Coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) outbreak: some serious consequences with urban and rural water cycle

Persistent pollution of genetic materials in a typical laboratory environment

From the onset of coronavirus disease (COVID-19) pandemic, there are concerns regarding the disease spread and environmental pollution of biohazard since studies on genetic engineering flourish and numerous genetic materials were used such as the nucleic acid test of the severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus (SARS-CoV-2). In this work, we studied genetic material pollution in an institute during a development cycle of plasmid, one of typical genetic materials, with typical laboratory settings. The pollution source, transmission routes, and pollution levels in laboratory environment were examined. The Real-Time quantitative- Polymerase Chain Reaction results of all environmental mediums (surface, aerosol, and liquid) showed that a targeted DNA segment occurred along with routine experimental operations. Among the 79 surface and air samples collected in the genetic material operation, half of the environment samples (38 of 79) are positive for nucleic acid pollution. Persistent nucleic acid contaminations were observed in all tested laboratories and spread in the public area (hallway). The highest concentration for liquid and surface samples were 1.92 × 108 copies/uL and 5.22 × 107 copies/cm2, respectively. Significant amounts of the targeted gene (with a mean value of 74 copies/L) were detected in the indoor air of laboratories utilizing centrifuge devices, shaking tables, and cell homogenizers. Spills and improper disposal of plasmid products were primary sources of pollution. The importance of establishing designated experimental zones, employing advanced biosafety cabinets, and implementing highly efficient cleaning systems in laboratories with lower biosafety levels is underscored. SYNOPSIS: STATEMENT. Persistent environmental pollutions of genetic materials are introduced by typical experiments in laboratories with low biosafety level.

Microbial community of municipal drinking water in Hangzhou using metagenomic sequencing

While traditional culture-dependent methods can effectively detect certain microorganisms, the comprehensive composition of the municipal drinking water (DW) microbiome, including bacteria, archaea, and viruses, remains unknown. Metagenomic sequencing has opened the door to accurately determine and analyze the entire microbial community of DW, providing a comprehensive understanding of DW species diversity, especially in the context of public health concerns during the COVID-19 era. In this study, we found that most of the culturable bacteria and some fecal indicator bacteria, such as Escherichia coli and Pseudomonas aeruginosa, were non-culturable using culture-dependent methods in all samples. However, metagenomic analysis showed that the predominant bacterial species in the DW samples belonged to the phyla Proteobacteria and Planctomycetes. Notably, the genus Methylobacterium was the most abundant in all water samples, followed by Sphingomonas, Gemmata, and Azospirilum. While low levels of virulence-associated factors, such as the Esx-5 type VII secretion system (T7SS) and DevR/S, were detected, only the erythromycin resistance gene erm(X), an rRNA methyltransferase, was identified at low abundance in one sample. Hosts corresponding to virulence and resistance genes were identified in some samples, including Mycobacterium spp. Archaeal DNA (Euryarchaeota, Crenarchaeota) was found in trace amounts in some DW samples. Viruses such as rotavirus, coxsackievirus, human enterovirus, and SARS-CoV-2 were negative in all DW samples using colloidal gold and real-time reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction (RT‒PCR) methods. However, DNA encoding a new order of reverse-transcribing viruses (Ortervirales) and Herpesvirales was found in some DW samples. The metabolic pathways of the entire microbial community involve cell‒cell communication and signal secretion, contributing to cooperation between different microbial populations in the water. This study provides insight into the microbial community and metabolic process of DW in Hangzhou, China, utilizing both culture-dependent methods and metagenomic sequencing combined with bioinformatics tools during the COVID-19 pandemic era.

Investigating and combatting the key drivers of viral zoonoses in Africa: an analysis of eight epidemics

Investigating the interplay of factors that result in a viral zoonotic outbreak is difficult, though it is increasingly important. As anthropogenic influences shift the delicate balance of ecosystems, new zoonoses emerge in humans. Sub-Saharan Africa is a notable hotspot for zoonotic disease due to abundant competent mammalian reservoir hosts. Furthermore, poverty, corruption, and an overreliance on natural resources play considerable roles in depleting biological resources, exacerbating the population's susceptibility. Unsurprisingly, viral zoonoses have emerged in Africa, including HIV/AIDS, Ebola, Avian influenza, Lassa fever, Zika, and Monkeypox. These diseases are among the principal causes of death in endemic areas. Though typically distinct in their manifestations, viral zoonoses are connected by underlying, definitive factors. This review summarises vital findings on viral zoonoses in Africa using nine notable case studies as a benchmark for future studies. We discuss the importance of ecological recuperation and protection as a central strategy to control zoonotic diseases. Emphasis was made on moderating key drivers of zoonotic diseases to forestall future pandemics. This is in conjunction with attempts to redirect efforts from reactive to pre-emptive through a multidisciplinary "one health" approach.

The influence of the Covid-19 pandemic and climate change on water use and supply: experience of Istanbul, Türkiye

The coronavirus (Covid-19) pandemic has affected not only populations around the world but also the environment and natural resources. Lockdowns and restricted lifestyles have had wide-ranging impacts on the environment (e.g., air quality in cities). Although hygiene and disinfection procedures and precautions are effective ways to protect people from Covid-19, they have significant consequences for water usage and resources especially given the increasing impacts of climate change on rainfall patterns, water use and resources. Climate change and public health issues may compound one another, and so we used a drivers, pressures, state, impact, response framework (not previously used to examine the actual and potential impacts of Covid-19 and climate change on water consumption and resources) to scope the main factors that may interact to affect water use and resources (in the form of reservoirs) using evidence from Istanbul, Türkiye, with some discussion of the comparative situation elsewhere. We modified initial views on the framework to account for the regional, city and community level experiences. We note that water consumption in Istanbul has been increasing over the last two decades (except in times of very low rainfall/drought); that there were increases in water consumption in the early stages of the Covid-19 pandemic; and, despite some increase in rainfall, water levels in reservoirs appeared to decrease during lockdowns (for a range of reasons). Through a new simple way of visualising the data, we also noted that a low resource capacity might be recurring every 6 or 7 years in Istanbul (a similar finding to Thames Reservoir in London). We made no attempt in this paper to quantify the relative contribution that climate change, population growth, etc., are making to water consumption and reservoir levels as we focused on looking at those social, environmental and economic factors that appear to play a role in potential water stress and on developing a drivers, pressures, state, impact, response framework for policy and adaptive management options for Istanbul and other large complex conurbations. If there are periodic water resource issues and temperatures rise as expected in climate projections with an accompanying increase in the duration of hot spells, the subsequent additional stress on water systems might make managing future public health emergencies, such as a pandemic, even more difficult.

A selectivity index for public-private partnership projects in the urban water and sanitation sector in Latin America and the caribbean

The rapid urban development, the Agenda 2030, the climate change adaptation and the COVID 19 crisis highlight the need to increase investment in public infrastructure and improve water supply and sanitation services. For this, an alternative to traditional public procurement is the participation of the private sector under the public-private partnership (PPP) model. The objective of this article is to develop a tool based on critical success factors (CSFs) that allows for evaluation during early stages of the convenience of developing a PPP project for W&S in urban areas of Latin America and the Caribbean. The index was developed based on literature review (779 variables), review of cases (20 variables) and expert opinion to assign them an estimated value of importance. The results were analysed by exploratory and confirmatory factor analysis, selecting 17 main variables grouped into 6 CSFs, the most relevant of which are Convenience, Certainty, Leadership, Attraction, Performance and Reliability. The application of this index allows an early assessment of the feasibility of a PPP project and/or the selection of the alternatives with the best chances of success. On the other hand, this study contributes to the international discussion on the most relevant elements related to the success of PPP in W&S projects.

Optimization of food-energy-water-waste nexus in a sustainable food supply chain under the COVID-19 pandemic: a case study in Iran

Abstract

During the coronavirus epidemic, food supply chains have been affected by disruptions of this epidemic. Having an overview and considering food-related factors such as energy, waste, and water make the design of the supply chain more effective. In this study, a multi-objective model for a sustainable food supply chain is presented based on the prevalence of coronavirus by considering the food-energy-water-waste nexus. There are dual-channel sales including online and in-person channels, which their demand functions depend on products price in every channel, as well as the prevalence of coronavirus in high-risk or low-risk areas. Distribution centers, located in high-risk regions, require the disinfection of products to minimize coronavirus spread. Indeed, the proposed mathematical model has three objective functions that the first objective maximizes the profit of the food supply under COVID-19 conditions. The other two objectives minimize not only the environmental impact of transportation, but also the delivery time. In order to solve this multi-objective model, the epsilon constraint method, as an efficient technique, is employed. To validate the proposed model, the model is finally implemented in a two-channel supply chain in Iran. The results show that the food supply chain has a close relationship with the energy-water-waste nexus COVID-19 and can also affect customers' behavior. Moreover, the model shows when the prevalence of COVID-19 increases, people tend to buy from online shops, affecting product prices that can change by nearly 50%.

Graphical abstract

Towards Effective, Sustainable Solution for Hospital Wastewater Treatment to Cope with the Post-Pandemic Era

Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus-2 (SARS-CoV-2) has spread across the globe since the end of 2019, posing significant challenges for global medical facilities and human health. Treatment of hospital wastewater is vitally important under this special circumstance. However, there is a shortage of studies on the sustainable wastewater treatment processes utilized by hospitals. Based on a review of the research trends regarding hospital wastewater treatment in the past three years of the COVID-19 outbreak, this review overviews the existing hospital wastewater treatment processes. It is clear that activated sludge processes (ASPs) and the use of membrane bioreactors (MBRs) are the major and effective treatment techniques applied to hospital wastewater. Advanced technology (such as Fenton oxidation, electrocoagulation, etc.) has also achieved good results, but the use of such technology remains small scale for the moment and poses some side effects, including increased cost. More interestingly, this review reveals the increased use of constructed wetlands (CWs) as an eco-solution for hospital wastewater treatment and then focuses in slightly more detail on examining the roles and mechanisms of CWs' components with respect to purifying hospital wastewater and compares their removal efficiency with other treatment processes. It is believed that a multi-stage CW system with various intensifications or CWs incorporated with other treatment processes constitute an effective, sustainable solution for hospital wastewater treatment in order to cope with the post-pandemic era.

Occurrence and transport of SARS-CoV-2 in wastewater streams and its detection and remediation by chemical-biological methods

This paper explains the transmission of SARS-CoV and influences of several environmental factors in the transmission process. The article highlighted several methods of collection, sampling and monitoring/estimation as well as surveillance tool for detecting SARS-CoV in wastewater streams. In this context, WBE (Wastewater based epidemiology) is found to be the most effective surveillance tool. Several methods of genomic sequencing are discussed in the paper, which are applied in WBE, like qPCR-based wastewater testing, metagenomics-based analysis, next generation sequencing etc. Additionally, several types of biosensors (colorimetric biosensor, mobile phone-based biosensors, and nanomaterials-based biosensors) showed promising results in sensing SARS-CoV in wastewater. Further, this review paper outlined the gaps in assessing the factors responsible for transmission and challenges in detection and monitoring along with the remediation and disinfection methods of this virus in wastewater. Various methods of disinfection of SARS-CoV-2 in wastewater are discussed (primary, secondary, and tertiary phases) and it is found that a suite of disinfection methods can be used for complete disinfection/removal of the virus. Application of ultraviolet light, ozone and chlorine-based disinfectants are also discussed in the context of treatment methods. This study calls for continuous efforts to gather more information about the virus through continuous monitoring and analyses and to address the existing gaps and identification of the most effective tool/ strategy to prevent SARS-CoV-2 transmission. Wastewater surveillance can be very useful in effective surveillance of future pandemics and epidemics caused by viruses, especially after development of new technologies in detecting and disinfecting viral pathogens more effectively.

Mega-scale desalination efficacy (Reverse Osmosis, Electrodialysis, Membrane Distillation, MED, MSF) during COVID-19: Evidence from salinity, pretreatment methods, temperature of operation

The unprecedented situation of the COVID-19 pandemic heavily polluted water bodies whereas the presence of SARS-CoV-2, even in treated wastewater in every corner of the world is reported. The main aim of the present study is to show the effectiveness and feasibility of some well-known desalination technologies which are reverse osmosis (RO), Electrodialysis (ED), Membrane Distillation (MD), multi effect distillation (MED), and multi stage flashing (MSF) during the COVID-19 pandemic. Systems' effectiveness against the novel coronavirus based on three parameters of nasopharynx/nasal saline-irrigation, temperature of operation and pretreatment methods are evaluated. First, based on previous clinical studies, it showed that using saline solution (hypertonic saline >0.9% concentration) for gargling/irrigating of nasal/nasopharynx/throat results in reducing and replication of the viral in patients, subsequently the feed water of desalination plants which has concentration higher than 3.5% (35000ppm) is preventive against the SARS-CoV-2 virus. Second, the temperature operation of thermally-driven desalination; MSF and MED (70-120°C) and MD (55-85°C) is high enough to inhibit the contamination of plant structure and viral survival in feed water. The third factor is utilizing various pretreatment process such as chlorination, filtration, thermal/precipitation softening, ultrafiltration (mostly for RO, but also for MD, MED and MSF), which are powerful treatment methods against biologically-contaminated feed water particularly the SARS-CoV-2. Eventually, it can be concluded that large-scale desalination plants during COVID-19 and similar situation are completely reliable for providing safe drinking water.

SARS-CoV-2 removal with a polyurethane foam composite

The pandemic of COVID-19 (SARS-CoV-2 disease) has been causing unprecedented health and economic impacts, alerting the world to the importance of basic sanitation and existing social inequalities. The risk of the spread and appearance of new diseases highlights the need for the removal of these pathogens through efficient techniques and materials. This study aimed to develop a polyurethane (PU) biofoam filled with dregs waste (leftover from the pulp and paper industry) for removal SARS-CoV-2 from the water. The biofoam was prepared by the free expansion method with the incorporation of 5wt% of dregs as a filler. For the removal assays, the all materials and its isolated phases were incubated for 24 h with an inactivated SARS-CoV-2 viral suspension. Then, the RNA was extracted and the viral load was quantified using the quantitative reverse transcription (RT-qPCR) technique. The biofoam (polyurethane/dregs) reached a great removal percentage of 91.55%, whereas the isolated dregs waste was 99.03%, commercial activated carbon was 99.64%, commercial activated carbon/polyurethane was 99.30%, and neat PU foam reached was 99.96% for this same property and without statistical difference. Those new materials endowed with low cost and high removal efficiency of SARS-CoV-2 as alternatives to conventional adsorbents.

COVID-19 and Water Variables: Review and Scientometric Analysis

COVID-19 has changed the world since 2020, and the field of water specifically, boosting scientific productivity (in terms of published articles). This paper focuses on the influence of COVID-19 on scientific productivity with respect to four water variables: (i) wastewater, (ii) renewable water resources, (iii) freshwater withdrawal, and (iv) access to improved and safe drinking water. The field's literature was firstly reviewed, and then the maps were built, emphasizing the strong connections between COVID-19 and water-related variables. A total of 94 countries with publications that assess COVID-19 vs. water were considered and evaluated for how they clustered. The final step of the research shows that, on average, scientific productivity on the water topic was mostly conducted in countries with lower COVID-19 infection rates but higher development levels as represented by gross domestic product (GDP) per capita and the human development index (HDI). According to the statistical analysis, the water-related variables are highly significant, with positive coefficients. This validates that countries with higher water-related values conducted more research on the relationship with COVID-19. Wastewater and freshwater withdrawal had the highest impact on the scientific productivity with respect to COVID-19. Access to safe drinking water becomes insignificant in the presence of the development parameters.

Environmental challenges of COVID-19 pandemic: resilience and sustainability - A review

The emergence of novel respiratory disease (COVID-19) caused by SARS-CoV-2 has become a public health emergency worldwide and perturbed the global economy and ecosystem services. Many studies have reported the presence of SARS-CoV-2 in different environmental compartments, its transmission via environmental routes, and potential environmental challenges posed by the COVID-19 pandemic. None of these studies have comprehensively reviewed the bidirectional relationship between the COVID-19 pandemic and the environment. For the first time, we explored the relationship between the environment and the SARS-CoV-2 virus/COVID-19 and how they affect each other. Supporting evidence presented here clearly demonstrates the presence of SARS-CoV-2 in soil and water, denoting the role of the environment in the COVID-19 transmission process. However, most studies fail to determine if the viral genomes they have discovered are infectious, which could be affected by the environmental factors in which they are found.The potential environmental impact of the pandemic, including water pollution, chemical contamination, increased generation of non-biodegradable waste, and single-use plastics have received the most attention. For the most part, efficient measures have been used to address the current environmental challenges from COVID-19, including using environmentally friendly disinfection technologies and employing measures to reduce the production of plastic wastes, such as the reuse and recycling of plastics. Developing sustainable solutions to counter the environmental challenges posed by the COVID-19 pandemic should be included in national preparedness strategies. In conclusion, combating the pandemic and accomplishing public health goals should be balanced with environmentally sustainable measures, as the two are closely intertwined.

Is the virus-laden standing water change the transmission intensity of SARS-CoV-2 after precipitation? A framework for empirical studies

Understanding the relationship between precipitation and SARS-CoV-2 is significant for combating COVID-19 in the wet season. However, the causes for the variation of SARS-CoV-2 transmission intensity after precipitation is unclear. Starting from "the Zhengzhou event," we found that the virus-laden standing water formed after precipitation might trigger some additional routes for SARS-CoV-2 transmission and thus change the transmission intensity of SARS-CoV-2. Then, we developed an interdisciplinary framework to examine whether the health risk related to the virus-laden standing water needs to be a concern. The framework enables the comparison of the instant and lag effects of precipitation on the transmission intensity of SARS-CoV-2 between city clusters with different formation risks of the virus-laden standing water. Based on the city-level data of China between January 01, 2020, and December 31, 2021, we conducted an empirical study. The result showed that in the cities with a high formation risk of the virus-laden standing water, heavy rain increased the instant transmission intensity of SARS-CoV-2 by 6.2% (95%CI: 4.85-10.2%), while in the other cities, precipitation was uninfluential to SARS-CoV-2 transmission, revealing that the health risk of the virus-laden standing water should not be underestimated during the COVID-19 pandemic. To reduce the relevant risk, virus-laden water control and proper disinfection are feasible response strategies.

Importance of wastewater-based epidemiology for detecting and monitoring SARS-CoV-2

Coronavirus disease caused by the SARS-CoV-2 virus has emerged as a global challenge in terms of health and disease monitoring. COVID-19 infection is mainly spread through the SARS-CoV-2 infection leading to the development of mild to severe clinical manifestations. The virus binds to its cognate receptor ACE2 which is widely expressed among different tissues in the body. Notably, SARS-CoV-2 shedding in the fecal samples has been reported through the screening of sewage water across various countries. Wastewater screening for the presence of SARS-CoV-2 provides an alternative method to monitor infection threat, variant identification, and clinical evaluation to restrict the virus progression. Multiple cohort studies have reported the application of wastewater treatment approaches and epidemiological significance in terms of virus monitoring. Thus, the manuscript outlines consolidated and systematic information regarding the application of wastewater-based epidemiology in terms of monitoring and managing a viral disease outbreak like COVID-19.

Treatment of hospital wastewater by electron beam technology: Removal of COD, pathogenic bacteria and viruses

The effective treatment of hospital sewage is crucial to human health and eco-environment, especially during the pandemic of COVID-19. In this study, a demonstration project of actual hospital sewage using electron beam technology was established as advanced treatment process during the outbreak of COVID-19 pandemic in Hubei, China in July 2020. The results indicated that electron beam radiation could effectively remove COD, pathogenic bacteria and viruses in hospital sewage. The continuous monitoring date showed that the effluent COD concentration after electron beam treatment was stably below 30 mg/L, and the concentration of fecal Escherichia coli was below 50 MPN/L, when the absorbed dose was 4 kGy. Electron beam radiation was also an effective method for inactivating viruses. Compared to the inactivation of fecal Escherichia coli, higher absorbed dose was required for the inactivation of virus. Absorbed dose had different effect on the removal of virus. When the absorbed dose ranged from 30 to 50 kGy, Hepatitis A virus (HAV) and Astrovirus (ASV) could be completely removed by electron beam treatment. For Rotavirus (RV) and Enterovirus (EV) virus, the removal efficiency firstly increased and then decreased. The maximum removal efficiency of RV and EV was 98.90% and 88.49%, respectively. For the Norovirus (NVLII) virus, the maximum removal efficiency was 81.58%. This study firstly reported the performance of electron beam in the removal of COD, fecal Escherichia coli and virus in the actual hospital sewage, which would provide useful information for the application of electron beam technology in the treatment of hospital sewage.

Endurance of COVID 19 in wastewater, natural prescription and antiviral medication for the analysis of COVID 19 and its effects on the development of new antiseptic strategies

The continuous worldwide pandemic of COVID-19 brought about by severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) has been a public health emergency of international concern, which was formally announced by the World Health Organization (WHO). The antivirals utilized to restrict the spread of virus and the procedures for the recognition of SARS-COV-2 in wastewater has been reviewed. A main tool Wastewater-based epidemiology (WBE) played a notable role in tracking the spread of corona virus in large community. This review signifies the upgraded clinical impacts and components of Traditional Chinese Medicine (TCM), the function of various antiviral drugs against COVID 19 and the role of human covid to exist in the habitat and the viability countered; with specific spotlight on the advancement of latest strategies to assess the action of latest antiseptic-disinfectants on infections.

An overview and thematic analysis of research on cities and the COVID-19 pandemic: Toward just, resilient, and sustainable urban planning and design

Since early 2020, researchers have made efforts to study various issues related to cities and the pandemic. Despite the wealth of research on this topic, there are only a few review articles that explore multiple issues related to it. This is partly because of the rapid pace of publications that makes systematic literature review challenging. To address this issue, in the present study, we rely on bibliometric analysis techniques to gain an overview of the knowledge structure and map key themes and trends of research on cities and the pandemic. Results of the analysis of 2,799 articles show that research mainly focuses on six broad themes: air quality, meteorological factors, built environment factors, transportation, socio-economic disparities, and smart cities, with the first three being dominant. Based on the findings, we discuss major lessons that can be learned from the pandemic and highlight key areas that need further research.

Investigating SARS-CoV-2 RNA in five municipal wastewater treatment plants, hospital wastewater and wastewater collection networks during the COVID-19 pandemic in Ardabil Province, Iran

Since 2019, the outbreak of coronavirus with acute respiratory symptoms has caused an epidemic worldwide. Transmission of the disease through respiratory droplets was announced as the main mode of transmission in 2020. But in this study, we discussed the method of indirect transmission of the virus through sewage. In this study, effluents related to urban and hospital wastewater treatment plants in 5 regions of Ardabil Province (northwest of Iran) were investigated. In this research, 120 samples were kept in pre-test conditions (temperature -20 degrees Celsius). To identify the viral genome, special primer and chain reaction probe targeting ORF1ab and N (nucleoprotein gene) genes were used. Out of a total of 120 samples, a total of 3 samples were positive. Wastewater epidemiology (WBE) can be considered as a cost-effective method in the diagnosis and prediction of pathogenic agents. And be considered an effective method for decision-making in order to protect the health of citizens.

Global occurrence of SARS-CoV-2 in environmental aquatic matrices and its implications for sanitation and vulnerabilities in Brazil and developing countries

This paper includes a systematic review of the SARS-CoV-2 occurrence in environmental aquatic matrices and a critical sanitation analysis. We discussed the interconnection of sanitation services (wastewater, water supply, solid waste, and stormwater drainage) functioning as an important network for controlling the spread of SARS-CoV-2 in waters. We collected 98 studies containing data of the SARS-CoV-2 occurrence in aquatic matrices around the world, of which 40% were from developing countries. Alongside a significant number of people infected by the virus, developing countries face socioeconomic deficiencies and insufficient public investment in infrastructure. Therefore, our study focused on highlighting solutions to provide sanitation in developing countries, considering the virus control in waters by disinfection techniques and sanitary measures, including alternatives for the vulnerable communities. The need for multilateral efforts to improve the universal coverage of sanitation services demands urgent attention in a pandemic scenario.

Investigating the Potential Effects of COVID-19 Pandemic on Intestinal Coccidian Infections

New infectious agents pose a global threat to the healthcare system, and studies are conducted to estimate their health and epidemiological outcomes in the long run. The SARS-CoV-2 virus, which has caused the COVID-19 disease, was formerly assumed to be a respiratory virus; however, it can have serious systemic effects, affecting organs such as the gastrointestinal tract (GIT). Viral RNA was reported in the stool in a subset of patients, indicating another mode of transmission and diagnosis. In COVID-19, prolonged GIT symptoms, especially diarrhea, were associated with reduced diversity and richness of gut microbiota, immunological dysregulation, and delayed viral clearance. Intestinal coccidian parasites are intracellular protozoa that are most typically transmitted to humans by oocysts found in fecally contaminated food and water. Their epidemiological relevance is coupled to opportunistic infections, which cause high morbidity and mortality among immunocompromised individuals. Among immunocompetent people, intestinal coccidia is also involved in acute diarrhea, which is usually self-limiting. Evaluating the available evidence provided an opportunity to carefully consider that; the COVID-19 virus and coccidian protozoan parasites: namely, Cryptosporidium spp., Cyclospora cayetanensis, and Isospora belli, could mutually influence each other from the microbiological, clinical, diagnostic, and elimination aspects. We further systemically highlighted the possible shared pathogenesis mechanisms, transmission routes, clinical manifestations, parasite-driven immune regulation, and intestinal microbiota alteration. Finally, we showed how this might impact developing and developed countries prevention and vaccination strategies. To the best of our knowledge, there is no review that has discussed the reciprocal effect between coccidian parasites and COVID-19 coinfection.

A Methodological Approach to Water Concentration to Investigate the Presence of SARS-CoV-2 RNA in Surface Freshwaters

During the COVID-19 public health emergency, an increasing number of studies reported the occurrence of SARS-CoV-2 in wastewaters worldwide, but little is known about the presence of the virus in surface freshwaters. The aim of the current study was to develop and validate an appropriate and scalable methodological approach for the concentration and detection of SARS-CoV-2 from surface freshwater samples, collected within the Milan rural network subjected to flood spillways activity. Overall, both surface water and distilled water samples spiked with inactivated SARS-CoV-2 were used to validate the concentration method for pathogens determination. Two pre-filtration systems, filter paper and Sartolab® P20 (Sartorius, Germany) and two concentration methods, two-phase (PEG-dextran method) separation and tangential flow ultrafiltration (UF), were compared. The effects of pre-filtration and concentration on viral nucleic acid recovery were assessed through real time RT-PCR targeting SARS-CoV-2 and the internal viral control PMMoV (Pepper Mild Mottle Virus). Our results showed that UF is more sensitive than the PEG-dextran method in viral acid nucleic recovery from surface water samples. Better results were obtained pre-filtering samples with Sartolab® P20 and extracting the nucleic acids with undiluted silica, rather than diluted as required by the standard protocol. The proposed method will be used for the monitoring of surface waters in the Milan area.

A Review of the Presence of SARS-CoV-2 in Wastewater: Transmission Risks in Mexico

The appearance of SARS-CoV-2 represented a new health threat to humanity and affected millions of people; the transmission of this virus occurs through different routes, and one of them recently under debate in the international community is its possible incorporation and spread by sewage. Therefore, the present work's research objectives are to review the presence of SARS-CoV-2 in wastewater throughout the world and to analyze the coverage of wastewater treatment in Mexico to determine if there is a correlation between the positive cases of COVID-19 and the percentages of treated wastewater in Mexico as well as to investigate the evidence of possible transmission by aerosol sand untreated wastewater. Methodologically, a quick search of scientific literature was performed to identify evidence the presence of SARS-CoV-2 RNA (ribonucleic acid) in wastewater in four international databases. The statistical information of the positive cases of COVID-19 was obtained from data from the Health Secretary of the Mexican Government and the Johns Hopkins Coronavirus Resource Center. The information from the wastewater treatment plants in Mexico was obtained from official information of the National Water Commission of Mexico. The results showed sufficient evidence that SARS-CoV-2 remains alive in municipal wastewater in Mexico. Our analysis indicates that there is a low but significant correlation between the percentage of treated water and positive cases of coronavirus r = -0.385, with IC (95%) = (-0.647, -0.042) and p = 0.030; this result should be taken with caution because wastewater is not a transmission mechanism, but this finding is useful to highlight the need to increase the percentage of treated wastewater and to do it efficiently. In conclusions, the virus is present in untreated wastewater, and the early detection of SAR-CoV-2 could serve as a bioindicator method of the presence of the virus. This could be of great help to establish surveillance measures by zones to take preventive actions, which to date have not been considered by the Mexican health authorities. Unfortunately, wastewater treatment systems in Mexico are very fragile, and coverage is limited to urban areas and non-existent in rural areas. Furthermore, although the probability of contagion is relatively low, it can be a risk for wastewater treatment plant workers and people who are close to them.

The Built Environment Assessment of Residential Areas in Wuhan during the Coronavirus Disease (COVID-19) Outbreak

The COVID-19 epidemic has emerged as one of the biggest challenges, and the world is focused on preventing and controlling COVID-19. Although there is still insufficient understanding of how environmental conditions may impact the COVID-19 pandemic, airborne transmission is regarded as an important environmental factor that influences the spread of COVID-19. The natural ventilation potential (NVP) is critical for airborne infection control in the micro-built environment, where infectious and susceptible people share air spaces. Taking Wuhan as the research area, we evaluated the NVP in residential areas to combat COVID-19 during the outbreak. We determined four fundamental residential area layouts (point layout, parallel layout, center-around layout, and mixed layout) based on the semantic similarity model for point of interest (POI) picking. Our analyses indicated that the center-around and point layout had a higher NVP, while the mixed and parallel layouts had a lower NVP in winter and spring. Further analysis showed that the proportion of the worst NVP has been rising, while the proportion of the poor NVP remains very high in Wuhan. This study suggested the need to efficiently improve the residential area layout in Wuhan for better urban ventilation to combat COVID-19 without losing other benefits.

Water Transmission Increases the Intensity of COVID-19 Outbreaks

India suffered from a devastating 2021 spring outbreak of coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19), surpassing any other outbreaks before. However, the reason for the acceleration of the outbreak in India is still unknown. We describe the statistical characteristics of infected patients from the first case in India to June 2021, and trace the causes of the two outbreaks in a complete way, combined with data on natural disasters, environmental pollution and population movements etc. We found that water-to-human transmission accelerates COVID-19 spreading. The transmission rate is 382% higher than the human-to-human transmission rate during the 2020 summer outbreak in India. When syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) enters the human body directly through the water-oral transmission pathway, virus particles and nitrogen salt in the water accelerate viral infection and mutation rates in the gastrointestinal tract. Based on the results of the attribution analysis, without the current effective interventions, India could have experienced a third outbreak during the monsoon season this year, which would have increased the severity of the disaster and led to a South Asian economic crisis.

Photoelectrocatalytic inactivation mechanism of E. coli DH5α (TET) and synergistic degradation of corresponding antibiotics in water

The occurrence and proliferation of antibiotic-resistance genes (ARGs) / antibiotic-resistant bacteria (ARB) have been currently aggravating due to the increase of antibiotic residues in the aquatic environment. The interaction of ARB/ARGs with antibiotics inevitably occurred during water purification, yet their synergistic purification mechanism remains unclear. Herein, a systematic approach was developed to understand, in-depth, the synergistic mechanism in the coexisted E. coli DH5α (TET) inactivation and tetracycline hydrochloride (TET) degradation using photoelectrocatalysis (PEC) as a model technology. Results showed that low dosage (0 - 40 ppm) of TET exerted a negative influence on ARB inactivation with prolonged bactericidal time from 60 to 160 min. Addition of TET in environmental concentration (5 - 60 ppm) resulted in sub-lethal damage and prolonged PEC treatment time (100 - 160 min), accounting for inhibition effects on ARB inactivation. The major reactive species (RSs) involved in ARB inactivation and TET degradation were evidenced as photogenerated hole, ^•OH and O₂^•-, whereas hole and O₂^•- were demonstrated to be the major disinfectants for ARB/ARG inactivation. The bacterial defense system displayed increased antioxidative activities of superoxide dismutase (SOD) and glutathione peroxidase (GSH-Px) to protect ARB cells against oxidative stress. Exposure to 60 ppm TET was a threshold where certain ARB cells were induced into viable but nonculturable bacterial cell (VBNC) state, as evidenced by plate counting and ATP activity analysis, together with the integral cell membranes observed by flow cytometry (FCM) and scanning electron microscope (SEM). These findings appeal for appropriate technical adjustments for water and wastewater treatment to ensure safety of water.

Water Quality and Water Pollution in Time of COVID-19: Positive and Negative Repercussions

On 11 March 2020, the World Health Organization declared the new COVID-19 disease a pandemic. Most countries responded with a lockdown to reduce its effects, which brought beneficial consequences to the environment in many regions, but the pandemic also raised a series of challenges. This review proposes an assessment of the COVID-19 pandemic positive and negative impacts on water bodies on different continents. By applying a search protocol on the Web of Science platform, a scientific bank of 35 compatible studies was obtained out of the 62 open-access articles that were initially accessible. Regarding the positive impacts, the SARS-CoV-2 monitoring in sewage waters is a useful mechanism in the promptly exposure of community infections and, during the pandemic, many water bodies all over the world had lower pollution levels. The negative impacts are as follows: SARS-CoV-2 presence in untreated sewage water amplifies the risk to human health; there is a lack of adequate elimination processes of plastics, drugs, and biological pollution in wastewater treatment plants; the amount of municipal and medical waste that pollutes water bodies increased; and waste recycling decreased. Urgent preventive measures need to be taken to implement effective solutions for water protection.

Impact of COVID-19 pandemic on aircraft noise levels, annoyance, and health effects in an urban area in Oman

This study aimed at investigating aircraft noise exposure levels, their annoyance, and potential health effects among communities living within airport catchment areas during the COVID-19 pandemic. Both field measurements and an online survey approach were used to investigate aircraft noise exposure levels, annoyance, and general health effects among residents living near Muscat International Airport (MCT) in Muscat, Oman, amid the COVID-19 period. The study found a drastic decline in aircraft noise levels due to the introduction of COVID-19 intervention measures such as lockdowns, social distancing, and closure of airports. In June 2020, during the COVID-19 pandemic, average daily aircraft noise levels of LAeq (39.9 dB(A)) and Lmax (49.7 dB(A)) was observed compared to the previous year (April-May 2019) of 58.5 and 76.8 dB(A), indicating aircraft noise reductions level of 32% and 35%, respectively. The results of the online social survey among 187 participants showed that most (58.8%) of the respondents did not feel that the level of noise produced by aircraft causes annoyance. During the day, the vast majority of the interviewees did not complain of any annoyance during the morning (45.5%), afternoon (39.6%), and evening (31%) with only < 4% of residents have reported a very high degree of annoyance of during COVID-19 pandemic period. Very few people (17%) did complain of experiencing general health problems while 29% did not know of any potential health effects that could be attributed to aircraft noise exposures. Aircraft noise annoyance complaints among the As-Seeb residents during the pre-COVID-19 pandemic periods were reported to be extremely high reaching about 84% compared to 41% during this current COVID-19 pandemic period. These findings support the need to develop future sustainable noise mitigation policies in order to help reduce noise exposures and improve human health during post-COVID-19 pandemic periods.

Insight into prognostics, diagnostics, and management strategies for SARS CoV-2

The foremost challenge in countering infectious diseases is the shortage of effective therapeutics. The emergence of coronavirus disease (COVID-19) outbreak has posed a great menace to the public health system globally, prompting unprecedented endeavors to contain the virus. Many countries have organized research programs for therapeutics and management development. However, the longstanding process has forced authorities to implement widespread infrastructures for detailed prognostic and diagnostics study of severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS CoV-2). This review discussed nearly all the globally developed diagnostic methodologies reported for SARS CoV-2 detection. We have highlighted in detail the approaches for evaluating COVID-19 biomarkers along with the most employed nucleic acid- and protein-based detection methodologies and the causes of their severe downfall and rejection. As the variable variants of SARS CoV-2 came into the picture, we captured the breadth of newly integrated digital sensing prototypes comprised of plasmonic and field-effect transistor-based sensors along with commercially available food and drug administration (FDA) approved detection kits. However, more efforts are required to exploit the available resources to manufacture cheap and robust diagnostic methodologies. Likewise, the visualization and characterization tools along with the current challenges associated with waste-water surveillance, food security, contact tracing, and their role during this intense period of the pandemic have also been discussed. We expect that the integrated data will be supportive and aid in the evaluation of sensing technologies not only in current but also future pandemics.

Water, Sanitation and Hygiene in Schools in Low- and Middle-Income Countries: A Systematic Review and Implications for the COVID-19 Pandemic

The global COVID-19 pandemic has revealed the extent to which schools are struggling with the provision of safe drinking water, sanitation and hygiene (WASH). To describe the WASH conditions in schools and discuss the implications for the safe reopening of schools during the ongoing COVID-19 pandemic, a systematic review of peer-reviewed literature on WASH in schools in low- and middle-income countries was performed. In April 2021, five databases, including MEDLINE (via PubMed), Web of Science, Scopus, AJOL, and LILACS, were used to identify studies. Sixty-five papers met the inclusion criteria. We extracted and analyzed data considering the Joint Monitoring Programme (JMP) definitions and the normative contents of Human Rights to safe drinking water and sanitation. Publications included in this systematic review considered 18,465 schools, across 30 different countries. Results indicate a lack of adequate WASH conditions and menstrual hygiene management requirements in all countries. The largely insufficient and inadequate school infrastructure hampers students to practice healthy hygiene habits and handwashing in particular. In the context of the COVID-19 pandemic, being hindered to implement such a key strategy to contain the spread of SARS-CoV-2 in the school environment is of major concern.

Review and Meta‐Analysis: SARS‐CoV‐2 and Enveloped Virus Detection in Feces and Wastewater

Detection and quantification of viruses supplies key information on their spread and allows risk assessment for public health. In wastewater, existing detection methods have been focusing on non‐enveloped enteric viruses due to enveloped virus transmission, such as coronaviruses, by the fecal‐oral route being less likely. Since the beginning of the SARS‐CoV‐2 pandemic, interest and importance of enveloped virus detection in wastewater has increased. Here, quantitative studies on SARS‐CoV‐2 occurrence in feces and raw wastewater and other enveloped viruses via quantitative real‐time reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction (RT‐qPCR) during the early stage of the pandemic until April 2021 are reviewed, including statistical evaluation of the positive detection rate and efficiency throughout the detection process involving concentration, extraction, and amplification stages. Optimized and aligned sampling protocols and concentration methods for enveloped viruses, along with SARS‐CoV‐2 surrogates, in wastewater environments may improve low and variable recovery rates providing increased detection efficiency and comparable data on viral load measured across different studies.

Ecological Barrier Deterioration Driven by Human Activities Poses Fatal Threats to Public Health due to Emerging Infectious Diseases

The coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) and concerns about several other pandemics in the 21st century have attracted extensive global attention. These emerging infectious diseases threaten global public health and raise urgent studies on unraveling the underlying mechanisms of their transmission from animals to humans. Although numerous works have intensively discussed the cross-species and endemic barriers to the occurrence and spread of emerging infectious diseases, both types of barriers play synergistic roles in wildlife habitats. Thus far, there is still a lack of a complete understanding of viral diffusion, migration, and transmission in ecosystems from a macro perspective. In this review, we conceptualize the ecological barrier that represents the combined effects of cross-species and endemic barriers for either the natural or intermediate hosts of viruses. We comprehensively discuss the key influential factors affecting the ecological barrier against viral transmission from virus hosts in their natural habitats into human society, including transmission routes, contact probability, contact frequency, and viral characteristics. Considering the significant impacts of human activities and global industrialization on the strength of the ecological barrier, ecological barrier deterioration driven by human activities is critically analyzed for potential mechanisms. Global climate change can trigger and expand the range of emerging infectious diseases, and human disturbances promote higher contact frequency and greater transmission possibility. In addition, globalization drives more transmission routes and produces new high-risk regions in city areas. This review aims to provide a new concept for and comprehensive evidence of the ecological barrier blocking the transmission and spread of emerging infectious diseases. It also offers new insights into potential strategies to protect the ecological barrier and reduce the wide-ranging risks of emerging infectious diseases to public health.

Mapping and Visualizing Global Knowledge on Intermittent Water Supply Systems

Intermittent water supply systems (IWSSs) are prevalent in most developing countries and some developed ones. Their usage is driven by necessity rather than as a principal objective, mostly due to technical and economic deficiencies. Major health risks and socio-economic inequities are associated with such systems. Their impacts are aggravated by climate changes and the COVID-19 crisis. These are likely to have profound implications on progress toward advancing sustainable development goals (SDGs). Motivated by providing a comprehensive overview of global knowledge on IWSSs, the present work proposed to track and analyze research works on IWSSs utilizing bibliometric techniques and visual mapping tools. This includes investigating the trends and growth trajectories of research works on IWSSs and analyzing the various approaches proposed to expand our understanding with respect to the management, modeling, optimization, and impacts of IWSSs. The national and international contributions and collaboration figures are further analyzed at country, institution, author, and source levels. This analysis indicates that research works conducted on IWSSs have certain expectations in terms of productivity (total global productivity; 197 documents). The United States was the best country in terms of productivity (58 documents; 29.4%), while the Water Switzerland journal was the most productive journal (19 documents; 9.6%). The impacts of IWSSs on health and well-being have attracted considerable attention. The outcomes showed deep and justified worries in relation to the transition from intermittent to continuous supply, equity, and mitigating the health risks associated with IWSSs in the foreseen future. The utilization of artificial intelligence techniques and expert systems will drive and shape future IWSS-related research activities. Therefore, investments in this regard are crucial.

Water and wastewater digital surveillance for monitoring and early detection of the COVID-19 hotspot: industry 4.0

There are a high number of COVID-19 cases per capita in the world that goes undetected including clinical diseases compatible with COVID-19. While the presence of the COVID-19 in untreated drinking water is possible, it is yet to be detected in the drinking-water supplies. COVID-19 viral fragments have been found in excrete, this call for wastewater monitoring and analysis (wastewater surveillance) of the potential health risk. This raises concern about the potential of the SARS-CoV-2 transmission via the water systems. The economic limits on the medical screening for the SARS-CoV-2 or COVID-19 worldwide are turning to wastewater-based epidemiology as great potential tools for assessing and management of the COVID-19 pandemic. Surveillance and tracking of the pathogens in the wastewater are key to the early warning system and public health strategy monitoring of the COVID-19. Currently, RT-qPCR assays is been developed for SARS-CoV-2 RNA specimen clinical testing and detection in the water system. Convectional wastewater treatment methods and disinfection are expected to eradicate the SAR-CoV-2. Chlorine, UV radiation, ozone, chloramine is been used to inactivate and disinfect the water treatment system against the SARS-CoV-2. Water management and design of the water infrastructure require major changes to accommodate climate change, water cycle, reimaging of digitalization, infrastructure and privacy protection. The water digital revolution, biosensors and nanoscale, contact tracing, knowledge management can accelerate with disruption of the COVID-19 outbreak (water-health-digital nexus).

Transmission risk of SARS-CoV-2 in the watershed triggered by domestic wastewater discharge

The outbreak of COVID-19, caused by severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2), has already become an unprecedented global pandemic. However, the transmission of SARS-CoV-2, especially the protected SARS-CoV-2 RNA (pRNA) with infectious particles in waterways, is still largely unexplored. In this study, we developed a model to estimate SARS-CoV-2 transmission from the risk source in the excretion of patients to the final exposure in surface water. The model simulated the spatial and temporal distribution of the viral pRNA concentrations in the surface water of the Elbe watershed from March 2020 to January 2021. The results show that the WWTPs with the maximum capacity of >10,000 population equivalents were responsible for 95% of the viral load discharged into the surface water. We estimated the pRNA concentrations in surface water to be 1.33 × 10-2 copies·L-1 on average in the watershed based on the model simulation on viral transmission. It had considerable variations in spatial and temporal scales, which are dominantly controlled by epidemic situations and virus transport with decay in water, respectively. A quantitative microbial risk assessment was conducted to estimate the viral infection probability from surface water ingestion with consideration of the influence of toilet usage frequency and gender/age population groups. All the infection probabilities in the study period were lower than the reference risk levels of 10-4 and 10-5. The individuals aged 15-34 years had the highest infection probability of 4.86 × 10-9 on average from surface water ingestion during swimming activities. The data provided herein suggest that the low pRNA concentrations and infection probability reflected that the waterways were unlikely to be a significant transmission route for SARS-CoV-2.

Viral outbreaks detection and surveillance using wastewater-based epidemiology, viral air sampling, and machine learning techniques: A comprehensive review and outlook

A viral outbreak is a global challenge that affects public health and safety. The coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) has been spreading globally, affecting millions of people worldwide, and led to significant loss of lives and deterioration of the global economy. The current adverse effects caused by the COVID-19 pandemic demands finding new detection methods for future viral outbreaks. The environment's transmission pathways include and are not limited to air, surface water, and wastewater environments. The wastewater surveillance, known as wastewater-based epidemiology (WBE), can potentially monitor viral outbreaks and provide a complementary clinical testing method. Another investigated outbreak surveillance technique that has not been yet implemented in a sufficient number of studies is the surveillance of Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome Coronavirus-2 (SARS-CoV-2) in the air. Artificial intelligence (AI) and its related machine learning (ML) and deep learning (DL) technologies are currently emerging techniques for detecting viral outbreaks using global data. To date, there are no reports that illustrate the potential of using WBE with AI to detect viral outbreaks. This study investigates the transmission pathways of SARS-CoV-2 in the environment and provides current updates on the surveillance of viral outbreaks using WBE, viral air sampling, and AI. It also proposes a novel framework based on an ensemble of ML and DL algorithms to provide a beneficial supportive tool for decision-makers. The framework exploits available data from reliable sources to discover meaningful insights and knowledge that allows researchers and practitioners to build efficient methods and protocols that accurately monitor and detect viral outbreaks. The proposed framework could provide early detection of viruses, forecast risk maps and vulnerable areas, and estimate the number of infected citizens.

An Overview of Antiviral Properties of Bacteriophages with Emphasis on the Treatment of COVID-19 Infection

Bacteriophages or phages are the most abundant organisms in the biosphere. Scientists considered phages an appropriate tool for understanding molecular biology, horizontal gene transfer vectors, stimulants of bacterial evolution, a source of diagnostic and genetic tools, and new therapeutic agents. Therefore, studying the biology of phages and their interactions with their hosts is crucial to gaining a deeper knowledge of biological systems. Numerous studies confirmed that bacteriophages are a genetic tool with high potential for treating infectious diseases, including bacterial, fungal, and viral infections. Therefore, phages may be used as an appropriate therapeutic target against some viruses, such as COVID-19 infection. In this study, we describe the role of phages in modulating the host immune system, the production of specific antibodies against the COVID-19 virus by the host immune system, and the minimization of damage caused by the COVID-19 virus to the host. Also, the present study expresses our understanding of the prospect of phage therapy as an adjunctive therapy.

Indirect effects of Covid-19 on water quality

The provision of safe water and functioning waste management play key roles in preventing and combatting disease outbreaks such as the Covid-19 pandemic. Good water quality is needed for effective hygiene measures like washing hands as well as for lowering pathogen transmission. Almost all over the world, especially in developing countries, water is vulnerable and at high risk and surging insecurity with time. Effective water management, sanitation, and hygiene help to protect lives during the global COVID-19 pandemic. While sanitation and hygiene also disturb the quality and increase water consumption per capita to 40% comparatively and wastewater production in many developing countries. This rapid increase in water consumption puts direct pressure on water reservoirs and inadequate management of wastewater is also a serious threat to waterways, nowadays. Similarly, the quality of water bodies is significantly affected by the COVID-19 pandemic, but the risk of transmission of COVID-19 through sewerage systems is recorded as low. Hence, the current review paper aims to highlight the main concerns directly linked with the frequent usage of detergents/soaps and alcohol-based hand sanitizers on water quality and the post-pandemic handwashing habits to overcome the COVID-19 spread also threatening the water reserve reservoirs via water high consumption along with more wastewater production with less water reuse efficiency and collectively the pressure on drinking water facilities. This review also focuses on the indirect influence of COVID-19 on water quality through technical interventions among COVID-19, water pollution; soaps/detergents, and hand sanitizer and the complete water management plan for water security and safety from policymakers to end users after the viral revolution briefly.

Transmission of SARS-CoV-2 Indoor and Outdoor Environments

Since the outbreak in late December 2019, the coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic has spread across the globe, causing great damage to human life and property. A lot of researchers around the world have devoted themselves to the study of its origin, pathogenic mechanism, and transmission route, and this article gives a summary. First, both humans and animals can act as the host of coronavirus. In indoor environments, the virus may exist in aerosols, droplets, saliva, etc., from the nose and mouth connected to the respiratory system, as well as feces, urine, etc., from the digestive and urinary systems. In addition, other substances, such as breast milk, eye feces, and blood, released from the host can carry viruses. The virus transmitted indoors is affected by indoor machinery, natural forces, and human activities, and spreads in different distances. Second, the virus spreads outdoors through three kinds of media: solid, liquid, and gas, and is affected by their survival time, the temperature, and humidity in the environment.

SARS-CoV-2 in a stream running through an underprivileged, underserved, urban settlement in São Paulo, Brazil: A 7-month follow-up

COVID-19 pandemic has led to concerns on the circulation of SARS-CoV-2 in the environment, its infectivity from the environment and, the relevance of transmission via environmental compartments. During 31 weeks, water samples were collected from a heavily contaminated stream going through an urban, underprivileged community without sewage collection. Our results showed a statistically significant correlation between cases of COVID-19 and SARS in the community, and SARS-CoV-2 concentrations in the water. Based on the model, if the concentrations of SARS-CoV-RNA (N1 and N2 target regions) increase 10 times, there is an expected increase of 104% [95%CI: (62-157%)] and 92% [95%CI: (51-143%)], respectively, in the number of cases of COVID-19 and SARS. We believe that differences in concentration of the virus in the environment reflect the epidemiological status in the community, which may be important information for surveillance and controlling dissemination in areas with vulnerable populations and poor sanitation. None of the samples were found infectious based cultures. Our results may be applicable globally as similar communities exist worldwide.

Assessment of the Impact of COVID-19 on Operations of Local Businesses and Level of Enforcement of Public Health Safety Measure within Business Premises: A Quantitative Study of Businesses in Huye-Rwanda

The impact of COVID-19 has been felt across all sectors, from transportation, education, and public works to the daily operations of businesses like selling, retailing, and so forth. The business sector is among those badly affected, especially micro, small, and medium enterprises. The understanding of ground prevailing conditions is key in driving informed policies that would have meaningful impact on society with regard to overcoming the effects of the virus. Hence, this work is an attempt to report the real ground statistics and necessity of technological support with the goal of submitting a report of recommended policies to the concerned authorities. In this direction, this work presents the outcome of a survey conducted to assess the impact of COVID-19 on operations of micro, small, and medium enterprises and also to find out the interventions put in place around business environments so as to enforce adherence to COVID-19 health safety measures. The survey was part of a study to develop automated IoT-powered technological solutions that would help to enforce proper mask wearing in indoor environments and also observance of social distance requirements within business premises. A customized questionnaire was designed to capture data on various aspects central to the focus of the study. The study was carried out in the month of May 2021, in the Huye district of Rwanda. According to the survey findings, the major challenges faced by businesses due to COVID-19 include failure by clients to settle bills, reduced ability to expand investment, difficulty in accessing inputs domestically, lower domestic sales to consumers, and lower domestic sales to businesses. The results also reveal some positive points that most businesses were found to have: hand washing points, hand sanitizer dispensers, and mechanisms to enforce social distance between customer and customer and also customer and front desk worker. In a nutshell, this work is unique in terms of (1) the customized questionnaire about Rwanda’s needs, (2) field visit-based data collection for accurate data, and (3) including an assessment of the importance of technological intervention for better handling of public safety, especially in the MSME business sector.

A Global Overview of SARS-CoV-2 in Wastewater: Detection, Treatment, and Prevention

A novel coronavirus (SARS-CoV-2) causing corona virus disease 2019 (COVID-19) has attracted global attention due to its highly infectious and pathogenic properties. Most of current studies focus on aerosols released from infected individuals, but the presence of SARS-CoV-2 in wastewater also should be examined. In this review, we used bibliometrics to statistically evaluate the importance of water-related issues in the context of COVID-19. The results show that the levels and transmission possibilities of SARS-CoV-2 in wastewater are the main concerns, followed by potential secondary pollution by the intensive use of disinfectants, sludge disposal, and the personal safety of workers. The presence of SARS-CoV-2 in wastewater requires more attention during the COVID-19 pandemic. Thus, the most effective techniques, i.e., wastewater-based epidemiology and quantitative microbial risk assessment, for virus surveillance in wastewater are systematically analyzed. We further explicitly review and analyze the successful operation of a sewage treatment plant in Huoshenshan Hospital in China as an example and reference for other sewage treatment systems to properly ensure discharge safety and tackle the COVID-19 pandemic. This review offers deeper insight into the prevention and control of SARS-CoV-2 and similar viruses in the post-COVID-19 era from a wastewater perspective.

The impact of coronavirus SARS-CoV-2 (COVID-19) in water: potential risks

This review summarizes research data on SARS-CoV-2 in water environments. A literature survey was conducted using the electronic databases Science Direct, Scopus, and Springer. This complete research included and discussed relevant studies that involve the (1) introduction, (2) definition and features of coronavirus, (2.1) structure and classification, (3) effects on public health, (4) transmission, (5) detection methods, (6) impact of COVID-19 on the water sector (drinking water, cycle water, surface water, wastewater), (6.5) wastewater treatment, and (7) future trends. The results show contamination of clean water sources, and community drinking water is vulnerable. Additionally, there is evidence that sputum, feces, and urine contain SARS-CoV-2, which can maintain its viability in sewage and the urban-rural water cycle to move towards seawater or freshwater; thus, the risk associated with contracting COVID-19 from contact with untreated water or inadequately treated wastewater is high. Moreover, viral loads have been detected in surface water, although the risk is lower for countries that efficiently treat their wastewater. Further investigation is immediately required to determine the persistence and mobility of SARS-CoV-2 in polluted water and sewage as well as the possible potential of disease transmission via drinking water. Conventional wastewater treatment systems have been shown to be effective in removing the virus, which plays an important role in pandemic control. Monitoring of this virus in water is extremely important as it can provide information on the prevalence and distribution of the COVID-19 pandemic in different communities as well as possible infection dynamics to prevent future outbreaks.

Environmental rethinking of wastewater drains to manage environmental pollution and alleviate water scarcity

The conservation of water resources in developed countries has become an increasing concern. In integrated water resource management, water quality indicators are critical. The low groundwater quality quantitates mainly attributed to the absence of protection systems for polluted streams that collect and recycle the untreated wastewater. Egypt has a limited river network; thus, the supply of water resources remains inadequate to satisfy domestic demand. In this regard, high-quality groundwater is one of the main strategies for saving water supplies with water shortage problems. This paper investigates the critical issues of groundwater protection and environmental management of polluted streams, leading to overcoming water demand-about 18 × 10³ km of polluted open streams with a discharge of 9.70 billion Cubic Metter (BCM). We have proposed proposals and policies for the safe use of groundwater and reuse of wastewater recycling for agriculture and other purposes. This study was carried out using the numerical model MODFLOW and MT3DMS-(Mass Transport 3-Dimension Multi-Species) to assess the Wastewater Treated Plant's (WWTP) best location and the critical path for using different lining materials of polluted streams to avoid groundwater contamination. The three contaminants are BOD, COD, and TDS. Five scenarios were applied for mitigating the impact of polluted water: (1) abstraction forcing, (2) installing the WWTP at the outlet of the main basin drain with and without a lining of main and sub-basin streams (base case), (3) lining of main and sub-main streams, (4) installing WWTP at the outlet of the sub-basin streams, and (5) lining of the sub-basin and installing WWTP at the outlet of the sub-basin. The results showed that the best location of WWTP in polluted streams is developed at the outlets of sub-basin with the treatment of main basin water and the lining of sub-basins streams. The contamination was reduced by 76.07, 76.38, and 75.67% for BOD, COD, and TDS, respectively, using Cascade Aeration Biofilter or Trickling Filter, Enhancing Solar water Disinfection [(CABFESD)/(CATFESD)] and High-Density Polyethylene lining. This method is highly effective and safe for groundwater and surface water environmental protection. This study could be managing the water poverty for polluted streams and groundwater in the Global South and satisfy the environmental issues to improve water quality and reduce the treatment and health cost in these regions.

COVID-19 and environment: a poignant reminder of sustainability in the new normal

The nexus of COVID-19 and environment is conspicuously deep-rooted. The roles of environmental factors in the origin, transmission and spread of COVID-19 and the mutual impact of the pandemic on the global environment have been the two perspectives to view this nexus. The present paper attempts to systematically review the existing literature to understand and explore the linkages of COVID-19 with environment and proposes conceptual frameworks to underline this nexus. Our study indicates a critical role of meteorological factors, ambient air pollutants and wastewater in severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2(SARS-CoV-2) transmission-spread dynamics. The study also focuses on the direct and indirect impacts of COVID-19 on the regional and global environment. Most of the indirect environmental effects of COVID-19 were attributed to global human confinement that resulted from the implementation of the pandemic containment measures. This worldwide anthropogenic 'pause' sent ripples to all environmental compartments and presented a unique test bed to identify anthropogenic impacts on the earth's natural systems. The review further addresses emerging sustainability challenges in the new normal and their potential solutions. The situation warrants critical attention to the environment-COVID-19 nexus and innovative sustainable practices to address the ramifications of short- and long-term environmental impacts of the COVID-19 pandemic.

Graphical abstract

Reliability of thermal desalination (solar stills) for water/wastewater treatment in light of COVID-19 (novel coronavirus "SARS-CoV-2") pandemic: What should consider?

The COVID-19 pandemic disturbed the world from the beginning of 2020. The high excessive number of patients and the presence of the SARS-CoV-2 in human excreta and urine even after the infected person's respiratory tests were negative, results in a heavy load of viral in various water bodies and mostly untreated wastewaters. In the present study, the reliability of using small-scale solar thermal desalination systems (solar stills) during a situation like the COVID-19 pandemic is discussed. Pollution of water bodies through the SARS-CoV-2 via numerous routes increases the risk of contaminating the feed water and subsequently the whole structure of solar stills. Since the transmission of pathogens (particle size: 0.5-3 μm) via droplets of water in solar still is reported before, transmitting of SARS-CoV-2 via droplets of water which multiple times smaller (particle size: 60-140 nm) than those pathogens is a concern. The most important issue which must be highlighted is that solar stills worked at low-temperature while the viability and survival of the SARS-CoV-2 in various water matrices in the temperature range (4-37 °C) for several days is reported. In this regard, using solar stills during the COVID-19 pandemic need further consideration by all researchers and people around the world.

Monitoring the presence and persistence of SARS-CoV-2 in water-food-environmental compartments: State of the knowledge and research needs

The recent spread of severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus (SAR-CoV-2) and the accompanied coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) has continued ceaselessly despite the implementations of popular measures, which include social distancing and outdoor face masking as recommended by the World Health Organization. Due to the unstable nature of the virus, leading to the emergence of new variants that are claimed to be more and rapidly transmissible, there is a need for further consideration of the alternative potential pathways of the virus transmissions to provide the needed and effective control measures. This review aims to address this important issue by examining the transmission pathways of SARS-CoV-2 via indirect contacts such as fomites and aerosols, extending to water, food, and other environmental compartments. This is essentially required to shed more light regarding the speculation of the virus spread through these media as the available information regarding this is fragmented in the literature. The existing state of the information on the presence and persistence of SARS-CoV-2 in water-food-environmental compartments is essential for cause-and-effect relationships of human interactions and environmental samples to safeguard the possible transmission and associated risks through these media. Furthermore, the integration of effective remedial measures previously used to tackle the viral outbreaks and pandemics, and the development of new sustainable measures targeting at monitoring and curbing the spread of SARS-CoV-2 were emphasized. This study concluded that alternative transmission pathways via human interactions with environmental samples should not be ignored due to the evolving of more infectious and transmissible SARS-CoV-2 variants.

Concise Update on Genomics of COVID-19: Approach to Its latest Mutations, Escalated Contagiousness, and Vaccine Resistance

The novel coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) that started to invade the world from the Chinese fish market, causes an acute respiratory distress syndrome. COVID-19 is a dreadful infectious disease that surfaced only less than 8 months ago and caused the deadly COVID-19 pandemic. In this new species with a positive, single-strand RNA genome and a huge size, from the proteomics point view, there are no changes in sequences of amino acids in NSP7, 13, matrix, or envelope or other proteins including 8b and p6 and excluding NSP2 and NSP3. P6 is a multifunctional golgi-endoplasmic reticulum membrane-associated protein. This complex has a key duty to increase the replication rate of the virus and also causes intrinsic immune system responses by suppressing the signal transducer and activator of transcription factor 1 (STAT 1) translocated to the nucleus. Palmitoylated proteins elevate hydrophobicity which helps in membrane connection. Inside the N-linked glycosylation, moieties oligosaccharide is adhering to Asn-X-Ser/Thr canonical sequence. This helps for exact enfolding and carrying viral proteins by industriously using host's chaperon proteins including calreticulin and calnexin. 2B proteins encourage the internalization of major histocompatibility complex, class-I (MHC-I) protein and meanwhile inhibit their transfer to the surface of the cell as a recognition side. The deubiquitination of severe acute respiratory syndrome-coronavirus-2 (SARS-CoV-2) has precise modification apparatus in the posttranslational stage. In this article, we outlined the recent and up-to-date data on genomic and molecular structures, epidemiology, vaccine development, and, last but not least, the clinical features, diagnostics, and treatment of the novel coronavirus.

COVID-19 Reveals Vulnerabilities of the Food-Energy-Water Nexus to Viral Pandemics

Food, energy, and water (FEW) sectors are inextricably linked, making one sector vulnerable to disruptions in another. Interactions between FEW systems, viral pandemics, and human health have not been widely studied. We mined scientific and news/media articles for causal relations among FEW and COVID-19 variables and qualitatively characterized system dynamics. Food systems promoted the emergence and spread of COVID-19, leading to illness and death. Major supply-side breakdowns were avoided (likely due to low morbidity/mortality among working-age people). However, COVID-19 and physical distancing disrupted labor and capital inputs and stressed supply chains, while creating economic insecurity among the already vulnerable poor. This led to demand-side FEW insecurities, in turn increasing susceptibility to COVID-19 among people with many comorbidities. COVID-19 revealed trade-offs such as allocation of water to hygiene versus to food production and disease burden avoided by physical distancing versus disease burden from increased FEW insecurities. News/media articles suggest great public interest in FEW insecurities triggered by COVID-19 interventions among individuals with low COVID-19 case-fatality rates. There is virtually no quantitative analysis of any of these trade-offs or feedbacks. Enhanced quantitative FEW and health models are urgently needed as future pandemics are likely and may have greater morbidity and mortality than COVID-19.