

COVID-19 is heterogeneous; therefore, it is crucial to identify early biomarkers for adverse outcomes. Extracellular vesicles (EV) are involved in the pathophysiology of COVID-19 and have both negative and positive effects. The objective of this study was to identify the potential role of EV in the prognostic stratification of COVID-19 patients. A total of 146 patients with severe or critical COVID-19 were enrolled. Demographic and comorbidity characteristics were collected, together with routine haematology, blood chemistry and lymphocyte subpopulation data. Flow cytometric characterization of the dimensional and antigenic properties of COVID-19 patients' plasma EVs was conducted. Elastic net logistic regression with cross-validation was employed to identify the best model for classifying critically ill patients. Features of smaller EVs (i.e. the fraction of EVs smaller than 200 nm expressing either cluster of differentiation [CD] 31, CD 140b or CD 42b), albuminemia and the percentage of monocytes expressing human leukocyte antigen DR (HLA-DR) were associated with a better outcome. Conversely, the proportion of larger EVs expressing N-cadherin, CD 34, CD 56, CD31 or CD 45, interleukin 6, red cell width distribution (RDW), N-terminal pro-brain natriuretic peptide (NT-proBNP), age, procalcitonin, Charlson Comorbidity Index and pro-adrenomedullin were associated with disease severity. Therefore, the simultaneous assessment of EV dimensions and their antigenic properties complements laboratory workup and helps in patient stratification.

Isolation and characterization of the morphology, size and particle number of rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss) and zebrafish (Danio rerio) cell line derived large and small extracellular vesicles

Extracellular vesicles (EVs) are 50-1,000 nm lipid bilayer-bound vesicles, released into the extracellular environment by various cell types for intercellular communication purposes. The quantitative and qualitative characteristics of EVs can be affected by stress and pathological conditions. The majority of extracellular vesicle (EV) studies have been performed on mammalian cell lines or bodily fluids. EVs have been previously described from bodily fluids like plasma, serum or mucus in different fish species, however the available knowledge of fish cell line derived EVs is limited and in the vast majority of studies, the overall focus is on small EVs (< 200 nm). We isolated large and small extracellular vesicles from zebrafish (Danio rerio) liver (ZFL), rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss) liver (RTL-W1), gill (RTgill-W1) and intestinal epithelial (RTgutGC) cell lines using stepwise centrifugation and characterized the size and morphology of EVs. Here we demonstrated that large and small extracellular vesicles can be successfully isolated using stepwise centrifugation from the serum-free medium of the selected piscine cell lines after a 24-h incubation period. The size distribution of large and small EVs isolated from the piscine cell lines suggest that large and small EV groups show high diversity in size ranges, containing heterogenous subpopulations in sizes, and the results highly depend on the applied method and whether filtration steps were included following the isolation. The spherical morphology of EVs was verified by transmission electron microscopy.

Three-dimensional reconstruction of interstitial extracellular vesicles in human liver as determined by electron tomography

Extracellular vesicles (EVs) are lipid bilayer nanoparticles involved in cell-cell communication that are released into the extracellular space by all cell types. The cargo of EVs includes proteins, lipids, nucleic acids, and metabolites reflecting their cell of origin. EVs have recently been isolated directly from solid tissues, and this may provide insights into how EVs mediate communication between cells in vivo. Even though EVs have been isolated from tissues, their point of origin when they are in the interstitial space has been uncertain. In this study, we performed three-dimensional (3D) reconstruction using transmission electron tomography of metastatic and normal liver tissues with a focus on the presence of EVs in the interstitium. After chemical fixation of the samples and subsequent embedding of tissue pieces in resin, ultrathin slices (300 nm) were cut and imaged on a 120 ekV transmission electron microscopy as a tilt series (a series of subsequent images tilted at different angles). These were then computationally illustrated in a 3D manner to reconstruct the imaged tissue volume. We identified the cells delimiting the interstitial space in both types of tissues, and small distinct spherical structures with a diameter of 30-200 nm were identified between the cells. These round structures appeared to be more abundant in metastatic tissue compared to normal tissue. We suggest that the observed spherical structures in the interstitium of the metastatic and non-metastatic liver represent EVs. This work thus provides the first 3D visualization of EVs in human tissue.

Extracellular Vesicles: Therapeutic Potential in Central Nervous System Trauma by Regulating Cell Death

CNS (central nervous system) trauma, which is classified as SCI (spinal cord injury) and TBI (traumatic brain injury), is gradually becoming a major cause of accidental death and disability worldwide. Many previous studies have verified that the pathophysiological mechanism underlying cell death and the subsequent neuroinflammation caused by cell death are pivotal factors in the progression of CNS trauma. Simultaneously, EVs (extracellular vesicles), membrane-enclosed particles produced by almost all cell types, have been proven to mediate cell-to-cell communication, and cell death involves complex interactions among molecules. EVs have also been proven to be effective carriers of loaded bioactive components to areas of CNS trauma. Therefore, EVs are promising therapeutic targets to cure CNS trauma. However, the link between EVs and various types of cell death in the context of CNS trauma remains unknown. Therefore, in this review, we summarize the mechanism underlying EV effects, the relationship between EVs and cell death and the pathophysiology underlying EV effects on the CNS trauma based on information in published papers. In addition, we discuss the prospects of applying EVs to the CNS as feasible therapeutic strategies for CNS trauma in the future.

Metal organic layers enabled cell surface engineering coupling biomembrane fusion for dynamic membrane proteome profiling

Systematically dissecting the highly dynamic and tightly communicating membrane proteome of living cells is essential for the system-level understanding of fundamental cellular processes and intricate relationship between membrane-bound organelles constructed through membrane traffic. While extensive efforts have been made to enrich membrane proteins, their comprehensive analysis with high selectivity and deep coverage remains a challenge, especially at the living cell state. To address this problem, we developed the cell surface engineering coupling biomembrane fusion method to map the whole membrane proteome from the plasma membrane to various organelle membranes taking advantage of the exquisite interaction between two-dimensional metal-organic layers and phospholipid bilayers on the membrane. This approach, which bypassed conventional biochemical fractionation and ultracentrifugation, facilitated the enrichment of membrane proteins in their native phospholipid bilayer environment, helping to map the membrane proteome with a specificity of 77% and realizing the deep coverage of the HeLa membrane proteome (5087 membrane proteins). Furthermore, membrane N-phosphoproteome was profiled by integrating the N-phosphoproteome analysis strategy, and the dynamic membrane proteome during apoptosis was deciphered in combination with quantitative proteomics. The features of membrane protein N-phosphorylation modifications and many differential proteins during apoptosis associated with mitochondrial dynamics and ER homeostasis were found. The method provided a simple and robust strategy for efficient analysis of membrane proteome, offered a reliable platform for research on membrane-related cell dynamic events and expanded the application of metal-organic layers.

Apoptotic Vesicles of MSCs: The Natural Therapeutic Agents and Bio-Vehicles for Targeting Drug Delivery

Mesenchymal stem cell (MSC)-based therapies are increasingly recognized as promising cellular therapeutics and show the ability to treat various diseases. However, the underlying mechanism is not fully elucidated. Some recent studies have shown an unexpected result whereby MSCs undergo rapid apoptosis following administration but still exert therapeutic effects in some disease treatments. Such a therapeutic mechanism is believed to associate with the released apoptotic vesicles from apoptotic MSCs (MSC-ApoVs). This finding inspires a novel therapeutic strategy for using MSC-ApoVs for disease treatment. The present review aims to summarize the biogenesis, physiological functions, therapeutic potentials, and related mechanisms of apoptotic vesicles in MSC-based therapy. In addition, the potential applications of MSC-ApoVs as natural therapeutic agents and natural drug delivery vehicles are proposed and highlighted. The present review is hoped to provide a general understanding of MSC-ApoVs in disease treatment and inspire potential applications in targeted drug delivery.

Increased Presence of Circulating Cell-Free, Fragmented, Host DNA in Pigs Infected with Virulent African Swine Fever Virus

African swine fever virus (ASFV) causes severe hemorrhagic disease in domestic pigs and wild boar, often with high case fatality rates. The virus replicates in the circulating cells of the monocyte-macrophage lineage and within lymphoid tissues. The infection leads to high fever and a variety of clinical signs. In this study, it was observed that ASFV infection in pigs resulted in a >1000-fold increase in the level of circulating cell-free DNA (cfDNA), derived from the nuclei of host cells in the serum. This change occurred in parallel with the increase in circulating ASFV DNA. In addition, elevated levels (about 30-fold higher) of host mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) were detected in the serum from ASFV-infected pigs. For comparison, the release of the cellular enzyme, lactate dehydrogenase (LDH), a commonly used marker of cellular damage, was also found to be elevated during ASFV infection, but later and less consistently. The sera from pigs infected with classical swine fever virus (CSFV), which causes a clinically similar disease to ASFV, were also tested but, surprisingly, this infection did not result in the release of cfDNA, mtDNA, or LDH. It was concluded that the level of cfDNA in the serum is a sensitive host marker of virulent ASFV infection.

Encapsulation of Nano-Bortezomib in Apoptotic Stem Cell-Derived Vesicles for the Treatment of Multiple Myeloma

Extracellular vesicles (EVs) are lipid bilayer nanovesicles released from living or apoptotic cells that can transport DNA, RNA, protein, and lipid cargo. EVs play critical roles in cell-cell communication and tissue homeostasis, and have numerous therapeutic uses including serving as carriers for nanodrug delivery. There are multiple ways to load EVs with nanodrugs, such as electroporation, extrusion, and ultrasound. However, these approaches may have limited drug-loading rates, poor EV membrane stability, and high cost for large-scale production. Here, it is shown that apoptotic mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) can encapsulate exogenously added nanoparticles into apoptotic vesicles (apoVs) with a high loading efficiency. When nano-bortezomib is incorporated into apoVs in culture-expanded apoptotic MSCs, nano-bortezomib-apoVs show a synergistic combination effect of bortezomib and apoVs to ameliorate multiple myeloma (MM) in a mouse model, along with significantly reduced side effects of nano-bortezomib. Moreover, it is shown that Rab7 regulates the nanoparticle encapsulation efficiency in apoptotic MSCs and that activation of Rab7 can increase nanoparticle-apoV production. In this study, a previously unknown mechanism to naturally synthesize nano-bortezomib-apoVs to improve MM therapy is revealed.

Systematic compositional analysis of exosomal extracellular vesicles produced by cells undergoing apoptosis, necroptosis and ferroptosis

Formation of extracellular vesicles (EVs) has emerged as a novel paradigm in cell-to-cell communication in health and disease. EVs are notably produced during cell death but it had remained unclear whether different modalities of regulated cell death (RCD) influence the biogenesis and composition of EVs. To this end, we performed a comparative analysis of steady-state (ssEVs) and cell death-associated EVs (cdEVs) following TNF-induced necroptosis (necEVs), anti-Fas-induced apoptosis (apoEVs), and ML162-induced ferroptosis (ferEVs) using the same cell line. For each RCD condition, we determined the biophysical and biochemical characteristics of the cell death-associated EVs (cdEVs), the protein cargo, and the presence of methylated ribosomal RNA. We found that the global protein content of all cdEVs was increased compared to steady-state EVs. Qualitatively, the isolated exosomal ssEVs and cdEVs, contained a largely overlapping protein cargo including some quantitative differences in particular proteins. All cdEVs were enriched for proteins involved in RNA splicing and nuclear export, and showed distinctive rRNA methylation patterns compared to ssEVs. Interestingly, necEVs and apoEVs, but strikingly not ferEVs, showed enrichment of proteins involved in ribosome biogenesis. Altogether, our work documents quantitative and qualitative differences between ssEVs and cdEVs.

Role of lipid signalling in extracellular vesicles-mediated cell-to-cell communication

Lipid signalling plays a crucial role in extracellular vesicle (EV)-mediated cell-to-cell communication. Extracellular vesicles are small membrane-bound structures released by various cell types into the extracellular environment. They include exosomes, microvesicles, and apoptotic bodies. These vesicles contain a variety of bioactive molecules, including proteins, nucleic acids (such as miRNAs and mRNAs), and lipids. Lipids are important components of EVs and are involved in various aspects of their biogenesis, cargo sorting, and functional effects on target cells. In this review, we will discuss how lipid signalling is involved in EV-mediated cell-to-cell communication. In summary, lipid signalling is intricately involved in extracellular vesicle-mediated cell-to-cell communication. The lipid composition of EVs influences their biogenesis, cargo sorting, interactions with target cells, and functional effects on recipient cells. Understanding the role of lipids in EV-mediated communication is essential for deciphering the mechanisms underlying intercellular signalling and developing potential therapeutic strategies based on EVs.

Advances in biological functions and applications of apoptotic vesicles

BACKGROUND

Apoptotic vesicles are extracellular vesicles generated by apoptotic cells that were previously regarded as containing waste or harmful substances but are now thought to play an important role in signal transduction and homeostasis regulation.

METHODS

In the present review, we reviewed many articles published over the past decades on the subtypes and formation of apoptotic vesicles and the existing applications of these vesicles.

RESULTS

Apoptotic bodies were once regarded as vesicles released by apoptotic cells, however, apoptotic vesicles are now regarded to include apoptotic bodies, apoptotic microvesicles and apoptotic exosomes, which exhibit variation in terms of biogenesis, sizes and properties. Applications of apoptotic vesicles were first reported long ago, but such reports have been rarer than those of other extracellular vesicles. At present, apoptotic vesicles have been utilized mainly in four aspects, including in direct therapeutic applications, in their engineering as carriers, in their construction as vaccines and in their utilization in diagnosis.

CONCLUSION

Building on a deeper understanding of their composition and characteristics, some studies have utilized apoptotic vesicles to treat diseases in more novel ways. However, their limitations for clinical translation, such as heterogeneity, have also emerged. In general, apoptotic vesicles have great application potential, but there are still many barriers to overcome in their investigation. Video Abstract.

The Association between 4-Tertiary-Octylphenol, Apoptotic Microparticles, and Carotid Intima-Media Thickness in a Young Taiwanese Population

As one of the most common alkylphenols, 4-tertiary-octylphenol (4-tOP) is commonly used in many consumer products. Our previous epidemiological study revealed a negative correlation between serum 4-tOP levels and carotid intima-media thickness (CIMT), which serves as a biomarker of arteriosclerosis. We aimed to explore the role of apoptotic microparticles, markers of vascular endothelial cell function, in the 4-tOP and CIMT connection. To investigate this, we enrolled 886 Taiwanese adolescents and young adults (aged 12-30 years) and examined the relationships among serum 4-tOP levels, apoptotic microparticles (CD31+/CD42a-, CD31+/CD42a+), and CIMT. Our results showed negative associations among serum 4-tOP levels, both apoptotic microparticles, and CIMT in multiple linear regression analysis. The odds ratios for CIMT (≥75th percentile) and the natural logarithm of 4-tOP were highest when both CD31+/CD42a- and CD31+/CD42a+ were greater than the 50th percentile. Conversely, the odds ratios were lowest when both CD31+/CD42a- and CD31+/CD42a+ were less than the 50th percentile. In the structural equation model, we demonstrated that serum 4-tOP levels were negatively correlated with CIMT and indirectly and negatively correlated with CIMT through both apoptotic microparticles. In conclusion, our study reported the inverse association between 4-tOP apoptotic microparticles and CIMT in a young Taiwanese population. Further experimental studies are needed to clarify these associations.

Advances of exosomes-based applications in diagnostic biomarkers for dental disease and dental regeneration

Exosomes are produced by all the cells and exist in all body fluids. They have been regarded as potentially promising to diagnostic biomarkers and therapeutic bioactive mediators since they transport DNA, RNA and protein information from cell to cell. Herein, we summarized the recent research about exosomes from gingival crevicular fluid, saliva and serum used as diagnostic markers in periodontitis and dental caries. Moreover, we highlighted the mechanisms of exosomes in dental pulp regeneration and periodontal regeneration, as well as the technological innovation of exosome delivery methods in oral disease. In the end, this review discussed the advantages and future challenges of exosomes in real clinical applications.

Extracellular vesicle-embedded materials

Extracellular vesicles (EVs) are small membrane-bound vesicles released by cells. EVs are emerging as a promising class of therapeutic entity that could be adapted in formulation due to their lack of immunogenicity and targeting capabilities. EVs have been shown to have similar regenerative and therapeutic effects to their parental cells and also have potential in disease diagnosis. To improve the therapeutic potential of EVs, researchers have developed various strategies for modifying them, including genetic engineering and chemical modifications which have been examined to confer target specificity and prevent rapid clearance after systematic injection. Formulation efforts have focused on utilising hydrogel and nano-formulation strategies to increase the persistence of EV localisation in a specific tissue or organ. Researchers have also used biomaterials or bioscaffolds to deliver EVs directly to disease sites and prolong EV release and exposure. This review provides an in-depth examination of the material design of EV delivery systems, highlighting the impact of the material properties on the molecular interactions and the maintenance of EV stability and function. The various characteristics of materials designed to regulate the stability, release rate and biodistribution of EVs are described. Other aspects of material design, including modification methods to improve the targeting of EVs, are also discussed. This review aims to offer an understanding of the strategies for designing EV delivery systems, and how they can be formulated to make the transition from laboratory research to clinical use.

Mesenchymal Stem Cell-Derived Extracellular Vesicles: An Emerging Diagnostic and Therapeutic Biomolecules for Neurodegenerative Disabilities

Mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) are a type of versatile adult stem cells present in various organs. These cells give rise to extracellular vesicles (EVs) containing a diverse array of biologically active elements, making them a promising approach for therapeutics and diagnostics. This article examines the potential therapeutic applications of MSC-derived EVs in addressing neurodegenerative disorders such as Alzheimer's disease (AD), multiple sclerosis (MS), Parkinson's disease (PD), amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS), and Huntington's disease (HD). Furthermore, the present state-of-the-art for MSC-EV-based therapy in AD, HD, PD, ALS, and MS is discussed. Significant progress has been made in understanding the etiology and potential treatments for a range of neurodegenerative diseases (NDs) over the last few decades. The contents of EVs are carried across cells for intercellular contact, which often results in the control of the recipient cell's homeostasis. Since EVs represent the therapeutically beneficial cargo of parent cells and are devoid of many ethical problems connected with cell-based treatments, they offer a viable cell-free therapy alternative for tissue regeneration and repair. Developing innovative EV-dependent medicines has proven difficult due to the lack of standardized procedures in EV extraction processes as well as their pharmacological characteristics and mechanisms of action. However, recent biotechnology and engineering research has greatly enhanced the content and applicability of MSC-EVs.

Balance between the cell viability and death in 3D

Cell death is a phenomenon, frequently perceived as an absolute event for cell, tissue and the organ. However, the rising popularity and complexity of such 3D multicellular 'tissue building blocks' as heterocellular spheroids, organoids, and 'assembloids' prompts to revise the definition and quantification of cell viability and death. It raises several questions on the overall viability of all the cells within 3D volume and on choosing the appropriate, continuous, and non-destructive viability assay enabling for a single-cell analysis. In this review, we look at cell viability and cell death modalities with attention to the intrinsic features of such 3D models as spheroids, organoids, and bioprints. Furthermore, we look at emerging and promising methodologies, which can help define and understand the balance between cell viability and death in dynamic and complex 3D environments. We conclude that the recent innovations in biofabrication, biosensor probe development, and fluorescence microscopy can help answer these questions.

Influence of Extracellular Vesicles on Lung Stromal Cells during Breast Cancer Metastasis

Breast cancer is a prominent cause of cancer diagnosis and death in women globally, with over 90% of deaths being attributed to complications that arise from metastasis. One of the common locations for breast cancer metastasis is the lung, which is associated with significant morbidity and mortality. Curative treatments for metastatic breast cancer patients are not available and the molecular mechanisms that underlie lung metastasis are not fully understood. In order to better treat these patients, identifying events that occur both prior to and during metastatic spread to the lung is essential. Several studies have demonstrated that breast cancer-derived extracellular vesicles secreted from the primary breast tumor play a key role in establishing the lung pre-metastatic niche to support colonization of metastatic tumor cells. In this review, we summarize recent work supporting the influence of extracellular vesicles on stromal components of the lung to construct the pre-metastatic niche and support metastasis. Furthermore, we discuss the potential clinical applications of utilizing extracellular vesicles for diagnosis and treatment. Together, this review highlights the dynamic nature of extracellular vesicles, their roles in breast cancer metastasis to the lung, and their value as potential biomarkers and therapeutics for cancer prevention.

Protrudin-mediated ER-endosome contact sites promote phagocytosis

During phagocytosis, endosomes both contribute with membrane to forming phagosomes and promote phagosome maturation. However, how these vesicles are delivered to the phagocytic cup and the phagosome has been unknown. Here, we show that Protrudin-mediated endoplasmic reticulum (ER)-endosome contact sites facilitate anterograde translocation of FYCO1 and VAMP7-positive late endosomes and lysosomes (LELys) to forming phagocytic cups in a retinal pigment epithelial-derived cell line (RPE1). Protrudin-dependent phagocytic cup formation required SYT7, which promotes fusion of LELys with the plasma membrane. RPE1 cells perform phagocytosis of dead cells (efferocytosis) that expose phosphatidylserine (PS) on their surface. Exogenous addition of apoptotic bodies increased the formation of phagocytic cups, which further increased when Protrudin was overexpressed. Overexpression of Protrudin also led to elevated uptake of silica beads coated with PS. Conversely, Protrudin depletion or abrogation of ER-endosome contact sites inhibited phagocytic cup formation resulting in reduced uptake of PS-coated beads. Thus, the Protrudin pathway delivers endosomes to facilitate formation of the phagocytic cup important for PS-dependent phagocytosis.

Comparison of immunotherapy mediated by apoptotic bodies, microvesicles and exosomes: apoptotic bodies' unique anti-inflammatory potential

Immunotherapy, including immunostimulation and immunosuppression, has seen significant development in the last 10 years. Immunostimulation has been verified as effective in anti-cancer treatment, while immunosuppression is used in the treatment of autoimmune disease and inflammation. Currently, with the update of newly-invented simplified isolation methods and the findings of potent triggered immune responses, extracellular vesicle-based immunotherapy is very eye-catching. However, the research on three main types of extracellular vesicles, exosomes, microvesicles and apoptotic bodies, needs to be more balanced. These three subtypes share a certain level of similarity, and at the same time, they have their own properties caused by the different methods of biogensis. Herein, we summarized respectively the status of immunotherapy based on each kind of vesicle and discuss the possible involved mechanisms. In conclusion, we highlighted that the effect of the apoptotic body is clear and strong. Apoptotic bodies have an excellent potential in immunosuppressive and anti-inflammatory therapies .

Activation of the IKK2-NFκB pathway in VSMCs inhibits calcified vascular stiffness in CKD by reducing the secretion of calcifying extracellular vesicles

IKK2-NFκB pathway mediated-inflammation in vascular smooth muscle cells (VSMCs) has been proposed to be an etiologic factor in medial calcification and stiffness. However, the role of the IKK2-NFκB pathway in medial calcification remains to be elucidated. In this study, we found that CKD induces inflammatory pathways through the local activation of the IKK2-NFκB pathway in VMSCs associated with calcified vascular stiffness. Despite reducing the expression of inflammatory mediators, complete inhibition of the IKK2-NFκB pathway in vitro and in vivo unexpectedly exacerbated vascular mineralization and stiffness. In contrast, activation of NFκB by SMC-specific IκB deficiency attenuated calcified vascular stiffness in CKD. Inhibition of the IKK2-NFκB pathway induced apoptosis of VSMCs by reducing anti-apoptotic gene expression, whereas activation of NFκB reduced CKD-dependent vascular cell death. In addition, increased calcifying extracellular vesicles through the inhibition of the IKK2-NFκB pathway induced mineralization of VSMCs, which was significantly reduced by blocking cell death. This study reveals that activation of the IKK2-NFκB pathway in VSMCs plays a protective role in CKD-dependent calcified vascular stiffness by reducing the release of apoptotic calcifying extracellular vesicles.