A general strategy towards personalized nanovaccines based on fluoropolymers for post-surgical cancer immunotherapy

Galloyl-boosted gold nanorods: Unleashing personalized cancer immunotherapy potential

Cancer immunotherapy has emerged as a potent treatment strategy by harnessing the host immune system to target cancer cells. However, challenges including low tumor vaccine immunogenicity and tumor heterogeneity hinder its clinical efficacy. To address these issues, we propose a novel nanoplatform integrating photothermal material gold nanorods (GNRs) with polyphenols for enhanced immunotherapy efficacy via photothermal therapy. Polyphenols, natural compounds with phenolic hydroxyl groups, are known for their ability to bind tightly to various molecules, making them ideal for antigen capture. We synthesized GNRs modified with polyphenols (GNR-PA and GNR-GA) and demonstrated their ability to induce immunogenic cell death upon laser irradiation, releasing tumor-associated antigens (TAAs). The surface polyphenols on GNRs effectively captured released TAAs to shield them from clearance. In vivo studies confirmed increased accumulation of GNR-GA in lymph nodes and enhanced dendritic cell maturation, leading to promoted effector T cell infiltration into tumors. Furthermore, treatment combined with PD-1/PD-L1 pathway blockade demonstrated potent tumor regression and systemic immunotherapy efficacy. Our findings highlight the potential of this photothermal nanoplatform as a promising strategy to overcome the limitations of current cancer immunotherapy approaches and improve therapeutic outcomes.

Fluoroamphiphiles for enhancing immune response of subunit vaccine against SARS-CoV-2

In recent decades, protein-based therapy has garnered valid attention for treating infectious diseases, genetic disorders, cancer, and other clinical requirements. However, preserving protein-based drugs against degradation and denaturation during processing, storage, and delivery poses a formidable challenge. Herein, we designed a novel fluoroamphiphiles polymer to deliver protein. Two different formulations of nanoparticles, cross-linked (CNP) and micelle (MNP) polymer, were prepared rationally by disulfide cross-linked and thin-film hydration techniques, respectively. The size, zeta potential, and morphology of both formulations were characterized and the delivery efficacy of both in vitro and in vivo was also assessed. The in vitro findings demonstrated that both formulations effectively facilitated protein delivery into various cell lines. Moreover, in vivo experiments revealed that intramuscular administration of the two formulations loaded with a SARS-CoV-2 recombinant receptor-binding domain (RBD) vaccine induced robust antibody responses in mice without adding another adjuvant. These results highlight the potential use of our carrier system as a safe and effective platform for the in vivo delivery of subunit vaccines.

Brain targeted polymeric micelles as drug carriers for ischaemic stroke treatment

Ischaemic stroke is a central nervous system disease with high morbidity, recurrence and mortality rates. Thrombolytic and neuroprotective therapies are the main therapeutic strategies for ischaemic stroke, however, the poor delivery efficiency of thrombolytic and neuroprotective drugs to the brain limits their clinical application. So far, the development of nanomedicine has brought opportunities for the above challenges, which can not only realise the effective accumulation of drugs in the target site, but also improve the pharmacokinetic behaviour of the drugs. Among the most rapidly developing nanoparticles, micelles gradually emerging as an effective strategy for ischaemic stroke treatment due to their own unique advantages. This review provided an overview of targeted and response-release micelles based on the physicochemical properties of the ischaemic stroke microenvironment, summarised the targeting strategies for delivering micellar formulations to the thrombus, blood-brain barrier, and brain parenchyma, and finally described the potentials and challenges of polymeric micelles in the treatment of ischaemic stroke.

Unlocking Intracellular Protein Delivery by Harnessing Polymersomes Synthesized at Microliter Volumes using Photo-PISA

Efficient delivery of therapeutic proteins and vaccine antigens to intracellular targets is challenging due to generally poor cell membrane permeation and endolysosomal entrapment causing degradation. Herein, these challenges are addressed by developing an oxygen-tolerant photoinitiated polymerization-induced self-assembly (Photo-PISA) process, allowing for the microliter-scale (10 µL) synthesis of protein-loaded polymersomes directly in 1536-well plates. High-resolution techniques capable of analysis at a single particle level are employed to analyze protein encapsulation and release mechanisms. Using confocal microscopy and super-resolution stochastic optical reconstruction microscopy (STORM) imaging, their ability to deliver proteins into the cytosol following endosomal escape is subsequently visualized. Lastly, the adaptability of these polymersomes is exploited to encapsulate and deliver a prototype vaccine antigen, demonstrating its ability to activate antigen-presenting cells and support antigen cross-presentation for applications in subunit vaccines and cancer immunotherapy. This combination of ultralow volume synthesis and efficient intracellular delivery holds significant promise for unlocking the high throughput screening of a broad range of otherwise cost-prohibitive or early-stage therapeutic protein and vaccine antigen candidates that can be difficult to obtain in large quantities. The versatility of this platform for rapid screening of intracellular protein delivery can result in significant advancements across the fields of nanomedicine and biomedical engineering.

Nanotechnology Applications in Breast Cancer Immunotherapy

Next-generation cancer treatments are expected not only to target cancer cells but also to simultaneously train immune cells to combat cancer while modulating the immune-suppressive environment of tumors and hosts to ensure a robust and lasting response. Achieving this requires carriers that can codeliver multiple therapeutics to the right cancer and/or immune cells while ensuring patient safety. Nanotechnology holds great potential for addressing these challenges. This article highlights the recent advances in nanoimmunotherapeutic development, with a focus on breast cancer. While immune checkpoint inhibitors (ICIs) have achieved remarkable success and lead to cures in some cancers, their response rate in breast cancer is low. The poor response rate in solid tumors is often associated with the low infiltration of anti-cancer T cells and an immunosuppressive tumor microenvironment (TME). To enhance anti-cancer T-cell responses, nanoparticles are employed to deliver ICIs, bispecific antibodies, cytokines, and agents that induce immunogenic cancer cell death (ICD). Additionally, nanoparticles are used to manipulate various components of the TME, such as immunosuppressive myeloid cells, macrophages, dendritic cells, and fibroblasts to improve T-cell activities. Finally, this article discusses the outlook, challenges, and future directions of nanoimmunotherapeutics.

A General Strategy toward Self-assembled Nanovaccine Based on Cationic Lentinan to Induce Potent Humoral and Cellular Immune Responses

Adjuvants play a critical role in the induction of effective immune responses by vaccines. Here, a self-assembling nanovaccine platform that integrates adjuvant functions into the delivery vehicle is prepared. Cationic Lentinan (CLNT) is mixed with ovalbumin (OVA) to obtain a self-assembling nanovaccine (CLNTO nanovaccine), which induces the uptake and maturation of bone marrow dendritic cells (BMDCs) via the toll-like receptors 2/4 (TLR2/4) to produce effective antigen cross-presentation. CLNTO nanovaccines target lymph nodes (LNs) and induce a robust OVA-specific immune response via TLR and tumor necrosis factor (TNF) signaling pathways, retinoic acid-inducible gene I (RIG-I) receptor, and cytokine-cytokine receptor interactions. In addition, CLNTO nanovaccines are found that promote the activation of follicular helper T (Tfh) cells and induce the differentiation of germinal center (GC) B cells into memory B cells and plasma cells, thereby enhancing the immune response. Vaccination with CLNTO nanovaccine significantly inhibits the growth of ovalbumin (OVA)-expressing B16 melanoma cell (B16-OVA) tumors, indicating its great potential for cancer immunotherapy. Therefore, this study presents a simple, safe, and effective self-assembling nanovaccine that induces helper T cell 1 (Th1) and helper T cell (Th2) immune responses, making it an effective vaccine delivery system.

A Biomimetic Autophagosomes-Based Nanovaccine Boosts Anticancer Immunity

Personalized cancer vaccines based on tumor cell lysates offer promise for cancer immunotherapy yet fail to elicit a robust therapeutic effect due to the weak immunogenicity of tumor antigens. Autophagosomes, obtained from pleural effusions and ascites of cancer patients, have been identified as abundant reservoirs of tumor neoantigens that exhibit heightened immunogenicity. However, their potential as personalized cancer vaccines have been constrained by suboptimal lymphatic-targeting performances and challenges in antigen-presenting cell endocytosis. Here,a reinforced biomimetic autophagosome-based (BAPs) nanovaccine generated by precisely amalgamating autophagosome-derived neoantigens and two types of adjuvants capable of targeting lymph nodes is developed to potently elicit antitumor immunity. The redox-responsive BAPs facilitate cytosolic vaccine opening within antigen-presenting cells, thereby exposing adjuvants and antigens to stimulate a strong immune response. BAPs evoke broad-spectrum T-cell responses, culminating in the effective eradication of 71.4% of established tumors. Notably, BAPs vaccination triggers enduring T-cell responses that confer robust protection, with 100% of mice shielded against tumor rechallenge and a significant reduction in tumor incidence by 87.5%. Furthermore, BAPs synergize with checkpoint blockade therapy to inhibit tumor growth in the poorly immunogenic breast cancer model. The biomimetic approach presents a powerful nanovaccine formula with high versatility for personalized cancer immunotherapy.

A Metal-Phenolic Network-Enabled Nanoadjuvant to Modulate Immune Responses

The presence of hierarchical suppressive pathways in the immune system combined with poor delivery efficiencies of adjuvants and antigens to antigen-presenting cells are major challenges in developing advanced vaccines. The present study reports a nanoadjuvant constructed using aluminosilicate nanoparticles (as particle templates), incorporating cytosine-phosphate-guanosine (CpG) oligonucleotides and small-interfering RNA (siRNA) to counteract immune suppression in antigen-presenting cells. Furthermore, the application of a metal-phenolic network (MPN) coating, which can endow the nanoparticles with protective and bioadhesive properties, is assessed with regard to the stability and immune function of the resulting nanoadjuvant in vitro and in vivo. Combining the adjuvanticity of aluminum and CpG with RNA interference and MPN coating results in a nanoadjuvant that exhibits greater accumulation in lymph nodes and elicits improved maturation of dendritic cells in comparison to a formulation without siRNA or MPN, and with no observable organ toxicity. The incorporation of a model antigen, ovalbumin, within the MPN coating demonstrates the capacity of MPNs to load functional biomolecules as well as the ability of the nanoadjuvant to trigger enhanced antigen-specific responses. The present template-assisted fabrication strategy for engineering nanoadjuvants holds promise in the design of delivery systems for disease prevention, as well as therapeutics.

Special Issue: Nanotherapeutics in Women's Health Emerging Nanotechnologies for Triple-Negative Breast Cancer Treatment

Breast cancer appears as the major cause of cancer-related deaths in women, with more than 2 260 000 cases reported worldwide in 2020, resulting in 684 996 deaths. Triple-negative breast cancer (TNBC), characterized by the absence of estrogen, progesterone, and human epidermal growth factor type 2 receptors, represents ≈20% of all breast cancers. TNBC has a highly aggressive clinical course and is more prevalent in younger women. The standard therapy for advanced TNBC is chemotherapy, but responses are often short-lived, with high rate of relapse. The lack of therapeutic targets and the limited therapeutic options confer to individuals suffering from TNBC the poorest prognosis among breast cancer patients, remaining a major clinical challenge. In recent years, advances in cancer nanomedicine provided innovative therapeutic options, as nanoformulations play an important role in overcoming the shortcomings left by conventional therapies: payload degradation and its low solubility, stability, and circulating half-life, and difficulties regarding biodistribution due to physiological and biological barriers. In this integrative review, the recent advances in the nanomedicine field for TNBC treatment, including the novel nanoparticle-, exosome-, and hybrid-based therapeutic formulations are summarized and their drawbacks and challenges are discussed for future clinical applications.

Recent progress in cancer vaccines and nanovaccines

Vaccine science, nanotechnology, and immunotherapy are at the forefront of cancer treatment strategies, each offering significant potential for enhancing tumor-specific immunity and establishing long-lasting immune memory to prevent tumor recurrence. Despite the promise of these personalized and precision-based anti-cancer approaches, challenges such as immunosuppression, suboptimal immune activation, and T-cell exhaustion continue to hinder their effectiveness. The limited clinical success of cancer vaccines often stems from difficulties in identifying effective antigens, efficiently targeting immune cells, lymphoid organs, and the tumor microenvironment, overcoming immune evasion, enhancing immunogenicity, and avoiding lysosomal degradation. However, numerous studies have demonstrated that integrating nanotechnology with immunotherapeutic strategies in vaccine development can overcome these challenges, leading to potent antitumor immune responses and significant progress in the field. This review highlights the critical components of cancer vaccine and nanovaccine strategies for immunomodulatory antitumor therapy. It covers general vaccine strategies, types of vaccines, antigen forms, nanovaccine platforms, challenges faced, potential solutions, and key findings from preclinical and clinical studies, along with future perspectives. To fully unlock the potential of cancer vaccines and nanovaccines, precise immunological monitoring during early-phase trials is essential. This approach will help identify and address obstacles, ultimately expanding the available options for patients who are resistant to conventional cancer immunotherapies.

Glucosylated Nanovaccines for Dendritic Cell-Targeted Antigen Delivery and Amplified Cancer Immunotherapy

Engineering nanovaccines capable of targeting dendritic cells (DCs) is desperately required to maximize antigen cross-presentation to effector immune cells, elicit strong immune responses, and avoid adverse reactions. Here, we showed that glucose transporter 1 (Glut-1) on DCs is a reliable target for delivering antigens to DCs, and thus, a versatile antigen delivery strategy using glucosylated nanovaccines was developed for DC-targeted antigen delivery and tumor immunotherapy. The developed glucosylated ovalbumin-loaded nanovaccines highly accumulated in lymph nodes and efficiently engaged with Glut-1 on DCs to accelerate intracellular antigen delivery and promote DC maturation and antigen presentation, which elicited potent antitumor immunity to prevent and inhibit ovalbumin-expressing melanoma. Moreover, immunotherapeutic experiments in DC- and macrophage-depleted animal models confirmed that the glucosylated nanovaccines functioned mainly through DCs. In addition, the neoantigen-delivering glucosylated nanovaccines were further engineered to elicit tumor-specific immune responses against MC38 tumors. This study offers a DC-targeted antigen delivery strategy for cancer immunotherapy.

Recombinant ferritin-based nanoparticles as neoantigen carriers significantly inhibit tumor growth and metastasis

BACKGROUND

Tumor neoantigen peptide-based vaccines, systemic immunotherapies that enhance antitumor immunity by activating and expanding antigen-specific T cells, have achieved remarkable results in the treatment of a variety of solid tumors. However, how to effectively deliver neoantigens to induce robust antitumor immune responses remains a major obstacle.

RESULTS

Here, we developed a safe and effective neoantigen peptide delivery system (neoantigen-ferritin nanoparticles, neoantigen-FNs) that successfully achieved effective lymph node targeting and induced robust antitumor immune responses. The genetically engineered self-assembled particles neoantigen-FNs with a size of 12 nm were obtained by fusing a neoantigen with optimized ferritin, which rapidly drainage to and continuously accumulate in lymph nodes. The neoantigen-FNs vaccine induced a greater quantity and quality of antigen-specific CD8+ T cells and resulted in significant growth control of multiple tumors, dramatic inhibition of melanoma metastasis and regression of established tumors. In addition, no obvious toxic side effects were detected in the various models, indicating the high safety of optimized ferritin as a vaccine carrier.

CONCLUSIONS

Homogeneous and safe neoantigen-FNs could be a very promising system for neoantigen peptide delivery because of their ability to efficiently drainage to lymph nodes and induce efficient antitumor immune responses.

DC-derived whole cell cytokine nano-regulator for remodelling extracellular matrix and synergizing tumor immunotherapy

A smart dendritic cell (DC)-derived whole cell cytokine (DWC) nano-regulator of TCPs was developed for tumor cytokine-immunotherapy. The DWCs were purified from activated DC-cultured media and applied as a nano-dosage form. It was found that TCPs could remodel extracellular matrices via the elimination of fibronectin and type I collagen (Col-I) in tumor tissues, as well as the inhibition of α-SMA expression in cancer associated fibroblasts (CAFs). Furthermore, after local TCP treatment, significant tumor inhibition could be achieved combined with radiotherapy.

Nanoplatform Based Intranasal Vaccines: Current Progress and Clinical Challenges

Multiple vaccine platforms have been employed to develop the nasal SARS-CoV-2 vaccines in preclinical studies, and the dominating pipelines are viral vectored as protein-based vaccines. Among them, several viral vectored-based vaccines have entered clinical development. Nevertheless, some unsatisfactory results were reported in these clinical studies. In the face of such urgent situations, it is imperative to rapidly develop the next-generation intranasal COVID-19 vaccine utilizing other technologies. Nanobased intranasal vaccines have emerged as an approach against respiratory infectious diseases. Harnessing the power of nanotechnology, these vaccines offer a noninvasive yet potent defense against pathogens, including the threat of COVID-19. The improvements made in vaccine mucosal delivery technologies based on nanoparticles, such as lipid nanoparticles, polymeric nanoparticles, inorganic nanoparticles etc., not only provide stability and controlled release but also enhance mucosal adhesion, effectively overcoming the limitations of conventional vaccines. Hence, in this review, we overview the evaluation of intranasal vaccine and highlight the current barriers. Next, the modern delivery systems based on nanoplatforms are summarized. The challenges in clinical application of nanoplatform based intranasal vaccine are finally discussed.

Mannosylated Fluoropolypeptide Nanovaccines Remodeling Tumor Immunosuppressive Microenvironment to Achieve Highly Potent Cancer Immunotherapy

It is challenging for nanovaccines (NVs) to effectively deliver antigens/neoantigens to prime specifically potent immunities and remodel immunosuppressive tumor microenvironment (TME) for combating immune "cold" cancers. Herein, a novel kind of mannosylated fluoropolypeptide NVs of MFPCOFG (i.e., mannosylated fluoropoly(D,L-cysteine) ovalbumin-loaded Fe2+-gallic acid) is designed that synergistically integrates triple antigen-metal-thermoimmunity to remodel immunosuppressive TME and achieve highly potent immunities. MFPCOFG plus near-infrared irradiation (NIR) effectively facilitated antigen uptake and escape, induced the maturation and antigen cross-presentations of dendritic cells and macrophages, polarized anti-inflammatory macrophage phenotype M2 into tumoricial M1, primed potent CD4+/CD8+T cells responses, proinflammatory cytokines secretion and immune memory effects, showcasing triple antigen-metal-thermoimmunity outperforming combo/mono-immunity. Importantly, both MFPCOFG + NIR and personalized NVs can remarkably enhance the tumor infiltration of CD4+/CD8+T and NK cells to boost potent immunities and long-lasting memory effects, reduce regulatory T (Tregs) and M2 to remodel immunosuppressive TME in B16-OVA and 4T1 models, achieving superior tumor prevention, ablation, and tumor relapse and metastasis inhibition, as further orchestrated with anti-PD-1. Consequently, this work opens up a new avenue to design biocompatible polypeptide nanovaccines with potent immune-priming and TME-remodeling capabilities, holding great potentials to combat immune "cold" cancers with clinic-used anti-PD-1 for cancer immunotherapy and personalized immunotherapy.

Counterion Exchange Enhances the Brightness and Photostability of a Fluorous Cyanine Dye

Fluorofluorophores are a unique class of fluorophores that can be solubilized in perfluorocarbons (PFCs) and used to study biological systems. However, because of the low dielectric constant and high oxygen solubility in the fluorous phase, the brightness and photostability of the fluorofluorophores are significantly diminished. Here, we leveraged the tight ion pairing in the fluorous phase to improve the photophysical properties of a fluorous soluble pentamethine dye (FCy5) via counterion exchange. We found that larger, softer, fluorinated, aryl borate counterions promote the ideal polymethine state where charge delocalization across the polymethine chain increases the brightness (6-fold) and photostability (55-fold) of FCy5.

Hypoxia-accelerating pyroptosis nanoinducers for promoting image-guided cancer immunotherapy

Precise image-guided cancer immunotherapy holds immense potential in revolutionizing cancer treatment. The strategies facilitating activatable imaging and controlled therapeutics are highly desired yet to be developed. Herein, we report a new pyroptosis nanoinducer that integrates aggregation-induced emission luminogen (AIEgen) and DNA methyltransferase inhibitor with hypoxia-responsive covalent organic frameworks (COFs) for advanced image-guided cancer immunotherapy. We first synthesize and compare three donor-acceptor type AIEgens featuring varying numbers of electron-withdrawing units, and find that the incorporation of two acceptors yields the longest response wavelength and most effective photodynamic therapy (PDT) property, surpassing the performance of analogs with one or three acceptor groups. A COF-based nanoplatform containing AIEgen and pyroptosis drug is successfully constructed via the one-pot method. The intra-COF energy transfer significantly quenches AIEgen, in which both fluorescence and PDT properties greatly enhance upon hypoxia-triggered COF degradation. Moreover, the photodynamic process exacerbates hypoxia, accelerating pyroptosis drug release. The nanoagent enables sensitive delineation of tumor site through in situ activatable fluorescence signature. Thanks to the exceptional ROS production capabilities and hypoxia-accelerating drug release, the nanoagent not only inhibits primary tumor growth but also impedes the progression of distant tumors in 4T1 tumor-bearing mice through potent pyroptosis-mediated immune response. This research introduces a novel strategy for achieving activatable phototheranostics and self-accelerating drug release for synergetic cancer immunotherapy.

I n situ tumor vaccine with optimized nanoadjuvants and lymph node targeting capacity to treat ovarian cancer and metastases

Tumor vaccine, a promising modality of tumor immunotherapy, needs to go through the process of tumor antigen generation and loading, antigen drainage to lymph nodes (LNs), antigen internalization by dendritic cells (DCs), DC maturation, and antigen cross-presentation to activate T-cells. However, tumor vaccines are often unable to satisfy all the steps, leading to the limitation of their application and efficacy. Herein, based on a smart nanogel system, an in situ nano-vaccine (CpG@Man-P/Tra/Gel) targeting LNs was constructed to induce potent anti-tumor immune effects and inhibit the recurrence and metastasis of ovarian cancer. The CpG@Man-P/Tra/Gel exhibited MMP-2-sensitive release of trametinib (Tra) and nano-adjuvant CPG@Man-P, which generated abundant in situ depot of whole-cell tumor antigens and formed in situ nano-vaccines with CpG@Man-P. Benefiting from mannose (Man) modification, the nano-vaccines targeted to LNs, promoted the uptake of antigens by DCs, further inducing the maturation of DCs and activation of T cells. Moreover, CpG@Man-P with different particle sizes were prepared and the effective size was selected to evaluate the antitumor effect and immune response in vivo. Notably, combined with PD-1 blocking, the vaccine effectively inhibited primary tumor growth and induced tumor-specific immune response against tumor recurrence and metastasis of ovarian cancer.

Development of an engineered extracellular vesicles-based vaccine platform for combined delivery of mRNA and protein to induce functional immunity

mRNA incorporated in lipid nanoparticles (LNPs) became a new class of vaccine modality for induction of immunity against COVID-19 and ushered in a new era in vaccine development. Here, we report a novel, easy-to-execute, and cost effective engineered extracellular vesicles (EVs)-based combined mRNA and protein vaccine platform (EVX-M+P vaccine) and explore its utility in proof-of-concept immunity studies in the settings of cancer and infectious disease. As a first example, we engineered EVs, natural nanoparticle carriers shed by all cells, to contain ovalbumin mRNA and protein (EVOvaM+P vaccine) to serve as cancer vaccine against ovalbumin-expressing melanoma tumors. EVOvaM+P administration to mice with established melanoma tumors resulted in tumor regression associated with effective humoral and adaptive immune responses. As a second example, we generated engineered EVs that contain Spike (S) mRNA and protein to serve as a combined mRNA and protein vaccine (EVSpikeM+P vaccine) against SARS-CoV-2 infection. EVSpikeM+P vaccine administration in mice and baboons elicited robust production of neutralizing IgG antibodies against RBD (receptor binding domain) of S protein and S protein specific T cell responses. Our proof-of-concept study describes a new platform with an ability for rapid development of combination mRNA and protein vaccines employing EVs for deployment against cancer and other diseases.

Fluoroamphiphilic polymers exterminate multidrug-resistant Gram-negative ESKAPE pathogens while attenuating drug resistance

ESKAPE pathogens are a panel of most recalcitrant bacteria that could "escape" the treatment of antibiotics and exhibit high incidence of drug resistance. The emergence of multidrug-resistant (MDR) ESKAPE pathogens (particularly Gram-negative bacteria) accounts for high risk of mortality and increased resource utilization in health care. Worse still, there has been no new class of antibiotics approved for exterminating the Gram-negative bacteria for more than 50 years. Therefore, it is urgent to develop novel antibacterial agents with low resistance and potent killing efficacy against Gram-negative ESKAPE pathogens. Herein, we present a class of fluoropolymers by mimicking the amphiphilicity of cationic antimicrobial peptides. Our optimal fluoroamphiphilic polymer (PD45HF5) displayed selective antimicrobial ability for all MDR Gram-negative ESAKPE pathogens, low resistance, high in vitro cell selectivity, and in vivo curative efficacy. These findings implied great potential of fluoroamphiphilic cationic polymers as promising antibacterial agents against MDR Gram-negative ESKAPE bacteria and alleviating antibiotic resistance.

An emerging antibacterial nanovaccine for enhanced chemotherapy by selectively eliminating tumor-colonizing bacteria

Fusobacterium nucleatum (F. nucleatum), an oral anaerobe, is prevalent in colorectal cancer and is closely related to increased cancer cell growth, metastasis, and poor treatment outcomes. Bacterial vaccines capable of selectively eliminating bacteria present a promising approach to targeting intratumor F. nucleatum, thereby enhancing cancer treatment. Although adjuvants have been employed to enhance the immune response, the vaccine's effectiveness is constrained by inadequate T-cell activation necessary for eradicating intracellular pathogens. In this study, we developed a minimalistic, biomimetic nanovaccine by integrating highly immunostimulatory adjuvant cholesterol-modified CpG oligonucleotides into the autologously derived F. nucleatum membranes. Compared to the traditional vaccines consisting of inactivated bacteria and Alum adjuvant, the nanovaccine coupled with bacterial membranes and adjuvants could remarkably improve multiple antigens and adjuvant co-delivery to dendritic cells, maximizing their ability to achieve effective antigen presentation and strong downstream immune progress. Notably, the nanovaccine exhibits outstanding selective prophylactic and therapeutic effects, eliminating F. nucleatum without affecting intratumoral and gut microbiota. It significantly enhances chemotherapy efficacy and reduces cancer metastasis in F. nucleatum-infected colorectal cancer. Overall, this work represents the rational application of bacterial nanovaccine and provides a blueprint for future development in enhancing the antitumor effect against bacterial-infected cancer.

A Minimalist Pathogen-Like Sugar Nanovaccine for Enhanced Cancer Immunotherapy

Pathogen-mimicking nanoparticles have emerged at the forefront of vaccine delivery technology, offering potent immune activation and excellent biocompatibility. Among these innovative carriers, mannan, a critical component of yeast cell walls, shows promise as an exemplary vaccine carrier. Nevertheless, it faces challenges like unpredictable immunogenicity, rapid elimination, and limited antigen loading due to high water solubility. Herein, mannan with varying carbon chain ratios is innovatively modified, yielding a series of dodecyl chains modified mannan (Mann-C12). Through meticulous screening, a mannan variant with a 40% grafting ratio is pinpointed as the optimal vaccine carrier. Further RNA sequencing confirms that Mann-C12 exhibits desired immunostimulatory characteristics. Coupled with antigen peptides, Mann-C12/OVA257-280 nanovaccine initiates the maturation of antigen-presenting cells by activating the TLR4 and Dectin-2 pathways, significantly boosting antigen utilization and sparking antigen-specific immune responses. In vivo, experiments utilizing the B16-OVA tumor model underscore the exceptional preventive capabilities of Mann-C12/OVA257-280. Notably, when combined with immune checkpoint blockade therapy, it displays a profound synergistic effect, leading to marked inhibition of tumor growth. Thus, the work has yielded a pathogen-like nanovaccine that is both simple to prepare and highly effective, underscoring the vast potential of mannan-modified nanovaccines in the realm of cancer immunotherapy.

Manganese-Modified Aluminum Adjuvant Enhances both Humoral and Cellular Immune Responses

Aluminum adjuvants remain the most commonly used vaccine adjuvants. Being rather effective in triggering humoral immunity, however, aluminum adjuvants usually show limited abilities in activating cellular immunities. Herein, by adding manganese ions during the preparation of aluminum adjuvant, a manganese-modified aluminum (Mn-Al) adjuvant is obtained, which can effectively stimulate both humoral and cellular immune responses. Such Mn-Al adjuvant can enhance antigen adsorption and promote antigen internalization by dendritic cells (DCs). Subsequently, the released Mn2+ can activate the cyclic guanosine monophosphate-adenosine monophosphate synthase-stimulator of interferon genes pathway to further promote DC activation. When combines with the model antigen ovalbumin (OVA), the Mn-Al-adjuvantes vaccine can induce high levels of antigen-specific antibody titers and high proportions of antigen-specific cytotoxic T cells in vivo. Moreover, the Mn-Al-adjuvanted vaccine elicited stronger antigen-specific humoral and cellular immune responses than high-dose of the aluminum-based adjuvant. Additionally, immunization of mice with OVA in the presence of the Mn-Al adjuvant significantly inhibited the growth of B16-OVA tumors. Furthermore, when formulated with human papillomavirus antigens, Mn-Al-adjuvanted vaccines show better in vivo vaccination performance than aluminum-adjuvanted vaccines. Therefore, the manganese-modified aluminum adjuvant may thus become a new vaccine adjuvant with the potential to replace conventional aluminum adjuvants.

Optimized Bionic Drug-Delivery-Inducing Immunogenic Cell Death and cGAS-STING Pathway Activation for Enhanced Photodynamic-Chemotherapy-Driven Immunotherapy in Prostate Cancer

Prostate cancer presents as a challenging disease, as it is often characterized as an immunologically "cold" tumor, leading to suboptimal outcomes with current immunotherapeutic approaches in clinical settings. Photodynamic therapy (PDT) harnesses reactive oxygen species generated by photosensitizers (PSs) to disrupt the intracellular redox equilibrium. This process induces DNA damage in both the mitochondria and nucleus, activating the process of immunogenic cell death (ICD) and the cGAS-STING pathway. Ultimately, this cascade of events leads to the initiation of antitumor immune responses. Nevertheless, existing PSs face challenges, including suboptimal tumor targeting, aggregation-induced quenching, and insufficient oxygen levels in the tumor regions. To this end, a versatile bionic nanoplatform has been designed for the simultaneous delivery of the aggregation-induced emission PS TPAQ-Py-PF6 and paclitaxel (PTX). The cell membrane camouflage of the nanoplatform leads to its remarkable abilities in tumor targeting and cellular internalization. Upon laser irradiation, the utilization of TPAQ-Py-PF6 in conjunction with PTX showcases a notable and enhanced synergistic antitumor impact. Additionally, the nanoplatform has the capability of initiating the cGAS-STING pathway, leading to the generation of cytokines. The presence of damage-associated molecular patterns induced by ICD collaborates with these aforementioned cytokines lead to the recruitment and facilitation of dendritic cell maturation. Consequently, this elicits a systemic immune response against tumors. In summary, this promising strategy highlights the use of a multifunctional biomimetic nanoplatform, combining chemotherapy, PDT, and immunotherapy to enhance the effectiveness of antitumor treatment.

SERS surgical navigation with postsurgical immunotherapy of local microtumors and distant metastases for improved anticancer outcomes

The standard of clinical care of most malignant solid cancers is surgery, followed by postsurgical adjuvant therapy, but microtumor lesions left behind after surgery and invisible distant metastases are the major reasons for treatment failure. Here, we report an integrated strategy combining surface-enhanced Raman spectroscopy (SERS) surgical navigation with postsurgical immunotherapy elicited by near-infrared II photothermal treatment and programmed death-1 antibody. The SERS surgical navigation is principally based on the multifunctional optical probes (namely, MATRA probes) integrating with T1-weighted magnetic resonance (MR) imaging, photothermal effect and Raman spectroscopic detection. We demonstrate in a 4T1 breast tumor mouse model that the pre-surgical MR/SERS dual-modal imaging is capable of providing comprehensive tumor information, and intraoperative SERS detection allows accurately delineating the tumor margins and guiding the surgical resection in real time with the least residual microscopic foci. We verify that the postsurgical immunotherapy effectively eradicates those local microtumor lesions and invisible distant metastases, greatly inhibiting the postsurgical cancer recurrence and distant metastasis.

Lung-specific supramolecular nanoparticles for efficient delivery of therapeutic proteins and genome editing nucleases

Protein therapeutics play a critical role in treating a large variety of diseases, ranging from infections to genetic disorders. However, their delivery to target tissues beyond the liver, such as the lungs, remains a great challenge. Here, we report a universally applicable strategy for lung-targeted protein delivery by engineering Lung-Specific Supramolecular Nanoparticles (LSNPs). These nanoparticles are designed through the hierarchical self-assembly of metal-organic polyhedra (MOP), featuring a customized surface chemistry that enables protein encapsulation and specific lung affinity after intravenous administration. Our design of LSNPs not only addresses the hurdles of cell membrane impermeability of protein and nonspecific tissue distribution of protein delivery, but also shows exceptional versatility in delivering various proteins, including those vital for anti-inflammatory and CRISPR-based genome editing to the lung, and across multiple animal species, including mice, rabbits, and dogs. Notably, the delivery of antimicrobial proteins using LSNPs effectively alleviates acute bacterial pneumonia, demonstrating a significant therapeutic potential. Our strategy not only surmounts the obstacles of tissue-specific protein delivery but also paves the way for targeted treatments in genetic disorders and combating antibiotic resistance, offering a versatile solution for precision protein therapy.

Advanced Strategies for Strengthening the Immune Activation Effect of Traditional Antitumor Therapies

The utilization of traditional therapies (TTS), such as chemotherapy, reactive oxygen species-based therapy, and thermotherapy, to induce immunogenic cell death (ICD) in tumor cells has emerged as a promising strategy for the activation of the antitumor immune response. However, the limited effectiveness of most TTS in inducing the ICD effect of tumors hinders their applications in combination with immunotherapy. To address this challenge, various intelligent strategies have been proposed to strengthen the immune activation effect of these TTS, and then achieve synergistic antitumor efficacy with immunotherapy. These strategies primarily focus on augmenting the tumor ICD effect or facilitating the antigen (released by the ICD tumor cells) presentation process during TTS, and they are systematically summarized in this review. Finally, the existing bottlenecks and prospects of TTS in the application of tumor immune regulation are also discussed.

Current status and future directions of nanovaccine for cancer: a bibliometric analysis during 2004-2023

Background

Nanovaccine treatment is an exciting area of research in immunology and personalized medicine, holding great promise for enhancing immune responses and targeting specific diseases. Their small size allows efficient uptake by immune cells, leading to robust immune activation. They can incorporate immune-stimulating molecules to boost vaccine efficacy. Therefore, nanovaccine can be personalized to target tumor-specific antigens, activating the immune system against cancer cells. Currently, there have been ample evidence showing the effectiveness and potential of nanovaccine as a treatment for cancer. However, there was rare bibliometric analysis of nanovaccine for cancer. Here we performed a bibliometric and visual analysis of published studies related to nanovaccine treatment for cancer, providing the trend of future development of nanovaccine.

Methods

We collected the literatures based on the Web of Science Core Collection SCI-Expanded database. The bibliometric analysis was performed via utilizing visualization analysis tools VOSviewer, Co-Occurrence (COOC), Citespace, Bibliometrix (R-Tool of R-Studio), and HitCite.

Results

A total of 517 literatures were included in this study. China is the country with the most publications and the highest total local citation score (TLCS). The Chinese Academy of Sciences holds the largest research count in this field and the most prolific author is Deling Kong from Nankai University. The most prominent journal for publishing in this area is Biomaterials. The researches mainly focus on the therapeutic process of tumor nanovaccines, the particle composition and the application of nanovaccines, suggesting the potential hotspots and trends of nanovaccine.

Conclusion

In this study, we summarized the characteristics and variation trends of publications involved in nanovaccine, and categorized the most influential countries, institutions, authors, journals, hotspots and trends regarding the nanovaccine for cancer. With the continuous development of nanomaterials and tumor immunotherapy, nanovaccine for cancer provides a research field of significant clinical value and potential application.

PD-L1 siRNA hitched polyethyleneimine-elastase constituting nanovesicle induces tumor immunogenicity and PD-L1 silencing for synergistic antitumor immunotherapy

BACKGROUND

PD-1/PD-L1 blockade has become a powerful method to treat malignant tumors. However, a large proportion of patients still do not benefit from this treatment, due to low tumor immunogenicity and low tumor penetration of the agents. Recently, neutrophil elastase has been shown to induce robust tumor immunogenicity, while the insufficient enzyme activity at the tumor site restricted its anti-tumor application. Here, we designed polyethyleneimine-modified neutrophil elastase (PEI-elastase) loaded with PD-L1small interfering RNA (PD-L1 siRNA) for improving enzymatic activity and delivering siRNA to tumor, which was expected to solve the above-mentioned problems.

RESULTS

We first demonstrated that PEI-elastase possessed high enzymatic activity, which was also identified as an excellent gene-delivery material. Then, we synthesized anti-tumor lipopolymer (P-E/S Lip) by encapsulating PEI-elastase and PD-L1siRNA with pH-responsive anionic liposomes. The P-E/S Lip could be rapidly cleaved in tumor acidic environment, leading to exposure of the PEI-elastase/PD-L1 siRNA. Consequently, PEI-elastase induced powerful tumor immunogenicity upon direct tumor killing with minimal toxicity to normal cells. In parallel, PEI-elastase delivered PD-L1siRNA into the tumor and reduced PD-L1 expression. Orthotopic tumor administration of P-E/S Lip not only attenuated primary tumor growth, but also produced systemic anti-tumor immune response to inhibit growth of distant tumors and metastasis. Moreover, intravenous administration of P-E/S Lip into mice bearing subcutaneous tumors leaded to an effective inhibition of established B16-F10 tumor and 4T1 tumor, with histological analyses indicating an absence of detectable toxicity.

CONCLUSIONS

In our study, a protease-based nanoplatform was used to cooperatively provoke robust tumor immunogenicity and down-regulate PD-L1 expression, which exhibited great potential as a combination therapy for precisely treating solid tumors.

Michael Addition-Based Neoadjuvant for Enhanced Cancer Immunotherapy

Cancer immunotherapy suffers from inefficient antigen presentation owing to the limited endocytosis of antigen by dendritic cells (DCs) and dysfunction of DCs in the immunosuppressive tumor microenvironment (ITME). Here, we revealed that cinnamaldehyde-grafted polyethylenimine (PC) held the potential to serve as a neoadjuvant to modulate the above processes and thus potentiate immune responses. The PC neoadjuvant could capture the tumor antigen generated during chemotherapy to enhance the crosstalk between the antigen and DCs. Then, it depleted the intracellular glutathione by the in situ Michael addition reaction, which not only activated the NOD-, LRR-, and pyrin domain-containing 3 (NLRP3) pathway to promote DCs maturation but also triggered the antigen release. As a result, it significantly augmented antigen presentation with a 46% ratio of DCs maturation and a 53% ratio of CD8+ T cell infiltration in low immunogenic murine breast cancer.

Components, Formulations, Deliveries, and Combinations of Tumor Vaccines

Tumor vaccines, an important part of immunotherapy, prevent cancer or kill existing tumor cells by activating or restoring the body's own immune system. Currently, various formulations of tumor vaccines have been developed, including cell vaccines, tumor cell membrane vaccines, tumor DNA vaccines, tumor mRNA vaccines, tumor polypeptide vaccines, virus-vectored tumor vaccines, and tumor-in-situ vaccines. There are also multiple delivery systems for tumor vaccines, such as liposomes, cell membrane vesicles, viruses, exosomes, and emulsions. In addition, to decrease the risk of tumor immune escape and immune tolerance that may exist with a single tumor vaccine, combination therapy of tumor vaccines with radiotherapy, chemotherapy, immune checkpoint inhibitors, cytokines, CAR-T therapy, or photoimmunotherapy is an effective strategy. Given the critical role of tumor vaccines in immunotherapy, here, we look back to the history of tumor vaccines, and we discuss the antigens, adjuvants, formulations, delivery systems, mechanisms, combination therapy, and future directions of tumor vaccines.

Biomineralization-inspired synthesis of autologous cancer vaccines for personalized metallo-immunotherapy

Autologous cancer vaccines represent a promising therapeutic approach against tumor relapse. Herein, a concise biomineralization strategy was developed to prepare an immunostimulatory autologous cancer vaccine through protein antigen-mediated growth of flower-like manganese phosphate (MnP) nanoparticles. In addition to inheriting the cyclic guanosine monophosphate-adenosine monophosphate synthase (cGAS)-stimulator of interferon genes (STING)-activating capacity of Mn2+, the resulting ovalbumin (OVA)-loaded MnP (OVA@MnP) nanoparticles with superior stability and pH-responsiveness enabled efficient priming of antigen-specific CD8+ T cell expansion through promoting the endo/lysosome escape and subsequent antigen cross-presentation of OVA. Resultantly, OVA@MnP vaccines upon subcutaneous vaccination elicited both prophylactic and therapeutic effects against OVA-expressing B16-F10 melanoma. Furthermore, the biomineralized autologous cancer vaccines prepared from the whole tumor cell lysates of the dissected tumors suppressed the growth of residual tumors, particularly in combination with anti-PD-1 immunotherapy. This study highlights a simple biomineralization approach for the controllable synthesis of cGAS-STING-activating autologous cancer vaccines to suppress postsurgical tumor relapse.

Amino Acid Metabolism-Regulated Nanomedicine for Enhanced Tumor Immunotherapy through Synergistic Regulation of Immune Microenvironment

The reprogramming of tumor metabolism presents a substantial challenge for effective immunotherapy, playing a crucial role in developing an immunosuppressive microenvironment. In particular, the degradation of the amino acid L-tryptophan (Trp) to kynurenine (Kyn) by indoleamine-pyrrole 2,3-dioxygenase 1 (IDO1) is one of the most clinically validated pathways for immune suppression. Thus, regulating the Trp/Kyn metabolism by IDO1 inhibition represents a promising strategy for enhancing immunotherapy. Herein, metabolism-regulated nanoparticles are prepared through metal coordination-driven assembly of an IDO1 inhibitor (NLG919) and a stimulator of interferon genes (STING) agonist (MSA-2) for enhanced immunotherapy. After intravenous administration, the assembled nanoparticles could efficiently accumulate in tumors, enhancing the bioavailability of NLG919 and down-regulating the metabolism of Trp to Kyn to remodel the immunosuppressive tumor microenvironment. Meanwhile, the released MSA-2 evoked potent STING pathway activation in tumors, triggering an effective immune response. The antitumor immunity induced by nanoparticles significantly inhibited the development of primary and metastatic tumors, as well as B16 melanoma. Overall, this study provided a novel paradigm for enhancing tumor immunotherapy through synergistic amino acid metabolism and STING pathway activation.

Self-Illuminating Nanoagonist Simultaneously Induces Dual Cell Death Pathways via Death Receptor Clustering for Cancer Therapy

Inducing death receptor 5 (DR5) clustering holds particular promise in tumor-specific therapeutics because it could trigger an apoptotic cascade in cancerous cells. Herein, we present a tumor microenvironment H2O2-responsive self-illuminating nanoagonist, which could induce dual tumor cell death pathways through enhancing DR5 clustering. By conjugating DR5 ligand peptides onto the surfaces of self-illuminating nanoparticles with cross-linking capacity, this strategy not only provides scaffolds for ligands to bind receptors but also cross-links them through photo-cross-linking. This strategy allows for efficient activation of DR5 downstream signaling, initiating the extrinsic apoptosis pathway and immunogenic cell death of tumor cells, and contributes to improved tumor-specific immune responses, resulting in enhanced antitumor efficacy and minimized systemic adverse effects.

Fluorinated Organic Polymers for Cancer Drug Delivery

In the realm of cancer therapy, the spotlight is on nanoscale pharmaceutical delivery systems, especially polymer-based nanoparticles, for their enhanced drug dissolution, extended presence in the bloodstream, and precision targeting achieved via surface engineering. Leveraging the amplified permeation and retention phenomenon, these systems concentrate therapeutic agents within tumor tissues. Nonetheless, the hurdles of systemic toxicity, biological barriers, and compatibility with living systems persist. Fluorinated polymers, distinguished by their chemical idiosyncrasies, are poised for extensive biomedical applications, notably in stabilizing drug metabolism, augmenting lipophilicity, and optimizing bioavailability. Material science heralds the advent of fluorinated polymers that, by integrating fluorine atoms, unveil a suite of drug delivery merits: the hydrophobic traits of fluorinated alkyl chains ward off lipid or protein disruption, the carbon-fluorine bond's stability extends the drug's lifecycle in the system, and a lower alkalinity coupled with a diminished ionic charge bolsters the drug's ability to traverse cellular membranes. This comprehensive review delves into the utilization of fluorinated polymers for oncological pharmacotherapy, elucidating their molecular architecture, synthetic pathways, and functional attributes, alongside an exploration of their empirical strengths and the quandaries they encounter in both experimental and clinical settings.

Nanoplatform-Based In Vivo Gene Delivery Systems for Cancer Therapy

Gene therapy uses modern molecular biology methods to repair disease-causing genes. As a burgeoning therapeutic, it has been widely applied for cancer therapy. Since 1989, there have been numerous clinical gene therapy cases worldwide. However, a few are successful. The main challenge of clinical gene therapy is the lack of efficient and safe vectors. Although viral vectors show high transfection efficiency, their application is still limited by immune rejection and packaging capacity. Therefore, the development of non-viral vectors is overwhelming. Nanoplatform-based non-viral vectors become a hotspot in gene therapy. The reasons are mainly as follows. 1) Non-viral vectors can be engineered to be uptaken by specific types of cells or tissues, providing effective targeting capability. 2) Non-viral vectors can protect goods that need to be delivered from degradation. 3) Nanoparticles can transport large-sized cargo such as CRISPR/Cas9 plasmids and nucleoprotein complexes. 4) Nanoparticles are highly biosafe, and they are not mutagenic in themselves compared to viral vectors. 5) Nanoparticles are easy to scale preparation, which is conducive to clinical conversion and application. Here, an overview of the categories of nanoplatform-based non-viral gene vectors, the limitations on their development, and their applications in cancer therapy.

K33 only mutant ubiquitin augments bone marrow-derived dendritic cell-mediated CTL priming via PI3K-Akt pathway

To explore the effect of K33 only mutant ubiquitin (K33O) on bone marrow-derived dendritic cells' (BMDCs') maturity, antigen uptake capability, surface molecule expressions and BMDC-mediated CTL priming, and further investigate the role of PI3K-Akt engaged in K33O-increased BMDC maturation, antigen uptake and presentation, surface molecule expressions and BMDC-based CTL priming. BMDCs were conferred K33O and other ubiquitin mutants (K33R, K48R, K63R-mutant ubiquitin) incubation or LY294002 and wortmannin pretreatment. PI3K-Akt phosphorylation, antigen uptake, antigenic presentation and CD86/MHC class I expression in BMDC were determined by western blot or flow cytometry. BMDC-based CTL proliferation and priming were determined by in vitro mixed lymphocyte reaction (MLR), ex vivo enzyme-linked immunospot assay (Elispot) and flow cytometry with intracellular staining, respectively. The treatment with K33O effectively augmented PI3K-Akt phosphorylation, BMDCs' antigen uptake, antigenic presentation, CD86/MHC class I and CD11c expressions. MLR, Elispot and flow cytometry revealed that K33O treatment obviously enhanced CTL proliferation, CTL priming and perforin/granzyme B expression. The pretreatment with PI3K-Akt inhibitors efficiently abrogated K33O's effects on BMDC. The replenishment of K33 only mutant ubiquitin augments BMDC-mediated CTL priming in bone marrow-derived dendritic cells via PI3K-Akt signalling.

The emergence of cancer sono-immunotherapy

Owing to its remarkable ease of use, ultrasound has recently been explored for stimulating or amplifying immune responses during cancer therapy, termed 'sono-immunotherapy'. Ultrasound can cause immunogenic cell death in cancer cells via thermal and nonthermal effects to regulate the tumor microenvironment, thereby priming anticancer immunity; by integrating well-designed biomaterials, novel sono-immunotherapy approaches with augmented efficacy can also be developed. Here, we review the advances in sono-immunotherapy for cancer treatment and summarize existing limitations along with potential trends. We offer emerging insights into this realm, which might prompt breakthroughs and expand its potential applications to other diseases.

Novel mRNA adjuvant ImmunER enhances prostate cancer tumor-associated antigen mRNA therapy via augmenting T cell activity

Prostate cancer (PCa) is characterized as a "cold tumor" with limited immune responses, rendering the tumor resistant to immune checkpoint inhibitors (ICI). Therapeutic messenger RNA (mRNA) vaccines have emerged as a promising strategy to overcome this challenge by enhancing immune reactivity and significantly boosting anti-tumor efficacy. In our study, we synthesized Tetra, an mRNA vaccine mixed with multiple tumor-associated antigens, and ImmunER, an immune-enhancing adjuvant, aiming to induce potent anti-tumor immunity. ImmunER exhibited the capacity to promote dendritic cells (DCs) maturation, enhance DCs migration, and improve antigen presentation at both cellular and animal levels. Moreover, Tetra, in combination with ImmunER, induced a transformation of bone marrow-derived dendritic cells (BMDCs) to cDC1-CCL22 and up-regulated the JAK-STAT1 pathway, promoting the release of IL-12, TNF-α, and other cytokines. This cascade led to enhanced proliferation and activation of T cells, resulting in effective killing of tumor cells. In vivo experiments further revealed that Tetra + ImmunER increased CD8+T cell infiltration and activation in RM-1-PSMA tumor tissues. In summary, our findings underscore the promising potential of the integrated Tetra and ImmunER mRNA-LNP therapy for robust anti-tumor immunity in PCa.

Transdermal microarrayed electroporation for enhanced cancer immunotherapy based on DNA vaccination

Despite the tremendous clinical potential of nucleic acid-based vaccines, their efficacy to induce therapeutic immune response has been limited by the lack of efficient local gene delivery techniques in the human body. In this study, we develop a hydrogel-based organic electronic device (μEPO) for both transdermal delivery of nucleic acids and in vivo microarrayed cell electroporation, which is specifically oriented toward one-step transfection of DNAs in subcutaneous antigen-presenting cells (APCs) for cancer immunotherapy. The μEPO device contains an array of microneedle-shaped electrodes with pre-encapsulated dry DNAs. Upon a pressurized contact with skin tissue, the electrodes are rehydrated, electrically triggered to release DNAs, and then electroporate nearby cells, which can achieve in vivo transfection of more than 50% of the cells in the epidermal and upper dermal layer. As a proof-of-concept, the μEPO technique is employed to facilitate transdermal delivery of neoantigen genes to activate antigen-specific immune response for enhanced cancer immunotherapy based on a DNA vaccination strategy. In an ovalbumin (OVA) cancer vaccine model, we show that high-efficiency transdermal transfection of APCs with OVA-DNAs induces robust cellular and humoral immune responses, including antigen presentation and generation of IFN-γ+ cytotoxic T lymphocytes with a more than 10-fold dose sparing over existing intramuscular injection (IM) approach, and effectively inhibits tumor growth in rodent animals.

Combination of MHI148 Targeted Photodynamic Therapy and STING Activation Inhibits Tumor Metastasis and Recurrence

Metastasis and recurrence are notable contributors to mortality associated with breast cancer. Although immunotherapy has shown promise in mitigating these risks after conventional treatments, its effectiveness remains constrained by significant challenges, such as impaired antigen presentation by dendritic cells (DCs) and inadequate T cell infiltration into tumor tissues. To address these limitations, we developed a multifunctional nanoparticle platform, termed GM@P, which consisted of a hydrophobic shell encapsulating the photosensitizer MHI148 and a hydrophilic core containing the STING agonist 2'3'-cGAMP. This design elicited robust type I interferon responses to activate antitumor immunity. The GM@P nanoparticles loaded with MHI148 specifically targeted breast cancer cells. Upon exposure to 808 nm laser irradiation, the MHI148-loaded nanoparticles produced toxic reactive oxygen species (ROS) to eradicate tumor cells through photodynamic therapy (PDT). Notably, PDT stimulated immunogenic cell death (ICD) to foster the potency of antitumor immune responses. Furthermore, the superior photoacoustic imaging (PAI) capabilities of MHI148 enabled the simultaneous visualization of diagnostic and therapeutic procedures. Collectively, our findings uncovered that the combination of PDT and STING activation facilitated a more conducive immune microenvironment, characterized by enhanced DC maturation, infiltration of CD8+ T cells, and proinflammatory cytokine release. This strategy stimulated local immune responses to augment systemic antitumor effects, offering a promising approach to suppress tumor growth, inhibit metastasis, and prevent recurrence.

Biodegradable pyroptosis inducer with multienzyme-mimic activity kicks up reactive oxygen species storm for sensitizing immunotherapy

Triggering pyroptosis is a major new weathervane for activating tumor immune response. However, biodegradable pyroptosis inducers for the safe and efficient treatment of tumors are still scarce. Herein, a novel tumor microenvironment (TME)-responsive activation nanoneedle for pyroptosis induction, copper-tannic acid (CuTA), was synthesized and combined with the sonosensitizer Chlorin e6 (Ce6) to form a pyroptosis amplifier (CuTA-Ce6) for dual activation and amplification of pyroptosis by exogenous ultrasound (US) and TME. It was demonstrated that Ce6-triggered sonodynamic therapy (SDT) further enhanced the cellular pyroptosis caused by CuTA, activating the body to develop a powerful anti-tumor immune response. Concretely, CuTA nanoneedles with quadruple mimetic enzyme activity could be activated to an "active" state in the TME, destroying the antioxidant defense system of the tumor cells through self-destructive degradation, breaking the "immunosilent" TME, and thus realizing the pyroptosis-mediated immunotherapy with fewer systemic side effects. Considering the outstanding oxygen-producing capacity of CuTA and the distinctive advantages of US, the sonosensitizer Ce6 was attached to CuTA via an amide reaction, which further amplified the pyroptosis and sensitized pyroptosis-induced immunotherapy with the two-pronged strategy of CuTA enzyme-catalyzed cascade and US-driven SDT pathway to generate a "reactive oxygen species (ROS) storm". Conclusively, this work provided a representative paradigm for achieving safe, reliable and efficient pyroptosis, which was further enhanced by SDT for more robust immunotherapy.

Bacterial Biohybrids for Invasion of Tumor Cells Promote Antigen Cross-Presentation Through Gap Junction

Due to inherent differences in cellular composition and metabolic behavior with host cells, tumor-harbored bacteria can discriminatorily affect tumor immune landscape. However, the mechanisms by which intracellular bacteria affect antigen presentation process between tumor cells and antigen-presenting cells (APCs) are largely unknown. The invasion behavior of attenuated Salmonella VNP20009 (VNP) into tumor cells is investigated and an attempt is made to modulate this behavior by modifying positively charged polymers on the surface of VNP. It is found that non-toxic chitosan oligosaccharide (COS) modified VNP (VNP@COS) bolsters the formation of gap junction between tumor cells and APCs by enhancing the ability of VNP to infect tumor cells. On this basis, a bacterial biohybrid is designed to promote in situ antigen cross-presentation through intracellular bacteria induced gap junction. This bacterial biohybrid also enhances the expression of major histocompatibility complex class I molecules on the surface of tumor cells through the incorporation of Mdivi-1 coupled with VNP@COS. This strategic integration serves to heighten the immunogenic exposure of tumor antigens; while, preserving the cytotoxic potency of T cells. A strategy is proposed to precisely controlling the function and local effects of microorganisms within tumors.

Single Atom Catalysts Remodel Tumor Microenvironment for Augmented Sonodynamic Immunotherapy

The immunosuppressive tumor microenvironment (TME) is a huge hurdle in immunotherapy. Sono-immunotherapy is a new treatment modality that can reverse immunosuppressive TME, but the sonodynamic effects are compromised by overexpressed glutathione (GSH) and hypoxia in the TME. Herein, this work reports a new sono-immunotherapy strategy using Pdδ+ single atom catalysts to enhance positive sonodynamic responses to the immunosuppressive and sono-suppressive TME. To demonstrate this technique, this work employs rich and reductive Ti vacancies in Ti3-xC2Ty nanosheets to construct the atomically dispersed Pd-C3 single atom catalysts (SAC) with Pd content up to 2.5 wt% (PdSA/Ti3-xC2Ty). Compared with Pd nanoparticle loaded Ti3-xC2Ty, PdSA/Ti3-xC2Ty single-atom enzyme showed augmented sonodynamic effects that are ascribed to SAC facilitated electron-hole separation, rapid depletion of overexpressed GSH by ultrasound (US) excited holes, and catalytic decomposition of endogenous H2O2 for relieving hypoxia. Importantly, the sono-immunotherapy strategy can boost abscopal antitumor immune responses by driving maturation of dendritic cells and polarization of tumor-associated macrophages into the antitumoral M1 phenotype. Bilateral tumor models demonstrate the complete eradication of localized tumors and enhance metastatic regression. Th strategy highlights the potential of single-atom catalysts for robust sono-immunotherapy by remodeling the tumor microenvironment.

Sulfonium-Stapled Peptides-Based Neoantigen Delivery System for Personalized Tumor Immunotherapy and Prevention

Neoantigen peptides hold great potential as vaccine candidates for tumor immunotherapy. However, due to the limitation of antigen cellular uptake and cross-presentation, the progress with neoantigen peptide-based vaccines has obviously lagged in clinical trials. Here, a stapling peptide-based nano-vaccine is developed, comprising a self-assembly nanoparticle driven by the nucleic acid adjuvant-antigen conjugate. This nano-vaccine stimulates a strong tumor-specific T cell response by activating antigen presentation and toll-like receptor signaling pathways. By markedly improving the efficiency of antigen/adjuvant co-delivery to the draining lymph nodes, the nano-vaccine leads to 100% tumor prevention for up to 11 months and without tumor recurrence, heralding the generation of long-term anti-tumor memory. Moreover, the injection of nano-vaccine with signal neoantigen eliminates the established MC-38 tumor (a cell line of murine carcinoma of the colon without exogenous OVA protein expression) in 40% of the mice by inducing potent cytotoxic T lymphocyte infiltration in the tumor microenvironment without substantial systemic toxicity. These findings represent that stapling peptide-based nano-vaccine may serve as a facile, general, and safe strategy to stimulate a strong anti-tumor immune response for the neoantigen peptide-based personalized tumor immunotherapy.

Biomimetic Dual-Target Theranostic Nanovaccine Enables Magnetic Resonance Imaging and Chemo/Chemodynamic/Immune Therapy of Glioma

Development of theranostic nanomedicines to tackle glioma remains to be challenging. Here, we present an advanced blood-brain barrier (BBB)-crossing nanovaccine based on cancer cell membrane-camouflaged poly(N-vinylcaprolactam) (PVCL) nanogels (NGs) incorporated with MnO2 and doxorubicin (DOX). We show that the disulfide bond-cross-linked redox-responsive PVCL NGs can be functionalized with dermorphin and imiquimod R837 through cell membrane functionalization. The formed functionalized PVCL NGs having a size of 220 nm are stable, can deplete glutathione, and responsively release both Mn2+ and DOX under the simulated tumor microenvironment to exert the chemo/chemodynamic therapy mediated by DOX and Mn2+, respectively. The combined therapy induces tumor immunogenic cell death to maturate dendritic cells (DCs) and activate tumor-killing T cells. Further, the nanovaccine composed of cancer cell membranes as tumor antigens, R837 as an adjuvant with abilities of DC maturation and macrophages M1 repolarization, and MnO2 with Mn2+-mediated stimulator of interferon gene activation of tumor cells can effectively act on both targets of tumor cells and immune cells. With the dermorphin-mediated BBB crossing, cell membrane-mediated homologous tumor targeting, and Mn2+-facilitated magnetic resonance (MR) imaging property, the designed NG-based theranostic nanovaccine enables MR imaging and combination chemo-, chemodynamic-, and imnune therapy of orthotopic glioma with a significantly decreased recurrence rate.

Develop Targeted Protein Drug Carriers through a High-Throughput Screening Platform and Rational Design

Protein-based drugs offer advantages, such as high specificity, low toxicity, and minimal side effects compared to small molecule drugs. However, delivery of proteins to target tissues or cells remains challenging due to the instability, diverse structures, charges, and molecular weights of proteins. Polymers have emerged as a leading choice for designing effective protein delivery systems, but identifying a suitable polymer for a given protein is complicated by the complexity of both proteins and polymers. To address this challenge, a fluorescence-based high-throughput screening platform called ProMatch to efficiently collect data on protein-polymer interactions, followed by in vivo and in vitro experiments with rational design is developed. Using this approach to streamline polymer selection for targeted protein delivery, candidate polymers from commercially available options are identified and a polyhexamethylene biguanide (PHMB)-based system for delivering proteins to white adipose tissue as a treatment for obesity is developed. A branched polyethylenimine (bPEI)-based system for neuron-specific protein delivery to stimulate optic nerve regeneration is also developed. The high-throughput screening methodology expedites identification of promising polymer candidates for tissue-specific protein delivery systems, thereby providing a platform to develop innovative protein-based therapeutics.

Dual-enzyme decorated semiconducting polymer nanoagents for second near-infrared photoactivatable ferroptosis-immunotherapy

Enzymes provide a class of potential options to treat cancer, while the precise regulation of enzyme activities for effective and safe therapeutic actions has been poorly reported. Dual-enzyme decorated semiconducting polymer nanoagents for second near-infrared (NIR-II) photoactivatable ferroptosis-immunotherapy are reported in this study. Such nanoagents (termed SPHGA) consist of hemoglobin (Hb)-based semiconducting polymer (SP@Hb), adenosine deaminase (ADA) and glucose oxidase (GOx) with loadings in a thermal-responsive nanoparticle shell. NIR-II photoactivation of SPHGA results in the generation of heat to trigger on-demand releases of two enzymes (ADA and GOx) via destroying the thermal-responsive nanoparticle shells. In the tumor microenvironment, GOx oxidizes glucose to form hydrogen peroxide (H2O2), which promotes the Fenton reaction of iron in SP@Hb, resulting in an enhanced ferroptosis effect and immunogenic cell death (ICD). In addition, ADA degrades high-level adenosine to reverse the immunosuppressive microenvironment, thus amplifying antitumor immune responses. Via NIR-II photoactivatable ferroptosis-immunotherapy, SPHGA shows an improved effect to absolutely remove bilateral tumors and effectively suppress tumor metastases in subcutaneous 4T1 breast cancer models. This study presents a dual-enzyme-based nanoagent with controllable therapeutic actions for effective and precise cancer therapy.

Light-Triggered Nanozymes Remodel the Tumor Hypoxic and Immunosuppressive Microenvironment for Ferroptosis-Enhanced Antitumor Immunity

Cancer immunotherapy holds significant promise for addressing diverse malignancies. Nevertheless, its efficacy remains constrained by the intricate tumor immunosuppressive microenvironment. Herein, a light-triggered nanozyme Fe-TCPP-R848-PEG (Fe-MOF-RP) was designed for remodeling the immunosuppressive microenvironment. The Fe-TCPP-MOFs were utilized not only as a core catalysis component against tumor destruction but also as a biocompatible delivery vector of an immunologic agonist, improving its long circulation and tumor enrichment. Concurrently, it catalyzes the decomposition of H2O2 within the tumor, yielding oxygen to augment photodynamic therapy. The induced ferroptosis, in synergy with photodynamic therapy, prompts the liberation of tumor-associated antigens from tumor cells inducing immunogenic cell death. Phototriggered on-demand release of R848 agonists stimulated the maturation of dendritic cells and reverted the tumor-promoting M2 phenotypes into adoptive M1 macrophages, which further reshaped the tumor immunosuppressive microenvironment. Notably, the nanozyme effectively restrains well-established tumors, such as B16F10 melanoma. Moreover, it demonstrates a distal tumor-inhibiting effect upon in situ light treatment. What is more, in a lung metastasis model, it elicits robust immune memory, conferring enduring protection against tumor rechallenge. Our study presents a straightforward and broadly applicable strategy for crafting nanozymes with the potential to effectively thwart cancer recurrence and metastasis.

Activating CD8+ T Cells by Pt(IV) Prodrug-Based Nanomedicine and aPD-L1 Antibody for Enhanced Cancer Immunotherapy

Recent years have witnessed substantial progress in cancer immunotherapy, specifically T cell-based therapies. However, the application of T cell therapies has been primarily limited to hematologic malignancies, with limited success in the treatment of solid tumors. The main challenge in treating solid tumor is immune escape, which is characterized by reduced antigenicity, diminished immunogenicity, and the development of suppressive tumor immune microenvironments. To address these obstacles and restore T cell-mediated anti-tumor responses, a novel nanoparticle formulation known as PRA@Oxa-c16 is developed. This innovative approach combines retinoic acid and Pt(IV) to specifically target and overcome immune escape. Notably, the therapeutic efficacy of PRA@Oxa-c16 primarily relies on its ability to induce anti-tumor T cell responses, in contrast to the cytotoxicity associated with conventional chemotherapeutic agents. When combined with an immune checkpoint blockade, anti-programmed death-ligand 1 antibody, PRA@Oxa-c16 effectively eliminates solid tumors and induces immune memory responses, which prevent tumor metastasis and recurrence. This promising approach holds great potential for enhancing the treatment of solid tumors with T cell-based immunotherapy.