The effect of high-dose parenteral vitamin D3 on COVID-19-related inhospital mortality in critical COVID-19 patients during intensive care unit admission: an observational cohort study

Evaluation of various blood biomarkers associated with the outcomes of patients with COVID‑19 treated in intensive care units

Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) infection and the resulting coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) represented a global public health crisis and the most significant pandemic in modern times. Transmission characteristics, and the lack of effective antiviral treatment protocol and protective vaccines, pushed healthcare systems, particularly intensive care units (ICUs), to their limits and led to extreme quarantine measures to control the pandemic. It was evident from an early stage that patient stratification approaches needed to be developed to better predict disease progression. In the present study, the predictive value of clinical and blood biomarkers for the outcomes of patients with COVID-19 hospitalized in the ICU were investigated, taking age and sex into consideration. The present study analyzed blood samples from 3,050 patients with COVID-19 hospitalized in the ICU. The analysis revealed that the levels of procalcitonin, N-terminal pro-B-type natriuretic peptide, D-dimer, ferritin, liver enzymes, C-reactive protein and lactate dehydrogenase were increased and were associated with disease progression, resulting in a prolonged hospitalization period and severe COVID-19 related complications. Additionally, significant age and sex disparities among these biomarkers were documented and discussed in specific cases. On the whole, the results of the present study suggest a potential association of the demographic characteristics and blood biomarkers with prolonged hospitalization in the ICU and the mortality of patients with COVID-19.

Marine natural products and human immunity: novel biomedical resources for anti-infection of SARS-CoV-2 and related cardiovascular disease

Marine natural products (MNPs) and marine organisms include sea urchin, sea squirts or ascidians, sea cucumbers, sea snake, sponge, soft coral, marine algae, and microalgae. As vital biomedical resources for the discovery of marine drugs, bioactive molecules, and agents, these MNPs have bioactive potentials of antioxidant, anti-infection, anti-inflammatory, anticoagulant, anti-diabetic effects, cancer treatment, and improvement of human immunity. This article reviews the role of MNPs on anti-infection of coronavirus, SARS-CoV-2 and its major variants (such as Delta and Omicron) as well as tuberculosis, H. Pylori, and HIV infection, and as promising biomedical resources for infection related cardiovascular disease (irCVD), diabetes, and cancer. The anti-inflammatory mechanisms of current MNPs against SARS-CoV-2 infection are also discussed. Since the use of other chemical agents for COVID-19 treatment are associated with some adverse effects in cardiovascular system, MNPs have more therapeutic advantages. Herein, it's time to protect this ecosystem for better sustainable development in the new era of ocean economy. As huge, novel and promising biomedical resources for anti-infection of SARS-CoV-2 and irCVD, the novel potential mechanisms of MNPs may be through multiple targets and pathways regulating human immunity and inhibiting inflammation. In conclusion, MNPs are worthy of translational research for further clinical application.

Shedding light on the next pandemic path, from outpatient to ICU, the effect of vitamin D deficiency in the SARS-CoV-2 pandemic

Background

Vitamin D insufficiency is named "the pandemic of our era" by some experts. World Health Organization warns against a "deadlier outbreak" than the COVID-19 pandemic. Critical evidence is hereby for future pandemic prevention, with special emphasis on Vitamin D.

Methods

A cross-sectional study was conducted with 172 unvaccinated adult participants, who presented to the emergency department. Blood measurements, radiological findings, and demographic features were evaluated in the four categories of "healthy adults, COVID-19 outpatients, hospitalized inpatients on the wards, and in the ICU."

Results

Results were statistically significant in association with age, gender, weight, Vitamin D, glucose, urea, creatinine, leucocyte, aspartate transaminase, hemoglobin, C-reactive protein, troponin, platelet/thrombocyte, ferritin, D-dimer, triglycerate, glycated haemoglobin, lactate dehydrogenase measurements, and chest computed tomography features (each p < 0.050).

Conclusion

This article presents evidence to support the importance of Vitamin D for global public health. Patients with adequate levels of Vitamin D, glucose, urea, creatinine, leucocyte, aspartate transaminase, hemoglobin, C-reactive protein, troponin, platelet/thrombocyte, ferritin, D-dimer, triglycerate, glycated haemoglobin, lactate dehydrogenase are less likely to be admitted to ICU versus being outpatients. Factors include gender, age, weight, comorbidities, and computed tomography findings. The ultimate goal is to globally minimize preventable burdens of disease and death.

Effectiveness of Drug Repurposing and Natural Products Against SARS-CoV-2: A Comprehensive Review

The Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome Coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) is a betacoronavirus responsible for the COVID-19 pandemic, causing respiratory disorders, and even death in some individuals, if not appropriately treated in time. To face the pandemic, preventive measures have been taken against contagions and the application of vaccines to prevent severe disease and death cases. For the COVID-19 treatment, antiviral, antiparasitic, anticoagulant and other drugs have been reused due to limited specific medicaments for the disease. Drug repurposing is an emerging strategy with therapies that have already tested safe in humans. One promising alternative for systematic experimental screening of a vast pool of compounds is computational drug repurposing (in silico assay). Using these tools, new uses for approved drugs such as chloroquine, hydroxychloroquine, ivermectin, zidovudine, ribavirin, lamivudine, remdesivir, lopinavir and tenofovir/emtricitabine have been conducted, showing effectiveness in vitro and in silico against SARS-CoV-2 and some of these, also in clinical trials. Additionally, therapeutic options have been sought in natural products (terpenoids, alkaloids, saponins and phenolics) with promising in vitro and in silico results for use in COVID-19 disease. Among these, the most studied are resveratrol, quercetin, hesperidin, curcumin, myricetin and betulinic acid, which were proposed as SARS-CoV-2 inhibitors. Among the drugs reused to control the SARS-CoV2, better results have been observed for remdesivir in hospitalized patients and outpatients. Regarding natural products, resveratrol, curcumin, and quercetin have demonstrated in vitro antiviral activity against SARS-CoV-2 and in vivo, a nebulized formulation has demonstrated to alleviate the respiratory symptoms of COVID-19. This review shows the evidence of drug repurposing efficacy and the potential use of natural products as a treatment for COVID-19. For this, a search was carried out in PubMed, SciELO and ScienceDirect databases for articles about drugs approved or under study and natural compounds recognized for their antiviral activity against SARS-CoV-2.

Survival implications vs. complications: unraveling the impact of vitamin D adjunctive use in critically ill patients with COVID-19-A multicenter cohort study

Background

Despite insufficient evidence, vitamin D has been used as adjunctive therapy in critically ill patients with COVID-19. This study evaluates the effectiveness and safety of vitamin D as an adjunctive therapy in critically ill COVID-19 patients.

Methods

A multicenter retrospective cohort study that included all adult COVID-19 patients admitted to the intensive care units (ICUs) between March 2020 and July 2021. Patients were categorized into two groups based on their vitamin D use throughout their ICU stay (control vs. vitamin D). The primary endpoint was in-hospital mortality. Secondary outcomes were the length of stay (LOS), mechanical ventilation (MV) duration, and ICU-acquired complications. Propensity score (PS) matching (1:1) was used based on the predefined criteria. Multivariable logistic, Cox proportional hazards, and negative binomial regression analyses were employed as appropriate.

Results

A total of 1,435 patients were included in the study. Vitamin D was initiated in 177 patients (12.3%), whereas 1,258 patients did not receive it. A total of 288 patients were matched (1:1) using PS. The in-hospital mortality showed no difference between patients who received vitamin D and the control group (HR 1.22, 95% CI 0.87-1.71; p = 0.26). However, MV duration and ICU LOS were longer in the vitamin D group (beta coefficient 0.24 (95% CI 0.00-0.47), p = 0.05 and beta coefficient 0.16 (95% CI -0.01 to 0.33), p = 0.07, respectively). As an exploratory outcome, patients who received vitamin D were more likely to develop major bleeding than those who did not [OR 3.48 (95% CI 1.10, 10.94), p = 0.03].

Conclusion

The use of vitamin D as adjunctive therapy in COVID-19 critically ill patients was not associated with survival benefits but was linked with longer MV duration, ICU LOS, and higher odds of major bleeding.

Vitamin D Supplementation and Clinical Outcomes in Severe COVID-19 Patients-Randomized Controlled Trial

COVID-19 symptoms vary from asymptomatic cases to moderate and severe illness with patients needing hospitalization and intensive care treatment. Vitamin D is associated with severity of viral infections and has an immune-modulatory effect in immune response. Observational studies showed a negative association of low vitamin D levels and COVID-19 severity and mortality outcomes. In this study, we aimed to determine whether daily supplementation of vitamin D during intensive care unit (ICU) stay in COVID-19 patients with severe illness affects clinically relevant outcomes. Patients with COVID-19 disease in need of respiratory support admitted to the ICU were eligible for inclusion. Patients with low vitamin D levels were randomized into one of two groups: the intervention group received daily supplementation of vitamin D and the control group did not receive vitamin D supplementation. In total, 155 patients were randomized: 78 into the intervention group and 77 into the control group. There was no statistically significant difference in number of days spent on respiratory support, although the trial was underpowered for the main outcome. There was no difference in any of the secondary outcomes analyzed between two groups. Our study suggests no benefit in vitamin D supplementation to patients with severe COVID-19 disease admitted to the ICU and in need of respiratory support in any of the analyzed outcomes.

Optic nerve sheath diameter, intensive care unit admission and COVID-19-related-in-hospital mortality

BACKGROUND

Hypoxia and hypercapnia due to acute pulmonary failure in patients with coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) can increase the intracranial pressure (ICP). ICP correlated with the optic nerve sheath diameter (ONSD) on ultrasonography and is associated with a poor prognosis.

AIM

We investigated the capability of ONSD measured during admission to the intensive care unit (ICU) in patients with critical COVID-19 in predicting in-hospital mortality.

METHODS

A total of 91 patients enrolled in the study were divided into two groups: survivor (n = 48) and nonsurvivor (n = 43) groups. ONSD was measured by ultrasonography within the first 3 h of ICU admission.

RESULTS

The median ONSD was higher in the nonsurvivor group than in the survivor group (5.95 mm vs. 4.15 mm, P < 0.001). The multivariate Cox proportional hazard regression analysis between ONSD and in-hospital mortality (contains 26 covariates) was significant (adjusted hazard ratio, 4.12; 95% confidence interval, 1.46-11.55; P = 0.007). The ONSD cutoff for predicting mortality during ICU admission was 5 mm (area under the curve, 0.985; sensitivity, 98%; and specificity, 90%). The median survival of patients with ONSD >5 mm (43%; n = 39) was lower than those with ONSD ≤5 mm (57%; n = 52) (11.5 days vs. 13.2 days; log-rank test P = 0.001).

CONCLUSIONS

ONSD ultrasonography during ICU admission may be an important, cheap and easy-to-apply method that can be used to predict mortality in the early period in patients with critical COVID-19.

Effect of vitamin D supplementation on COVID-19 patients: A systematic review and meta-analysis

Objective

To systematically evaluate the impact of vitamin D supplementation on mortality, ICU admission, and the rates of mechanical ventilation or intubation among COVID-19 patients.

Data sources and study selection

The PubMed, Embase, Cochrane Library, CBM, CNKI, VIP, and WanFang databases were searched from 1 December 2019 to 31 December 2022. The authors sought to identify randomized controlled trials and cohort studies that examined the relationship between vitamin D supplementation and mortality, ICU admission, and mechanical ventilation or intubation rates among COVID-19 patients.

Data extraction and synthesis

Two investigators independently searched the literature, extracted the data, and assessed the quality of the included studies. The Grading of Recommendation, Assessment, Development, and Evaluation approach was used to evaluate the quality of the evidence. Meta-analysis was conducted using RevMan 5.3, STATA 15.1, and R 4.1.3 software.

Results

Eight randomized controlled trials (RCTs) and eight cohort studies were included, involving 3359 COVID-19 patients. The pooled analysis of randomized controlled trials showed that vitamin D supplementation did not have a significant effect on reducing mortality (Relative Risk, RR = 0.94, 95% CI 0.69-1.29, P = 0.7), while the results of cohort studies indicated that vitamin D supplementation had a positive impact on reducing mortality among COVID-19 patients (RR = 0.33, 95% CI 0.23-0.47, P < 0.001). There was no statistically significant difference in the rates of ICU admission (RCTs: RR = 0.64, 95%CI 0.38-1.08, P = 0.10; cohort studies: RR = 0.32, 95% CI 0.08-1.29, P = 0.109) or rates of mechanical ventilation or intubation (RCTs: RR = 0.77, 95% CI 0.58-1.02, P = 0.07; cohort studies: RR = 0.93, 95% CI 0.55-1.58, P = 0.789).

Conclusion

The results of this systematic review and meta-analysis suggest that vitamin D supplementation does not have a significant impact on reducing mortality, ICU admission, and the rates of mechanical ventilation or intubation among COVID-19 patients. However, due to the limited number and quality of the studies included, further high-quality studies are needed to confirm these findings.

Systematic review registration

www.crd.york.ac.uk, identifier CRD42021299521.

Effect of vitamin D status on adult COVID-19 pneumonia induced by Delta variant: A longitudinal, real-world cohort study

Objective

The effect of vitamin D status on adult COVID-19 pneumonia induced by Delta variant remains to be further explored.

Methods

A longitudinal, real-world cohort study was performed. Artificial intelligence (AI) was used to identify and measure pneumonia lesions. All cases with pneumonia were divided into the vitamin D deficiency (VDD) and control groups according to serum 25-hydroxyvitamin D concentration. Lesion dynamics were observed within six time periods after the onset of pneumonia.

Results

A total of 161 cases were included, of which 101 (63%) were male and 46 (29%) presented with pneumonia. The median age and baseline 25-hydroxyvitamin D concentrations were 37 years and 21 ng/ml, respectively. Age, fibrinogen, and SARS-CoV-2 IgG titer on admission were independent predictors for the onset of pneumonia. After the onset of pneumonia, patients in the VDD group (n = 18) had higher percentage of fever (33 vs. 7.1%; p = 0.04) than those in the control group (n = 28); the interval of pneumonia resolution was longer (28 vs. 21 days; p = 0.02); lesions progressed more rapidly (p = 0.01) within 3 to 7 days and improved more slowly (p = 0.007) within more than 28 days; notably, simultaneous interleukin-6 (18.7 vs. 14.6 pg/ml; p = 0.04) levels were higher, and cycle thresholds for N gene (22.8 vs. 31.3; p = 0.04) and ORF1ab gene (20.9 vs. 28.7; p = 0.03) were lower within 3 to 7 days.

Conclusion

Vitamin D status may have effects on the progression and resolution, but not the onset of Delta variant-induced pneumonia in adults. Computed tomography image diagnosis system based on AI may have promising applications in the surveillance and diagnosis of novel SARS-CoV-2 variant-induced pneumonia.

Antioxidants affect endoplasmic reticulum stress-related diseases

The endoplasmic reticulum (ER) is a complex multifunctional organelle that maintains cell homeostasis. Intrinsic and extrinsic factors alter ER functions, including the rate of protein folding that triggers the accumulation of misfolded proteins and alters homeostasis, thus generating stress in the ER, which activates the unfolded protein response (UPR) pathway to promote cell survival and restore their homeostasis; however, if the damage is not corrected, it could also trigger cell death. In addition, ER stress and oxidative stress are closely related because excessive production of reactive oxygen species (ROS), a well-known inducer of ER stress, promotes the accumulation of misfolded proteins; at the same time, the ER stress enhances ROS production, generating a pathological cycle. Furthermore, it has been described that the dysregulation of the UPR contributes to the progression of various diseases, so the use of compounds capable of regulating ER stress, such as antioxidants, has been used in several experimental models of diseases to alleviate the damage induced by the maladaptive signaling of the UPR, the mechanism of action of antioxidants generally is dose-dependent, and it is specific in each tissue and pathology, could decrease or enhance specific proteins of the UPR to have beneficial or detrimental effects.

Endocrine and metabolic complications of COVID-19: lessons learned and future prospects

Coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) is well known for its respiratory complications; however, it can also cause extrapulmonary manifestations, including cardiovascular, thrombotic, renal, gastrointestinal, neurologic, and endocrinological symptoms. Endocrinological complications of COVID-19 are rare but can considerably impact the outcome of the patients. Moreover, preexisting endocrinologic disorders can affect the severity of COVID-19. Thyroid, pancreas, adrenal, neuroendocrine, gonadal, and parathyroid glands are the main endocrinologic organs that can be targeted by severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus-2 (SARS-CoV-2). Endocrinological complications of COVID-19 are rare but can significantly deteriorate the patients' prognosis. Understanding the interaction between COVID-19 and the endocrine system can provide a potential treatment option to improve the outcome of COVID-19. In this article, we aim to review the short-term and long-term organ-based endocrinological complications of COVID-19, the pathophysiology, the influence of each complication on COVID-19 prognosis, and potential therapeutic interventions based on current published data. Moreover, current clinical trials of potential endocrinological interventions to develop therapeutic strategies for COVID-19 have been discussed.

The impact of vitamin and mineral supplements usage prior to COVID-19 infection on disease severity and hospitalization

The COVID-19 pandemic has caused a global public health emergency. Nutritional status is suggested to be related to the severity of COVID-19 infection. Herein, we aimed to explore the impact of using vitamin and mineral supplements prior to COVID-19 infection on disease severity and hospitalization. In addition, the prior use of aspirin as an anticoagulant on the disease severity was investigated. A cross-sectional, self-administered survey was conducted between March and July 2021. Recovered COVID-19 individuals (age ≥ 18 years, n = 2148) were recruited in the study. A multivariate logistic regression was used to evaluate the associations of supplements and aspirin use with COVID-19 disease severity and hospitalization status. Among the participants, 12.1% reported symptoms consistent with severe COVID-19, and 10.2% were hospitalized due to COVID-19. After adjustment for confounding variables (age, gender, BMI, cigarette smoking status, and the number of comorbidities), the multivariate logistic regression model showed that the consumption of vitamin D supplements prior to COVID-19 infection was associated with a significant decrease in disease severity (OR = 0.68, 95% CI 0.50 - 0.92; P = 0.01), and a lower risk of hospitalization (OR = 0.64, 95% CI 0.45 - 0.89; P = 0.01). On the other hand, there were no significant differences in the frequencies of severe illness and hospitalizations with the consumption of vitamin A, folic acid, vitamin B12, vitamin B complex, vitamin C, zinc, iron, selenium, calcium, magnesium, omega 3, and aspirin before COVID-19 infection. Among the investigated nutrients, the use of vitamin D prior to COVID-19 infection was associated with reduced disease severity and hospitalization. However, more studies are required to confirm this finding.

Vitamin D3 attenuates cisplatin-induced intestinal injury by inhibiting ferroptosis, oxidative stress, and ROS-mediated excessive mitochondrial fission

Intestinal injury is one of the main side-effects of cisplatin (CP) chemotherapy, severely limiting the clinical application of CP. Vitamin D₃ is an essential nutrient for mammals and exists in a wide range of foods; it regulates immune function and reduces oxidative stress. However, the effect of vitamin D₃ on CP-induced intestinal injury is not elucidated. This is the first study to investigate the relationship between ferroptosis and the protective effect of vitamin D₃ on CP-induced intestinal injury. An animal model of CP-induced intestinal injury was established to evaluate the effect of vitamin D₃ on CP-induced intestinal injury and elucidate the underlying mechanisms. We found that vitamin D₃ alleviated intestinal barrier injury and the abnormal morphological structure in CP-induced intestinal injury mice. Vitamin D₃ suppressed oxidative stress by increasing the antioxidant capacity, inhibiting the accumulation of ROS and MDA, and reducing intestinal inflammatory responses. Vitamin D₃ also decreased excessive mitochondrial fission and increased mitochondrial ATPase activity by inhibiting ROS production, which further alleviated the accumulation of ROS. We also confirmed the involvement of ferroptosis in CP-induced intestinal injury in our animal model using ferrostatin-1 (Fer-1) intervention. Vitamin D₃ decreased iron accumulation and reversed GPX4 and DHODH down-regulation. In conclusion, vitamin D₃ protected against CP-induced intestinal injury by inhibiting ferroptosis and alleviating oxidative stress and ROS-mediated excessive mitochondrial fission, suggesting that it may be a novel and promising candidate to prevent CP-induced intestinal injury.

Vitamin D levels and clinical outcomes of SARS-CoV-2 Omicron subvariant BA.2 in children: A longitudinal cohort study

Objective

To investigate the picture between vitamin D levels and clinical outcomes of SARS-CoV-2 Omicron subvariant BA.2 in children.

Methods

A retrospective, longitudinal cohort study was performed. All included hospitalized cases were divided into the sufficient (sVD) and insufficient vitamin D (iVD) groups according to whether their serum 25-hydroxyvitamin D [25(OH)D] concentration was ≥30 ng/mL. Dynamic changes in clinical parameters were observed for seven time periods within 28 days after admission.

Results

Serum 25(OH)D concentrations were significantly negatively correlated with age in the included cases (r = −0.6; P < 0.001). Compared with the iVD group (n = 80), the sVD group (n = 36) had higher interleukin-6 (18.4 vs. 12.9; P = 0.003) within the first day; higher procalcitonin within the first (0.15 vs. 0.1; P = 0.03), 2–3 (0.14 vs. 0.07; P = 0.03), 4–5 (0.21 vs. 0.07; P = 0.02) days; more lymphocytes within the first (1.6 vs. 1.2; P = 0.02), 2–3 (3.7 vs. 2; P = 0.001), 4–5 (3.9 vs. 2.1; P = 0.01) and 6–7 (4.9 vs. 2.7; P = 0.02) days; notably, higher cycle threshold for N gene (30.6 vs 19.8; P = 0.03) or ORF1ab gene (31.4 vs 20.1; P = 0.03) within 2 to 3 days. Pneumonia lesions were found in eleven and six cases in the iVD and sVD groups, respectively, without significant difference on computed tomography at admission. Six out of eleven and five out of six had a repeat computed tomography after 1–2 weeks. Lesion improvement was more significant in the sVD group (P = 0.04).

Conclusions

Children with vitamin D insufficiency might have poorer clinical outcomes in Omicron subvariant BA.2 infection, especially in older pediatric patients. Further studies are needed to assess effectiveness of supplements in reducing the same.

The Impacts of COVID-19 on Musculoskeletal Health

PURPOSE OF REVIEW

Although COVID-19 was originally characterized as a respiratory disease, recent findings have shown lingering side effects in those who have recovered, and much is still unknown about the long-term consequences of the illness. Thus, the potential of unearthing multi-system dysfunction is high, with current data revealing significant impacts on musculoskeletal health.

RECENT FINDINGS

Multiple animal models of COVID-19 infection have revealed significant post-infection bone loss at several different skeletal sites. While how this loss occurred is unknown, this current review discusses the primary bone loss studies, and examines the possible mechanisms of action including: direct infection of bone marrow macrophages or hematopoietic progenitors, a proinflammatory response as a result of the COVID-19 induced cytokine storm, and/or a result of hypoxia and oxidative stress. This review will further examine how therapeutics used to treat COVID-19 affect the skeletal system. Finally, this review will examine the possible consequence that delayed care and limited healthcare accessibility has on musculoskeletal-related patient outcomes. It is important to investigate the potential impact COVID-19 infection has on musculoskeletal health.

Vitamins C and D and COVID-19 Susceptibility, Severity and Progression: An Evidence Based Systematic Review

Background and Objectives: Starting in early December 2019, the novel Coronavirus Disease (COVID-19) from infection with COVID-19 has caused a global pandemic. Many aspects of its pathogenesis and related clinical consequences are still unclear. Early diagnosis and dynamic monitoring of prognostic factors are essential to improve the ability to manage COVID-19 infection. This study aimed to provide an account of the role played by vitamins C and D on the onset, progression and severity of COVID-19. Clinical features and infection-related risk factors are also briefly discussed. Material and Methods: In March 2022, the main online databases were accessed. All the articles that investigate the possible role of vitamins C and D on COVID-19 susceptibility, severity and progression were considered. Results: The current evidence on vitamin C and D supplementation in patients with COVID-19 infection is inconsistent and controversial. In some studies, vitamins were used as coadjuvant of a formal experimental therapy, while in others as main treatment. Ethnicity and hospital setting (inpatient/outpatient) were also variable. Moreover, there was no consensus between studies in administration protocol: high heterogeneity in dosage, administration, and duration of the treatment were evident. Finally, some studies administered vitamins pre- and/or during COVID infection, in patients with different risk factors and infection severity. Conclusions: While waiting to develop a targeted, safe and effective therapy, it is important to investigate individual predisposition and proper disease management. Concluding, available data on the use of nutraceuticals in COVID-19 are inconsistent. However, there is a lack of evidence-based guidelines which recommend vitamin C and D supplementation in patients with COVID-19, and results from high quality randomised controlled trials (RCTs) are inconsistent. Current investigations so far are mostly observational, and include a relatively small sample size which can lead to biased results. Large-scale multicentre studies are therefore needed.

Calcifediol for Use in Treatment of Respiratory Disease

Calcifediol is the prohormone of the vitamin D endocrine system (VDES). It requires hydroxylation to move to 1,25(OH)2D3 or calcitriol, the active form that exerts its functions by activating the vitamin D receptor (VDR) that is expressed in many organs, including the lungs. Due to its rapid oral absorption and because it does not require first hepatic hydroxylation, it is a good option to replace the prevalent deficiency of vitamin D (25 hydroxyvitamin D; 25OHD), to which patients with respiratory pathologies are no strangers. Correcting 25OHD deficiency can decrease the risk of upper respiratory infections and thus improve asthma and COPD control. The same happens with other respiratory pathologies and, in particular, COVID-19. Calcifediol may be a good option for raising 25OHD serum levels quickly because the profile of inflammatory cytokines exhibited by patients with inflammatory respiratory diseases, such as asthma, COPD or COVID-19, can increase the degradation of the active metabolites of the VDES. The aim of this narrative revision is to report the current evidence on the role of calcifediol in main respiratory diseases. In conclusion, good 25OHD status may have beneficial effects on the clinical course of respiratory diseases, including COVID-19. This hypothesis should be confirmed in large, randomized trials. Otherwise, a rapid correction of 25(OH)D deficiency can be useful for patients with respiratory disease.

Association of Recent and Long-Term Supplement Intakes With Laboratory Indices in Patients With COVID-19 in Tehran, Iran, During 2020

Background

Although previous studies observed the relationship between individual dietary supplements and enhancing body resistance against viruses, few studies have been conducted regarding the role of different supplements in treatment of COVID-19. This article aims to determine the association of recent and long-term supplement consumption on the biochemical indices and impatient duration among patients with COVID-19.

Methods

In this cross-sectional study on 300 adult men and women with COVID-19, recent and long-term supplement intakes were investigated by using a questionnaire. In addition, lifestyle was also assessed in aspects of fruits and vegetable consumption, physical activity, sleeping duration, fluid intake, and smoking status. Furthermore, the laboratory and paraclinical parameters were obtained from medical records. The relationship between supplement intake with the length of hospitalization and clinical laboratory tests was investigated by one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA).

Results

Those patients with supplement intake in the last 2 months had a significantly lower amount of blood urea nitrogen (BUN) (31.31 ± 13.87 vs. 37.57 ± 19.77 mg/dL, P: 0.002) and higher serum 25(OH)D (28.13 ± 14.09 vs. 23.81 ± 13.55 ng/mL, P: 0.03). Subjects with long-term supplement intake had a significantly lower invasive oxygen support (0.00 vs 5.10 %, P: 0.05), lactate dehydrogenase (LDH) (498.11 ± 221.43 vs. 576.21 ± 239.84 U/L, P: 0.02), fewer days of fever (0.49 ± 3.54 vs. 2.64 ± 9.21, P: 0.02), and higher serum 25(OH)D (31.03 ± 13.20 vs. 22.29± 13.42 ng/mL, P < 0.001). The length of hospital stay was practically the same between groups who received and did not receive supplementation during the 2 months prior to hospitalization (6.36 ± 3.32 vs. 6.71 ± 4.33 days, P: 0.004). Similarly, people who took supplements during the past year had practically similar hospitalization lengths (6.29 ± 4.13 vs. 6.74 ± 3.55 days, P: 0.004).

Conclusion

In conclusion, although practically the length of hospital stay was the same in both groups of supplement consumers and others, immune-boosting supplements were associated with improved several laboratory indices. However, due to the cross-sectional nature of our study, further longitudinal studies seem to be essential.

Effects of Vitamin D Supplementation on COVID-19 Related Outcomes: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis

The COVID-19 outbreak has rapidly expanded to a global pandemic; however, our knowledge is limited with regards to the protective factors against this infection. The aim of this systematic literature review and meta-analysis was to evaluate the impact of vitamin D supplementation on COVID-19 related outcomes. A systematic search of relevant papers published until January 2022 was conducted to identify randomized controlled trials (RCTs) and non-randomized studies of intervention (NRISs). The primary outcomes included the risk of COVID-19 infection (primary prevention studies on uninfected individuals), hospital admission (secondary prevention studies on mild COVID-19 cases), and ICU admission and mortality rate (tertiary prevention studies on hospitalized COVID-19 patients). We identified five studies (one RCT, four NRISs) on primary prevention, with five (two RCTs, three NRISs) on secondary prevention, and 13 (six RCTs, seven NRISs) on tertiary prevention. Pooled analysis showed no significant effect on the risk of COVID-19 infection. No meta-analysis was possible on hospitalization risk due to paucity of data. Vitamin D supplementation was significantly associated with a reduced risk of ICU admission (RR = 0.35, 95% CI: 0.20, 0.62) and mortality (RR = 0.46, 95% CI: 0.30, 0.70). Vitamin D supplementation had no significant impact on the risk of COVID-19 infection, whereas it showed protective effects against mortality and ICU admission in COVID-19 patients.

Potential of Microneedle Systems for COVID-19 Vaccination: Current Trends and Challenges

To prevent the coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic and aid restoration to prepandemic normality, global mass vaccination is urgently needed. Inducing herd immunity through mass vaccination has proven to be a highly effective strategy for preventing the spread of many infectious diseases, which protects the most vulnerable population groups that are unable to develop immunity, such as people with immunodeficiencies or weakened immune systems due to underlying medical or debilitating conditions. In achieving global outreach, the maintenance of the vaccine potency, transportation, and needle waste generation become major issues. Moreover, needle phobia and vaccine hesitancy act as hurdles to successful mass vaccination. The use of dissolvable microneedles for COVID-19 vaccination could act as a major paradigm shift in attaining the desired goal to vaccinate billions in the shortest time possible. In addressing these points, we discuss the potential of the use of dissolvable microneedles for COVID-19 vaccination based on the current literature.

Association of vitamin D and severity of COVID-19 in children

Vitamin has a major role in the functions of the immune system, and the efficacy of this vitamin in reducing inflammation has been identified. Considering the effects of vitamin D, this study research was performed for investigating the relationship between vitamin D and the severity of COVID-19 in children. This cross-sectional study was performed on 101 children infected with the new coronavirus from September 2020 to October 2021. Information on vitamin D levels, demographic factors, and clinical and laboratory findings were documented in information forms and prepared for statistical analyses. The average of children was 2.85 ± 0.85 years. Low oxygen saturation was observed in 35.3% of infected children. The level of involvement was higher in subjects with vitamin D levels higher than 30 and less than 10 ng/ml (p = 0.04). Clinical signs in cases with deficient and sufficient vitamin D levels were more severe in terms of tachypnea and tachycardia (p = 0.01). Children with vitamin D lower than 10 ng/ml showed more frequency (p = 0.02). Cases with moderate vitamin D had fewer gastrointestinal complications (p = 0.03). Also, oxygen levels were lower in children who had low levels of vitamin D (p = 0.02). Vitamin D levels were associated with levels of involvement, tachycardia, tachypnea, clinical signs, gastrointestinal problems, and O2 levels. Moderate vitamin D levels in children are a critical issue that should be considered.

Interaction of Vitamin D and Corticosteroid Use in Hospitalized COVID-19 Patients: A Potential Explanation for Inconsistent Findings in the Literature

Vitamin D is an important immune-modulator with anti-inflammatory properties. While this prohormone has been studied extensively in the prevention and treatment of COVID-19, findings have been inconsistent regarding its overall benefit in patients hospitalized with COVID-19. Most studies to date have been observational in nature, not accounting for the use of corticosteroids. Furthermore, the few randomized clinical trials designed to examine the effect of vitamin D supplementation on COVID-19 outcomes have been relatively small and thus insufficiently powered to assure a balance of corticosteroid use between study arms. The current perspective addresses the interaction of vitamin D and corticosteroids as a potential explanation for the divergent results reported in the literature. Future research on vitamin D and COVID-19 will benefit by considering this interaction, especially among hospitalized patients requiring oxygen and mechanical ventilation.

Clinical significance of micronutrient supplements in patients with coronavirus disease 2019: A comprehensive systematic review and meta-analysis

BACKGROUND AND AIMS

Micronutrient supplements such as vitamin D, vitamin C, and zinc have been used in managing viral illnesses. However, the clinical significance of these individual micronutrients in patients with Coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) remains unclear. We conducted this meta-analysis to provide a quantitative assessment of the clinical significance of these individual micronutrients in COVID-19.

METHODS

We performed a comprehensive literature search using MEDLINE, Embase, and Cochrane databases through December 5th, 2021. All individual micronutrients reported by ≥ 3 studies and compared with standard-of-care (SOC) were included. The primary outcome was mortality. The secondary outcomes were intubation rate and length of hospital stay (LOS). Pooled risk ratios (RR) and mean difference (MD) with corresponding 95% confidence intervals (CI) were calculated using the random-effects model.

RESULTS

We identified 26 studies (10 randomized controlled trials and 16 observational studies) involving 5633 COVID-19 patients that compared three individual micronutrient supplements (vitamin C, vitamin D, and zinc) with SOC. Nine studies evaluated vitamin C in 1488 patients (605 in vitamin C and 883 in SOC). Vitamin C supplementation had no significant effect on mortality (RR 1.00, 95% CI 0.62-1.62, P = 1.00), intubation rate (RR 1.77, 95% CI 0.56-5.56, P = 0.33), or LOS (MD 0.64; 95% CI -1.70, 2.99; P = 0.59). Fourteen studies assessed the impact of vitamin D on mortality among 3497 patients (927 in vitamin D and 2570 in SOC). Vitamin D did not reduce mortality (RR 0.75, 95% CI 0.49-1.17, P = 0.21) but reduced intubation rate (RR 0.55, 95% CI 0.32-0.97, P = 0.04) and LOS (MD -1.26; 95% CI -2.27, -0.25; P = 0.01). Subgroup analysis showed that vitamin D supplementation was not associated with a mortality benefit in patients receiving vitamin D pre or post COVID-19 diagnosis. Five studies, including 738 patients, compared zinc intake with SOC (447 in zinc and 291 in SOC). Zinc supplementation was not associated with a significant reduction of mortality (RR 0.79, 95% CI 0.60-1.03, P = 0.08).

CONCLUSIONS

Individual micronutrient supplementations, including vitamin C, vitamin D, and zinc, were not associated with a mortality benefit in COVID-19. Vitamin D may be associated with lower intubation rate and shorter LOS, but vitamin C did not reduce intubation rate or LOS. Further research is needed to validate our findings.

The Role of Vitamin D in Supporting Health in the COVID-19 Era

The genomic activity of vitamin D is associated with metabolic effects, and the hormone has a strong impact on several physiological functions and, therefore, on health. Among its renowned functions, vitamin D is an immunomodulator and a molecule with an anti-inflammatory effect, and, recently, it has been much studied in relation to its response against viral infections, especially against COVID-19. This review aims to take stock of the correlation studies between vitamin D deficiency and increased risks of severe COVID-19 disease and, similarly, between vitamin D deficiency and acute respiratory distress syndrome. Based on this evidence, supplementation with vitamin D has been tested in clinical trials, and the results are discussed. Finally, this study includes a biochemical analysis on the effects of vitamin D in the body's defense mechanisms against viral infection. In particular, the antioxidant and anti-inflammatory functions are considered in relation to energy metabolism, and the potential, beneficial effect of vitamin D in COVID-19 is described, with discussion of its influence on different biochemical pathways. The proposed, broader view of vitamin D activity could support a better-integrated approach in supplementation strategies against severe COVID-19, which could be valuable in a near future of living with an infection becoming endemic.

Racial/ethnic disparities on inflammation and response to methylprednisolone in severe COVID-19 pneumonia

Background

Racial/ethnic minorities are at higher risk for severe COVID-19. This may be related to social determinants that lead to chronic inflammatory states. The aims of the study were to determine if there are racial/ethnic disparities with inflammatory markers and association of methylprednisolone to in hospital survival.

Methods

This was a secondary analysis of a retrospective cohort study of patients ≥ 18 years of age and admitted for severe COVID-19 pneumonia between March and June 2020 in 13 Hospitals in New Jersey, United States. Patients who received other formulation of corticosteroids were not included. Area under the receiver operating characteristics curves were performed to test for discriminatory ability of each inflammatory makers. Univariate and multivariate Cox regression assessed the association of variables to in hospital survival.

Results

Propensity matched sample (n = 759) between no methylprednisolone (n = 380) and methylprednisolone (n = 379) had 338 Whites, 102 Blacks, 61 Asian/Indians, and 251 non-Black non-White Hispanics. Compared to CRP, area under receiving operating characteristic curve for d-dimer in Hispanics (0.742) was statistically different (DeLong Test P = 0.0041). Multivariate cox regression showed that different variables in Blacks [age ≥ 60 years (HR = 3.71, P = 0.0281), mechanical ventilation (HR = 5.07, P = 0.0281) and creatinine ≥ 1.5 mg/dL (HR = 3.61, P = 0.0007)], Whites [cancer (HR = 1.68, P = 0.0213), qSOFA score of 1 (HR = 1.81, P = 0.0213), qSOFA score of 2 (HR = 5.16, P < 0.0001), qSOFA score of 3 (HR = 11.81, P < 0.0001) and creatinine ≥ 1.5 mg/dL (HR = 2.16, P = 0.0006)], Hispanics [hypertension (HR = 2.52, P = 0.0007), cancer (HR = 2.99, P = 0.0244 and D-dimer ≥ 2 mcg/mL (HR = 2.22, P = 0.0077)], and Asian/Indians [ chronic kidney disease (HR = 6.36, P = 0.0031) and CRP > 20 mg/L (HR = 5.02, P = 0.0032)] were statistically significant for mortality. Low dose and high dose methylprednisolone were significantly associated with prolonged survival in Whites [low dose (HR = 0.37, P < 0.0001) and high dose (HR = 0.48, P < 0.0183)] and Asian/Indians [low dose (HR = 0.13, P = 0.0101) and high dose (HR = 0.15, P = 0.01)]. However, high dose was not associated with improved survival compared to low dose. Methylprednisolone was not associated with prolonged survival in Blacks and Hispanics.

Conclusion

Racial/Ethnic disparities with inflammatory markers preclude the use of one marker as a predictor of survival. Methylprednisolone is associated with prolonged survival in Asian/Indians and Whites.

Supplementary Information

The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1186/s12879-022-07237-1.

Therapeutic Vitamin D Supplementation Following COVID-19 Diagnosis: Where Do We Stand?—A Systematic Review

Vitamin D has known immunomodulatory activity and multiple indications exist supporting its potential use against SARS-CoV-2 infection in the setting of the current pandemic. The purpose of this systematic review is to examine the efficacy of vitamin D administered to adult patients following COVID-19 diagnosis in terms of length of hospital stay, intubation, ICU admission and mortality rates. Therefore, PubMed and Scopus databases were searched for original articles referring to the aforementioned parameters. Of the 1376 identified studies, eleven were finally included. Vitamin D supplements, and especially calcifediol, were shown to be useful in significantly reducing ICU admissions and/or mortality in four of the studies, but not in diminishing the duration of hospitalization of COVID-19 patients. Due to the large variation in vitamin D supplementation schemes no absolute conclusions can be drawn until larger randomized controlled trials are completed. However, calcifediol administered to COVID-19 patients upon diagnosis represents by far the most promising agent and should be the focus of upcoming research efforts.

Influence of exercise and vitamin D on the immune system against Covid-19: an integrative review of current literature

Respiratory infections of viral origin have become the leading cause of infectious diseases in the world. In 2020, the World Health Organization (WHO) declared a pandemic due to Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome Coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2), Coronavirus Disease 2019 (Covid-19). The pandemic caused by the new coronavirus has challenged the entire global health system, since Covid-19 has a high rate of morbidity and mortality. The immune response to the virus depends on factors such as age, genetics, nutritional status, physical status, as well as environmental factors. Despite scientific advances, so far, there is still no specific therapy for the disease. Thus, this study aims to analyze the contribution of physical exercise and maintenance and/or supplementation of vitamin D to the strengthening of the immune system against viral infections, among them, Covid-19. Regular practice of moderate-intensity physical activity is responsible for promoting a reduction in the concentrations of pro-inflammatory cytokines (IL-6, TNF-α and IL-1β), as well as triggering the increase in the production of anti-inflammatory cytokines (IL-4 and IL-10). In addition, hypovitaminosis D predisposes to the development of chronic diseases and infections. Therefore, in patients affected by Covid-19, the maintenance of vitamin D levels contributes significantly to the 0prevention of the cytokine storm. Thus, the association between maintaining vitamin D levels and performing moderate-intensity physical exercise is responsible for strengthening the immune system and, therefore, triggering a defense mechanism against infections by intracellular microorganisms, in which SARS -CoV-2.

Angiotensin Converting Enzyme Inhibitors May Increase While Active Vitamin D May Decrease the Risk of Severe Pneumonia in SARS-CoV-2 Infected Patients with Chronic Kidney Disease on Maintenance Hemodialysis

The group most at risk of death due to COVID-19 are patients on maintenance hemodialysis (HD). The study aims to describe the clinical course of the early phase of SARS-CoV-2 infection and find predictors of the development of COVID-19 severe pneumonia in this population. This is a case series of HD nonvaccinated patients with COVID-19 stratified into mild pneumonia and severe pneumonia group according to the chest computed tomography (CT) pneumonia total severity score (TSS) on admission. Epidemiological, demographic, clinical, and laboratory data were obtained from hospital records. 85 HD patients with a mean age of 69.74 (13.19) years and dialysis vintage of 38 (14-84) months were included. On admission, 29.14% of patients had no symptoms, 70.59% reported fatigue followed by fever-44.71%, shortness of breath-40.0%, and cough-30.59%. 20% of the patients had finger oxygen saturation less than 90%. In 28.81% of patients, pulmonary parenchyma was involved in at least 25%. The factors associated with severe pneumonia include fever, low oxygen saturation and arterial partial pressure of oxygen, increased C-reactive protein and ferritin serum levels, low blood count of lymphocytes as well as chronic treatment with angiotensin converting enzyme inhibitors; while the chronic active vitamin D treatment was associated with mild pneumonia. In conclusion, even though nearly one-third of the patients were completely asymptomatic, while the remaining usually reported only single symptoms, a large percentage of them had extensive inflammatory changes at diagnosis with SARS-CoV-2 infection. We identified potential predictors of severe pneumonia, which might help individualize pharmacological treatment and improve clinical outcomes.

Predictors of Mortality in Hemodialyzed Patients after SARS-CoV-2 Infection

INTRODUCTION

The determinants of COVID-19 mortality are well-characterized in the general population. Less numerous and inconsistent data are among the maintenance hemodialysis (HD) patients, who are the population most at risk of an unfavorable prognosis.

METHODS

In this retrospective cohort study we included all adult HD patients from the Pomeranian Voivodeship, Poland, with laboratory-confirmed SARS-CoV-2 infection hospitalized between 6 October 2020 and 28 February 2021, both those who survived, and also those who died. Demographic, clinical, treatment, and laboratory data on admission, were extracted from the electronic medical records of the dedicated hospital and patients' dialysis unit, and compared between survivors and non-survivors. We used univariable and multivariable logistic regression methods to explore the risk factors associated with 3-month all-cause mortality.

RESULTS

The 133 patients (53.38% males) aged 73.0 (67-79) years, with a median duration of hemodialysis of 42.0 (17-86) months, were included in this study. At diagnosis, the majority were considered to have a mild course (34 of 133 patients were asymptomatic, another 63 subjects presented mild symptoms), while 36 (27.07%) patients had low blood oxygen saturation and required oxygen supplementation. Three-month mortality was 39.08% including an in-hospital case fatality rate of 33.08%. Multivariable logistic regression showed that the frailty clinical index of 4 or greater (OR 8.36, 95%CI 1.81-38.6; p < 0.01), D-Dimer of 1500 ng/mL or greater (6.00, 1.94-18.53; p < 0.01), and CRP of >118 mg/L at admission (3.77 1.09-13.01; p = 0.04) were found to be predictive of mortality.

CONCLUSION

Very high 3-month all-cause mortality in hospitalized HD patients was determined mainly by frailty. High CRP and D-dimer levels upon admission further confer mortality risk.

Efficacy and safety of vitamin D supplementation in hospitalized COVID-19 pediatric patients: A randomized controlled trial

BACKGROUND

Some studies suggested that adequate levels of vitamin D (VD) decrease the risk of severe COVID-19. Information about the effectiveness of VD supplementation in children is scarce.

OBJECTIVE

To assess the efficacy and safety of VD supplementation compared to the standard of care in hospitalized children with COVID-19.

PATIENTS AND METHODS

An open-label randomized controlled single-blind clinical trial was carried out. We included patients from 1 month to 17 years, with moderate COVID-19, who required hospitalization and supplemental oxygen. They were randomized into two groups: the VD group, which received doses of 1,000 (children < 1 year) or 2,000 IU/day (from 1 to 17 years) and the group without VD (control). The outcome variables were the progression of oxygen requirement, the development of complications, and death.

STATISTICAL ANALYSIS

For comparison between groups, we used the chi-squared test or Fisher's exact test and the Mann-Whitney U test. Absolute risk reduction (ARR) and the number needed to treat (NNT) were calculated. p ≤ 0.05 was considered statistically significant.

RESULTS

From 24 March 2020 to 31 March 2021, 87 patients were eligible to participate in the trial; 45 patients were randomized: 20 to the VD group and 25 to the control group. There was no difference in general characteristics at baseline, including serum VD levels (median 13.8 ng/ml in the VD group and 11.4 ng/ml in the control group).

OUTCOMES

2/20 (10%) in the VD group vs. 9/25 (36%) in the control group progressed to a superior ventilation modality (p = 0.10); one patient in the VD group died (5%) compared to 6 (24%) patients in the control group (p = 0.23). ARR was 26% (95% CI 8.8 to 60.2%) and NNT was 3 (2 to 11) for progression and ARR was 19% (95% CI -3.9 to 42.8%) and NNT was 6 (2 to 26) for death. None of the patients receiving VD had adverse effects. The trial was stopped for ethical reasons; since after receiving the results of the basal VD values, none of the patients had normal levels.

CONCLUSION

In this trial, VD supplementation in pediatric patients seems to decrease the risk of COVID-19 progression and death. More studies are needed to confirm these findings.

CLINICAL TRIAL REGISTRATION

This protocol was registered on ClinicalTrials.gov with the registration number NCT04502667.

The Interaction of Vitamin D and Corticosteroids: A Mortality Analysis of 26,508 Veterans Who Tested Positive for SARS-CoV-2

This data-based cohort consisted of 26,508 (7%) United States veterans out of the 399,290 who tested positive for SARS-CoV-2 from 1 March to 10 September 2020. We aimed to assess the interaction of post-index vitamin D (Vit D) and corticosteroid (CRT) use on 30-day mortality among hospitalized and non-hospitalized patients with coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19). Combination Vit D and CRT drug use was assessed according to four multinomial pairs (-|+, -|-, +|+, +|-). Respective categorical effects were computed on a log-binomial scale as adjusted relative risk (aRR). Approximately 6% of veterans who tested positive for SARS-CoV-2 died within 30 days of their index date. Among hospitalized patients, a significantly decreased aRR was observed for the use of Vit D in the absence of CRTs relative to patients who received CRTs but not Vit D (aRR = 0.30; multiplicity corrected, p = 0.0004). Among patients receiving systemically administered CRTs (e.g., dexamethasone), the use of Vit D was associated with fewer deaths in hospitalized patients (aRR = 0.51) compared with non-hospitalized patients (aRR = 2.5) (P-for-Interaction = 0.0071). Evaluating the effect of modification of these compounds in the context of hospitalization may aid in the management of COVID-19 and provide a better understanding of the pathophysiological mechanisms underlying this and future infectious disease outbreaks.

COVID-19 pandemic: Insights into genetic susceptibility to SARS-CoV-2 and host genes implications on virus spread, disease severity and outcomes

The outbreak of the newly emerging severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) all over the world has caused global public health emergencies, international concern and economic crises. The systemic SARS-CoV-2 disease (COVID-19) can lead to death through causing unrestrained cytokines-storm and subsequent pulmonary shutdown among the elderly and patients with pre-existing comorbidities. Additionally, in comparison with poor nations without primary health care services, in developed countries with advanced healthcare system we can witness higher number of infections per one million people. In this review, we summarize the latest studies on genes associated with SARS-CoV-2 pathogenesis and propose possible mechanisms of the virus replication cycle and its triggered signaling pathways to encourage researchers to investigate genetic and immune profiles of the disease and try strategies for its treatment. Our review shows that immune response in people with different genetic background might vary as African and then Asian populations have lowest number of affected cases compared with European and American nations. Considering SARS-CoV-2 pathogenesis, we put forward some potentially important genetic gateways to COVID-19 infection including genes involved in the entry and replication of SARS-CoV-2 and the regulation of host immune response which might represent explanation for its spread, severity, and morality. Finally, we suggest that genetic alterations within these gateways could be critical factors in influencing geographical discrepancies of the virus, so it is essential to fully study them and design appropriated and reliable therapeutic agents against COVID-19.