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Lu J, Tan S, Gu H, Liu K, Huang W, Yu Z, Lu G, Wu Z, Gao X, Zhao J, Yao Z, Yi F, Yang Y, Wang H, Hu X, Lu M, Li W, Zhou H, Yu H, Shan C, Lin J. Effectiveness of a broad-spectrum bivalent mRNA vaccine against SARS-CoV-2 variants in preclinical studies. Emerg Microbes Infect 2024; 13:2321994. [PMID: 38377136 PMCID: PMC10906132 DOI: 10.1080/22221751.2024.2321994] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/07/2023] [Accepted: 02/16/2024] [Indexed: 02/22/2024]
Abstract
Vaccines utilizing modified messenger RNA (mRNA) technology have shown robust protective efficacy against SARS-CoV-2 in humans. As the virus continues to evolve in both human and non-human hosts, risk remains that the performance of the vaccines can be compromised by new variants with strong immune escape abilities. Here we present preclinical characterizations of a novel bivalent mRNA vaccine RQ3025 for its safety and effectiveness in animal models. The mRNA sequence of the vaccine is designed to incorporate common mutations on the SARS-CoV-2 spike protein that have been discovered along the evolutionary paths of different variants. Broad-spectrum, high-titer neutralizing antibodies against multiple variants were induced in mice (BALB/c and K18-hACE2), hamsters and rats upon injections of RQ3025, demonstrating advantages over the monovalent mRNA vaccines. Effectiveness in protection against several newly emerged variants is also evident in RQ3025-vaccinated rats. Analysis of splenocytes derived cytokines in BALB/c mice suggested that a Th1-biased cellular immune response was induced by RQ3025. Histological analysis of multiple organs in rats following injection of a high dose of RQ3025 showed no evidence of pathological changes. This study proves the safety and effectiveness of RQ3025 as a broad-spectrum vaccine against SARS-CoV-2 variants in animal models and lays the foundation for its potential clinical application in the future.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jing Lu
- State Key Laboratory of Genetic Engineering, School of Life Sciences, Zhongshan Hospital, Fudan University, Shanghai, People’s Republic of China
- Shanghai Institute of Infectious Disease and Biosecurity, Fudan University, Shanghai, People’s Republic of China
- Center for mRNA Translational Research, Fudan University, Shanghai, People’s Republic of China
- Shanghai RNACure Biopharma Co., Ltd, Shanghai, People’s Republic of China
| | - Shudan Tan
- State Key Laboratory of Genetic Engineering, School of Life Sciences, Zhongshan Hospital, Fudan University, Shanghai, People’s Republic of China
- Shanghai Institute of Infectious Disease and Biosecurity, Fudan University, Shanghai, People’s Republic of China
- Center for mRNA Translational Research, Fudan University, Shanghai, People’s Republic of China
- Shanghai RNACure Biopharma Co., Ltd, Shanghai, People’s Republic of China
| | - Hao Gu
- Shanghai RNACure Biopharma Co., Ltd, Shanghai, People’s Republic of China
| | - Kunpeng Liu
- State Key Laboratory of Virology, Wuhan Institute of Virology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Wuhan, People’s Republic of China
- University of the Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, People’s Republic of China
| | - Wei Huang
- Shanghai RNACure Biopharma Co., Ltd, Shanghai, People’s Republic of China
| | - Zhaoli Yu
- Shanghai RNACure Biopharma Co., Ltd, Shanghai, People’s Republic of China
| | - Guoliang Lu
- State Key Laboratory of Genetic Engineering, School of Life Sciences, Zhongshan Hospital, Fudan University, Shanghai, People’s Republic of China
- Shanghai Institute of Infectious Disease and Biosecurity, Fudan University, Shanghai, People’s Republic of China
- Center for mRNA Translational Research, Fudan University, Shanghai, People’s Republic of China
| | - Zihan Wu
- State Key Laboratory of Genetic Engineering, School of Life Sciences, Zhongshan Hospital, Fudan University, Shanghai, People’s Republic of China
- Shanghai Institute of Infectious Disease and Biosecurity, Fudan University, Shanghai, People’s Republic of China
- Center for mRNA Translational Research, Fudan University, Shanghai, People’s Republic of China
| | - Xiaobo Gao
- Shanghai RNACure Biopharma Co., Ltd, Shanghai, People’s Republic of China
| | - Jinghua Zhao
- State Key Laboratory of Genetic Engineering, School of Life Sciences, Zhongshan Hospital, Fudan University, Shanghai, People’s Republic of China
- Shanghai Institute of Infectious Disease and Biosecurity, Fudan University, Shanghai, People’s Republic of China
- Center for mRNA Translational Research, Fudan University, Shanghai, People’s Republic of China
- Shanghai RNACure Biopharma Co., Ltd, Shanghai, People’s Republic of China
| | - Zongting Yao
- Shanghai RNACure Biopharma Co., Ltd, Shanghai, People’s Republic of China
| | - Feng Yi
- Shanghai RNACure Biopharma Co., Ltd, Shanghai, People’s Republic of China
| | - Yantao Yang
- Shanghai RNACure Biopharma Co., Ltd, Shanghai, People’s Republic of China
| | - Hu Wang
- Shanghai RNACure Biopharma Co., Ltd, Shanghai, People’s Republic of China
| | - Xue Hu
- Shanghai RNACure Biopharma Co., Ltd, Shanghai, People’s Republic of China
| | - Mingqing Lu
- State Key Laboratory of Virology, Wuhan Institute of Virology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Wuhan, People’s Republic of China
- University of the Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, People’s Republic of China
| | - Wei Li
- State Key Laboratory of Genetic Engineering, School of Life Sciences, Zhongshan Hospital, Fudan University, Shanghai, People’s Republic of China
- Shanghai Institute of Infectious Disease and Biosecurity, Fudan University, Shanghai, People’s Republic of China
- Center for mRNA Translational Research, Fudan University, Shanghai, People’s Republic of China
| | - Hui Zhou
- Shanghai RNACure Biopharma Co., Ltd, Shanghai, People’s Republic of China
| | - Hang Yu
- Shanghai RNACure Biopharma Co., Ltd, Shanghai, People’s Republic of China
| | - Chao Shan
- State Key Laboratory of Virology, Wuhan Institute of Virology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Wuhan, People’s Republic of China
- University of the Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, People’s Republic of China
- Hubei Jiangxia Laboratory, Wuhan, People’s Republic of China
| | - Jinzhong Lin
- State Key Laboratory of Genetic Engineering, School of Life Sciences, Zhongshan Hospital, Fudan University, Shanghai, People’s Republic of China
- Shanghai Institute of Infectious Disease and Biosecurity, Fudan University, Shanghai, People’s Republic of China
- Center for mRNA Translational Research, Fudan University, Shanghai, People’s Republic of China
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Teixeira AIP. The continuous surprises that SARS-CoV-2 presents to the scientific community - Correspondence about the Paper Fusco G, Cardillo L, Levante M, Brandi S, Picazio G, Napoletano M, Martucciello A, Fiorito F, De Carlo E, De Martinis C. First serological evidence of SARS-CoV-2 natural infection in small ruminants: brief report. Vet Res Commun. 2023 sep;47(3):1741-1748. Doi: 10.1007/s11259-022-10044-3. Vet Res Commun 2024; 48:1311-1312. [PMID: 38291149 DOI: 10.1007/s11259-024-10315-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/09/2024] [Accepted: 01/22/2024] [Indexed: 02/01/2024]
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Porter SM, Hartwig AE, Bielefeldt-Ohmann H, Marano JM, Root JJ, Bosco-Lauth AM. Experimental SARS-CoV-2 Infection of Elk and Mule Deer. Emerg Infect Dis 2024; 30:354-357. [PMID: 38270133 PMCID: PMC10826780 DOI: 10.3201/eid3002.231093] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/26/2024] Open
Abstract
To assess the susceptibility of elk (Cervus canadensis) and mule deer (Odocoileus hemionus) to SARS-CoV-2, we performed experimental infections in both species. Elk did not shed infectious virus but mounted low-level serologic responses. Mule deer shed and transmitted virus and mounted pronounced serologic responses and thus could play a role in SARS-CoV-2 epidemiology.
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Khalil AM, Martinez-Sobrido L, Mostafa A. Zoonosis and zooanthroponosis of emerging respiratory viruses. Front Cell Infect Microbiol 2024; 13:1232772. [PMID: 38249300 PMCID: PMC10796657 DOI: 10.3389/fcimb.2023.1232772] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/01/2023] [Accepted: 12/11/2023] [Indexed: 01/23/2024] Open
Abstract
Lung infections in Influenza-Like Illness (ILI) are triggered by a variety of respiratory viruses. All human pandemics have been caused by the members of two major virus families, namely Orthomyxoviridae (influenza A viruses (IAVs); subtypes H1N1, H2N2, and H3N2) and Coronaviridae (severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2, SARS-CoV-2). These viruses acquired some adaptive changes in a known intermediate host including domestic birds (IAVs) or unknown intermediate host (SARS-CoV-2) following transmission from their natural reservoirs (e.g. migratory birds or bats, respectively). Verily, these acquired adaptive substitutions facilitated crossing species barriers by these viruses to infect humans in a phenomenon that is known as zoonosis. Besides, these adaptive substitutions aided the variant strain to transmit horizontally to other contact non-human animal species including pets and wild animals (zooanthroponosis). Herein we discuss the main zoonotic and reverse-zoonosis events that occurred during the last two pandemics of influenza A/H1N1 and SARS-CoV-2. We also highlight the impact of interspecies transmission of these pandemic viruses on virus evolution and possible prophylactic and therapeutic interventions. Based on information available and presented in this review article, it is important to close monitoring viral zoonosis and viral reverse zoonosis of pandemic strains within a One-Health and One-World approach to mitigate their unforeseen risks, such as virus evolution and resistance to limited prophylactic and therapeutic interventions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ahmed Magdy Khalil
- Disease Intervention & Prevention and Host Pathogen Interactions Programs, Texas Biomedical Research Institute, San Antonio, TX, United States
- Department of Zoonotic Diseases, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Zagazig University, Zagazig, Egypt
| | - Luis Martinez-Sobrido
- Disease Intervention & Prevention and Host Pathogen Interactions Programs, Texas Biomedical Research Institute, San Antonio, TX, United States
| | - Ahmed Mostafa
- Disease Intervention & Prevention and Host Pathogen Interactions Programs, Texas Biomedical Research Institute, San Antonio, TX, United States
- Center of Scientific Excellence for Influenza Viruses, Water Pollution Research Department, Environment and Climate Change Research Institute, National Research Centre, Giza, Egypt
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Nuwer R. Chimpanzees are dying from our colds - these scientists are trying to save them. Nature 2024; 625:442-446. [PMID: 38228794 DOI: 10.1038/d41586-024-00108-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/18/2024]
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Kotwa JD, Lobb B, Massé A, Gagnier M, Aftanas P, Banerjee A, Banete A, Blais-Savoie J, Bowman J, Buchanan T, Chee HY, Kruczkiewicz P, Nirmalarajah K, Soos C, Vernygora O, Yip L, Lindsay LR, McGeer AJ, Maguire F, Lung O, Doxey AC, Pickering B, Mubareka S. Genomic and transcriptomic characterization of delta SARS-CoV-2 infection in free-ranging white-tailed deer ( Odocoileus virginianus). iScience 2023; 26:108319. [PMID: 38026171 PMCID: PMC10665813 DOI: 10.1016/j.isci.2023.108319] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/16/2023] [Revised: 09/12/2023] [Accepted: 10/20/2023] [Indexed: 11/29/2023] Open
Abstract
White-tailed deer (WTD) are susceptible to SARS-CoV-2 and represent an important species for surveillance. Samples from WTD (n = 258) collected in November 2021 from Québec, Canada were analyzed for SARS-CoV-2 RNA. We employed viral genomics and host transcriptomics to further characterize infection and investigate host response. We detected Delta SARS-CoV-2 (B.1.617.2) in WTD from the Estrie region; sequences clustered with human sequences from October 2021 from Vermont, USA, which borders this region. Mutations in the S-gene and a deletion in ORF8 were detected. Host expression patterns in SARS-CoV-2 infected WTD were associated with the innate immune response, including signaling pathways related to anti-viral, pro- and anti-inflammatory signaling, and host damage. We found limited correlation between genes associated with innate immune response from human and WTD nasal samples, suggesting differences in responses to SARS-CoV-2 infection. Our findings provide preliminary insights into host response to SARS-CoV-2 infection in naturally infected WTD.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Briallen Lobb
- Department of Biology, University of Waterloo, Waterloo, ON N2L 3G1, Canada
| | - Ariane Massé
- Ministère de l’Environnement, de la Lutte contre les changements climatiques, de la Faune et des Parcs, Québec City, QC G1S 4X4, Canada
| | - Marianne Gagnier
- Ministère de l’Environnement, de la Lutte contre les changements climatiques, de la Faune et des Parcs, Québec City, QC G1S 4X4, Canada
| | | | - Arinjay Banerjee
- Department of Biology, University of Waterloo, Waterloo, ON N2L 3G1, Canada
- Vaccine and Infectious Disease Organization, University of Saskatchewan, Saskatoon, SK S7N 5E3, Canada
- Department of Veterinary Microbiology, University of Saskatchewan, Saskatoon, SK S7N 5A2, Canada
- Department of Laboratory Medicine and Pathobiology, Temerty Faculty of Medicine, University of Toronto, Toronto, ON M5S 1A1, Canada
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Faculty of Medicine, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC V6T 1Z4, Canada
| | - Andra Banete
- Sunnybrook Research Institute, Toronto, ON M4N 3M5, Canada
| | | | - Jeff Bowman
- Wildlife Research and Monitoring Section, Ontario Ministry of Natural Resources and Forestry, Peterborough, ON K9J 8M5, Canada
| | - Tore Buchanan
- Wildlife Research and Monitoring Section, Ontario Ministry of Natural Resources and Forestry, Peterborough, ON K9J 8M5, Canada
| | - Hsien-Yao Chee
- Sunnybrook Research Institute, Toronto, ON M4N 3M5, Canada
- Global Health Research Center and Division of Natural and Applied Sciences, Duke Kunshan University, Kunshan, Jiangsu 215316, China
| | - Peter Kruczkiewicz
- National Centre for Foreign Animal Disease, Canadian Food Inspection Agency, Winnipeg, MB R3E 3M4, Canada
| | | | - Catherine Soos
- Ecotoxicology and Wildlife Health Division, Environment and Climate Change Canada, Saskatoon, SK S7N 3H5, Canada
- Department of Veterinary Pathology, Western College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Saskatchewan, Saskatoon, SK S7N 5E3, Canada
| | - Oksana Vernygora
- National Centre for Foreign Animal Disease, Canadian Food Inspection Agency, Winnipeg, MB R3E 3M4, Canada
| | - Lily Yip
- Sunnybrook Research Institute, Toronto, ON M4N 3M5, Canada
| | - L. Robbin Lindsay
- National Microbiology Laboratory, Public Health Agency of Canada, Winnipeg, MB R3E 3L5, Canada
| | - Allison J. McGeer
- Department of Laboratory Medicine and Pathobiology, Temerty Faculty of Medicine, University of Toronto, Toronto, ON M5S 1A1, Canada
- Sinai Health System, Toronto, ON M5G 1X5, Canada
| | - Finlay Maguire
- Faculty of Computer Science, Dalhousie University, Halifax, NS B3H 4R2, Canada
- Department of Community Health & Epidemiology, Faculty of Medicine, Dalhousie University, Halifax, NS B3H 4R2, Canada
- Shared Hospital Laboratory, Toronto, ON M4N 3M5, Canada
| | - Oliver Lung
- National Centre for Foreign Animal Disease, Canadian Food Inspection Agency, Winnipeg, MB R3E 3M4, Canada
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of Manitoba, Winnipeg, MB R3T 2N2, Canada
| | - Andrew C. Doxey
- Department of Biology, University of Waterloo, Waterloo, ON N2L 3G1, Canada
| | - Bradley Pickering
- National Centre for Foreign Animal Disease, Canadian Food Inspection Agency, Winnipeg, MB R3E 3M4, Canada
- Department of Veterinary Microbiology and Preventative Medicine, College of Veterinary Medicine, Iowa State University, Ames, IA 50011, USA
- Department of Medical Microbiology and Infectious Diseases, University of Manitoba, Winnipeg, MB R3T 2N2, Canada
| | - Samira Mubareka
- Sunnybrook Research Institute, Toronto, ON M4N 3M5, Canada
- Department of Laboratory Medicine and Pathobiology, Temerty Faculty of Medicine, University of Toronto, Toronto, ON M5S 1A1, Canada
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7
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Gomez-Romero N, Basurto-Alcantara FJ, Velazquez-Salinas L. Assessing the Potential Role of Cats ( Felis catus) as Generators of Relevant SARS-CoV-2 Lineages during the Pandemic. Pathogens 2023; 12:1361. [PMID: 38003825 PMCID: PMC10675002 DOI: 10.3390/pathogens12111361] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/07/2023] [Revised: 11/09/2023] [Accepted: 11/14/2023] [Indexed: 11/26/2023] Open
Abstract
Several questions regarding the evolution of SARS-CoV-2 remain poorly elucidated. One of these questions is the possible evolutionary impact of SARS-CoV-2 after the infection in domestic animals. In this study, we aimed to evaluate the potential role of cats as generators of relevant SARS-CoV-2 lineages during the pandemic. A total of 105 full-length genome viral sequences obtained from naturally infected cats during the pandemic were evaluated by distinct evolutionary algorithms. Analyses were enhanced, including a set of highly related SARS-CoV-2 sequences recovered from human populations. Our results showed the apparent high susceptibility of cats to the infection SARS-CoV-2 compared with other animal species. Evolutionary analyses indicated that the phylogenomic characteristics displayed by cat populations were influenced by the dominance of specific SARS-CoV-2 genetic groups affecting human populations. However, disparate dN/dS rates at some genes between populations recovered from cats and humans suggested that infection in these two species may suggest a different evolutionary constraint for SARS-CoV-2. Interestingly, the branch selection analysis showed evidence of the potential role of natural selection in the emergence of five distinct cat lineages during the pandemic. Although these lineages were apparently irrelevant to public health during the pandemic, our results suggested that additional studies are needed to understand the role of other animal species in the evolution of SARS-CoV-2 during the pandemic.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ninnet Gomez-Romero
- Comisión México-Estados Unidos para la Prevención de Fiebre Aftosa y Otras Enfermedades Exóticas de los Animales, Carretera Mexico-Toluca Km 15.5 Piso 4 Col. Palo Alto, Cuajimalpa de Morelos, Mexico City 05110, Mexico;
- Departamento de Microbiología e Inmunología, Facultad de Medicina Veterinaria y Zootecnia, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Av. Universidad No. 3000 Col Copilco Universidad, Mexico City 14510, Mexico;
| | - Francisco Javier Basurto-Alcantara
- Departamento de Microbiología e Inmunología, Facultad de Medicina Veterinaria y Zootecnia, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Av. Universidad No. 3000 Col Copilco Universidad, Mexico City 14510, Mexico;
| | - Lauro Velazquez-Salinas
- Plum Island Animal Disease Center, Agricultural Research Service, United States Department of Agriculture, Greenport, NY 11944, USA
- National Bio and Agro-Defense Facility (NBAF), Agricultural Research Service, United States Department of Agriculture, Manhattan, KS 66502, USA
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McBride DS, Garushyants SK, Franks J, Magee AF, Overend SH, Huey D, Williams AM, Faith SA, Kandeil A, Trifkovic S, Miller L, Jeevan T, Patel A, Nolting JM, Tonkovich MJ, Genders JT, Montoney AJ, Kasnyik K, Linder TJ, Bevins SN, Lenoch JB, Chandler JC, DeLiberto TJ, Koonin EV, Suchard MA, Lemey P, Webby RJ, Nelson MI, Bowman AS. Accelerated evolution of SARS-CoV-2 in free-ranging white-tailed deer. Nat Commun 2023; 14:5105. [PMID: 37640694 PMCID: PMC10462754 DOI: 10.1038/s41467-023-40706-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/22/2023] [Accepted: 08/07/2023] [Indexed: 08/31/2023] Open
Abstract
The zoonotic origin of the COVID-19 pandemic virus highlights the need to fill the vast gaps in our knowledge of SARS-CoV-2 ecology and evolution in non-human hosts. Here, we detected that SARS-CoV-2 was introduced from humans into white-tailed deer more than 30 times in Ohio, USA during November 2021-March 2022. Subsequently, deer-to-deer transmission persisted for 2-8 months, disseminating across hundreds of kilometers. Newly developed Bayesian phylogenetic methods quantified how SARS-CoV-2 evolution is not only three-times faster in white-tailed deer compared to the rate observed in humans but also driven by different mutational biases and selection pressures. The long-term effect of this accelerated evolutionary rate remains to be seen as no critical phenotypic changes were observed in our animal models using white-tailed deer origin viruses. Still, SARS-CoV-2 has transmitted in white-tailed deer populations for a relatively short duration, and the risk of future changes may have serious consequences for humans and livestock.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dillon S McBride
- Department of Veterinary Preventive Medicine, The Ohio State University College of Veterinary Medicine, Columbus, OH, USA
| | - Sofya K Garushyants
- Division of Intramural Research, National Center for Biotechnology Information, National Library of Medicine, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD, USA
| | - John Franks
- Department of Infectious Diseases, St Jude Children's Research Hospital, Memphis, TN, USA
| | - Andrew F Magee
- Department of Human Genetics, David Geffen School of Medicine, University of California, Los Angeles, Los Angeles, CA, USA
| | - Steven H Overend
- Department of Veterinary Preventive Medicine, The Ohio State University College of Veterinary Medicine, Columbus, OH, USA
| | - Devra Huey
- Department of Veterinary Preventive Medicine, The Ohio State University College of Veterinary Medicine, Columbus, OH, USA
| | - Amanda M Williams
- Infectious Diseases Institute, The Ohio State University, Columbus, OH, USA
| | - Seth A Faith
- Infectious Diseases Institute, The Ohio State University, Columbus, OH, USA
| | - Ahmed Kandeil
- Department of Infectious Diseases, St Jude Children's Research Hospital, Memphis, TN, USA
- Center of Scientific Excellence for Influenza Viruses, National Research Centre, Giza, 12622, Egypt
| | - Sanja Trifkovic
- Department of Infectious Diseases, St Jude Children's Research Hospital, Memphis, TN, USA
| | - Lance Miller
- Department of Infectious Diseases, St Jude Children's Research Hospital, Memphis, TN, USA
| | - Trushar Jeevan
- Department of Infectious Diseases, St Jude Children's Research Hospital, Memphis, TN, USA
| | | | - Jacqueline M Nolting
- Department of Veterinary Preventive Medicine, The Ohio State University College of Veterinary Medicine, Columbus, OH, USA
| | | | - J Tyler Genders
- U.S. Department of Agriculture, Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service, Wildlife Services, Columbus, OH, USA
| | - Andrew J Montoney
- U.S. Department of Agriculture, Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service, Wildlife Services, Columbus, OH, USA
| | - Kevin Kasnyik
- Columbus and Franklin County Metro Parks, Westerville, OH, USA
| | - Timothy J Linder
- U.S. Department of Agriculture, Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service, Wildlife Services, National Wildlife Disease Program, Fort Collins, CO, USA
| | - Sarah N Bevins
- U.S. Department of Agriculture, Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service, Wildlife Services, National Wildlife Disease Program, Fort Collins, CO, USA
| | - Julianna B Lenoch
- U.S. Department of Agriculture, Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service, Wildlife Services, National Wildlife Disease Program, Fort Collins, CO, USA
| | - Jeffrey C Chandler
- U.S. Department of Agriculture, Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service, Wildlife Services, Wildlife Disease Diagnostic Laboratory, Fort Collins, CO, USA
| | - Thomas J DeLiberto
- U.S. Department of Agriculture, Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service, Wildlife Services, Fort Collins, CO, USA
| | - Eugene V Koonin
- Division of Intramural Research, National Center for Biotechnology Information, National Library of Medicine, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD, USA
| | - Marc A Suchard
- Department of Human Genetics, David Geffen School of Medicine, University of California, Los Angeles, Los Angeles, CA, USA
- Department of Biomathematics, David Geffen School of Medicine, University of California, Los Angeles, Los Angeles, CA, USA
- Department of Biostatistics, Fielding School of Public Health, University of California, Los Angeles, Los Angeles, CA, USA
| | - Philippe Lemey
- Department of Microbiology, Immunology and Transplantation, Rega Institute, KU Leuven, Leuven, Belgium
| | - Richard J Webby
- Department of Infectious Diseases, St Jude Children's Research Hospital, Memphis, TN, USA
| | - Martha I Nelson
- Division of Intramural Research, National Center for Biotechnology Information, National Library of Medicine, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD, USA.
| | - Andrew S Bowman
- Department of Veterinary Preventive Medicine, The Ohio State University College of Veterinary Medicine, Columbus, OH, USA.
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