Challenges and directions in studying cell-cell communication by extracellular vesicles

Integration of transcriptome and Mendelian randomization analyses in exploring the extracellular vesicle-related biomarkers of diabetic kidney disease

BACKGROUND

Diabetic Kidney Disease (DKD) is a common complication in patients with diabetes, and its pathogenesis remains incompletely understood. Recent studies have suggested that extracellular vesicles (EVs) may play a significant role in the initiation and progression of DKD. This study aimed to identify biomarkers associated with EVs in DKD through bioinformatics and Mendelian randomization (MR) analysis.

METHODS

This study utilized two DKD-related datasets, GSE96804 and GSE30528, alongside 121 exosome-related genes (ERGs) and 200 inflammation-related genes (IRGs). Differential analysis, co-expression network construction, and MR analysis were conducted to identify candidate genes. Machine learning techniques and expression validation were then employed to determine biomarkers. Finally, the potential mechanisms of action of these biomarkers were explored through Immunohistochemistry (IHC) staining, enrichment analysis, immune infiltration analysis, and regulatory network construction.

RESULTS

A total of 22 candidate genes were identified as causally linked to DKD. CMAS and RGS10 were identified as biomarkers, with both showing reduced expression in DKD. IHC confirmed low RGS10 expression, providing new insights into DKD management. CMAS was involved primarily in mitochondria-related pathways, while RGS10 was enriched in the extracellular matrix and associated pathways. Significant differences were observed in neutrophils and M2 macrophages between DKD and normal groups, correlating strongly with the biomarkers.

CONCLUSION

This study identified two EV-associated biomarkers, CMAS and RGS10, linked to DKD and elucidated their potential roles in disease progression. These results offer valuable insights for further exploration of DKD pathogenesis and the development of new therapeutic targets.

Correlation of extracellular vesicle Alu RNA with brain aging and neuronal injury: a potential biomarker for brain aging

BACKGROUND

Extracellular vesicles (EVs) are promising biomarkers for neurodegeneration. Alu elements are retrotransposons increasingly expressed with age and may be involved in aging-related diseases.

OBJECTIVE

To determine the potential of Alu RNA in plasma-derived EVs as a biomarker for brain aging and neuronal injury.

METHODS

EVs were isolated from plasma samples across different age groups. EV Alu RNA levels were measured and their associations with biomarkers of brain aging, including plasma neurofilament light chain (NfL), plasma amyloid-beta (Aβ42 and Aβ40), and plasma phosphorylated tau (p-Tau181), were analyzed.

RESULTS

EV Alu RNA levels were increased significantly with age and were strongly correlated with plasma NfL, suggesting a strong association between EV Alu RNA and neuronal injury. Significant correlations were also found between EV Alu RNA and plasma amyloid-beta levels, while no significant association was observed with tau pathology.

CONCLUSIONS

EV Alu RNA levels are elevated with age and associated with neuronal injury, highlighting their potential as a novel, non-invasive biomarker for brain aging and neurodegeneration.

Targeting capabilities of engineered extracellular vesicles for the treatment of neurological diseases

Recent advances in research on extracellular vesicles have significantly enhanced their potential as therapeutic agents for neurological diseases. Owing to their therapeutic properties and ability to cross the blood-brain barrier, extracellular vesicles are recognized as promising drug delivery vehicles for various neurological conditions, including ischemic stroke, traumatic brain injury, neurodegenerative diseases, glioma, and psychosis. However, the clinical application of natural extracellular vesicles is hindered by their limited targeting ability and short clearance from the body. To address these limitations, multiple engineering strategies have been developed to enhance the targeting capabilities of extracellular vesicles, thereby enabling the delivery of therapeutic contents to specific tissues or cells. Therefore, this review aims to highlight the latest advancements in natural and targeting-engineered extracellular vesicles, exploring their applications in treating traumatic brain injury, ischemic stroke, Parkinson's disease, Alzheimer's disease, amyotrophic lateral sclerosis, glioma, and psychosis. Additionally, we summarized recent clinical trials involving extracellular vesicles and discussed the challenges and future prospects of using targeting-engineered extracellular vesicles for drug delivery in treating neurological diseases. This review offers new insights for developing highly targeted therapies in this field.

Recent advances in bioreceptor-based sensing for extracellular vesicle analysis

Extracellular vesicles (EVs) are nanoscale, membrane-bound structures secreted by various cell types into biofluids. They show great potential as biomarkers for disease diagnostics, owing to their ability to carry molecular cargo that reflects their cellular origin. However, the inherent heterogeneity of EVs in terms of size, composition, and source presents significant challenges for reliable detection and analysis. Recent advances in bioreceptor-based biosensor technologies provide promising solutions by offering high sensitivity and specificity in EV detection and characterization. These technologies address the limitations of conventional methods, such as ultracentrifugation and bulk analysis. Biosensors utilizing antibodies, aptamers, peptides, lectins, and molecularly imprinted polymers enable precise detection of EV subpopulations by targeting specific EV surface markers, including proteins, lipids, and glycans. Additionally, these biosensors support multiplexed and real-time analysis while preserving the structural integrity of EVs. This review highlights the transformative potential of combining modern biosensing tools with bioreceptor technologies to advance EV research and diagnostics, paving the way for innovations in disease diagnostics and therapeutic monitoring.

Minimum information for studies of extracellular vesicles (MISEV) as toolbox for rigorous, reproducible and homogeneous studies on extracellular vesicles

Studies based on extracellular vesicles (EVs) have been multiplying exponentially for almost two decades, since they were first identified as vectors of cell-cell communication. However, several of these studies display a lack of rigor in EVs characterization and isolation, without discriminating between the different EV populations, thus generating conflicting and unreproducible results. There is therefore a strong need for standardization and guidelines to conduct studies that are rigorous, transparent, reproducible and comply with certain nomenclatures concerning the type of EVs used. The International Society for Extracellular Vesicles (ISEV) published the Minimum Information for Studies of Extracellular Vesicles (MISEV) in 2014, updating it in 2018 and 2023 to reflect different study contexts and technical advancements. The primary objective of this review is to inform future authors about EVs, including their history, nomenclature, and technical recommendations for the for isolation and functionality analysis for conducing EV-based studies according to current standards. Additionally, it aims to inform reviewers about the key parameters required for characterizing EV preparations.

Computational studies for the development of extracellular vesicle-based biosensors

Cancer affects millions of people, and early detection and efficient treatment are two strong levers to hurdle this disease. Recent studies on exosomes, a subset of extracellular vesicles, have deliberately shown the potential to function as a biomarker or treatment tool, thereby attracting the attention of researchers who work on developing biosensors. Due to the ability of computational methods to predict of the behavior of biomolecules, the combination of experimental and computational methods would enhance the analytical performance of the biosensor, including sensitivity, accuracy, and specificity, even detecting such vesicles from bodily fluids. In this regard, the role of computational methods such as molecular docking, molecular dynamics simulation, and density functional theory is overviewed in the development of biosensors. This review highlights the investigations and studies that have been reported using these methods to design exosome-based biosensors. This review concludes with the role of the quantum mechanics/molecular mechanics method in the investigation of chemical processes of biomolecular systems and the deficiencies in using this approach to develop exosome-based biosensors. In addition, the artificial intelligence theory is explained briefly to show its importance in the study of these biosensors.

Facile preparation of isolation columns filled with integral hybrid materials for efficient isolation of extracellular vesicles from microliter sample

BACKGROUND

Extracellular vesicles (EVs) and their anomalously altered cargoes represent a promising avenue for clinical diagnostics and prognostics. A critical challenge in EV research is the efficient isolation of these vesicles from complex biological samples with high recovery and purity. Although various of materials have good performance in EV isolation, these materials focus on the nanomaterials, which require multiple solution transfer steps in their use process. It will inevitably lead to sample loss, and is difficult to combine with online sample processing methods.

RESULTS

In this study, we introduce a novel isolation column for isolation of EVs, termed EvBHM, which leverages a bi-functional hybrid monolith and a polyethylene (PE) sieve plate. This design integrates the membrane insertion of distearoyl phospholipid ethanolamine (DSPE) with metal affinity chromatography (MAC), utilizing the interaction between titanium ions and the phospholipid membrane of EVs. The PE sieve plate serves as a robust support for the pore structure. This method provides a straightforward and user-friendly approach to prepare the isolation column, which demonstrates superior enrichment efficiency for EVs from microliter of cell culture media or plasma, ensuring minimal sample loss and high purity. Consequently, 37 up-regulated and 91 down-regulated proteins of plasma in colorectal cancer (CRC) patients are found over the health donors, and serval of them are associated with the occurrence and development of CRC.

SIGNIFICANCE

This method provides a straightforward and user-friendly approach to prepare of the isolation column, which demonstrates superior enrichment efficiency for EVs from microliter of cell culture media or serum as low as 10 μL, ensuring minimal sample loss and high purity. The results suggest this isolated method based on EvBHM isolation column is a promising strategy to search biomarkers for early diagnosis of cancers.

A novel function for exosomes in depression

Exosomes are a class of extracellular vesicles that encompass a diverse array of bioactive molecules, including proteins, lipids, mRNA, and microRNA(miRNA). Virtually all cell types release exosomes under both physiological and pathological conditions. In addition to electrical and chemical signals, exosomes are an alternative route of signaling between cells in the brain. In the brain, they are involved in processes such as synaptic plasticity, neuronal stress response, intercellular communication, and neurogenesis. A number of studies have shown that exosomes regulate the occurrence and development of depression by participating in the regulation of hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis, brain-derived neurotrophic factor, immune inflammatory response and other mechanisms, showing that they may become potential biological agents for the diagnosis and treatment of depression. In addition, exosomes have the ability to easily cross the blood-brain barrier, making them ideal drug or molecular delivery tools for the central nervous system. Engineered exosomes have good brain targeting ability, and their research in central nervous system diseases has begun to emerge. However, the molecular pathways involved in the pathogenesis of depression remain unknown, and further studies are needed to fully understand the role of exosomes in the development or improvement of depression. Therefore, in this review, we mainly focus on the diagnostic performance and therapeutic effect of exosomes in depression, and explore the advantages of exosomes as biomarkers and gene delivery vectors for depression.

Extracellular vesicle as a next-generation drug delivery platform for rheumatoid arthritis therapy

Rheumatoid arthritis (RA) is a systemic autoimmune disorder characterized by chronic inflammation and progressive damage to connective tissue. It is driven by dysregulated cellular homeostasis, often leading to autoimmune destruction and permanent disability in severe cases. Over the past decade, various drug delivery systems have been developed to enable targeted therapies for disease prevention, reduction, or suppression. As an emerging therapeutic platform, extracellular vesicles (EVs) offer several advantages over conventional drug delivery systems, including biocompatibility and low immunogenicity. Consequently, an increasing number of studies have explored EV-based delivery systems in the treatment of RA, leveraging their natural ability to evade phagocytosis, prolong in vivo half-life, and minimize the immunogenicity of therapeutic agents. In this review, we first provide an in-depth overview of the pathogenesis of RA and the current treatment landscape. We then discuss the classification and biological properties of EVs, their potential therapeutic mechanisms, and the latest advancements in EVs as drug delivery platforms for RA therapy. We emphasize the significance of EVs as carriers in RA treatment and their potential to revolutionize therapeutic strategies. Furthermore, we examine key technological innovations and the future trajectory of EV research, focusing on the challenges and opportunities in translating these platforms into clinical practice. Our discussion aims to offer a comprehensive understanding of the current state and future prospects of EV-based therapeutics in RA.

Advances in dendritic cell-based therapeutic tumor vaccines

Dendritic cell-based therapeutic tumor vaccines are an active immunotherapy that has been commonly tried in the clinic,traditional treatment modalities for malignant tumors, such as surgery, radiotherapy and chemotherapy, have the disadvantages of high recurrence rates and side effects. The dendritic cell vaccination destroys cells from tumors by means of the patient's own system of immunity, a very promising treatment. However, due to the suppression of the tumor immune microenvironment, the difficulty of screening for optimal specific antigens, and the high technical difficulty of vaccine production. Most tumor vaccines currently available in the clinic have failed to produce significant clinical therapeutic effects. In this review, the fundamentals of therapeutic dendritic cells vaccine therapy are briefly outlined, with a focus on the progress of therapeutic Dendritic cells vaccine research in the clinic and the initiatives undertaken to enhance dendritic cell vaccinations' anti-tumor effectiveness. It is believed that through the continuous exploration of novel therapeutic strategies, therapeutic dendritic cells vaccines can play a greater role in improving tumor treatment for tumor patients.

M2 Macrophage-Derived Extracellular Vesicles Reprogram Immature Neutrophils into Anxa1hi Neutrophils to Enhance Inflamed Bone Regeneration

Periodontitis is a microbiome-related inflammation that can lead to irreversible bone reduction and even tooth loss. This study reveals that macrophage polarization states significantly influence periodontal homeostasis, with M2 macrophage-derived extracellular vesicles (M2-EVs) playing a pivotal role in mitigating periodontitis-induced bone loss. Single-cell RNA sequencing of periodontal tissues treated with M2-EVs uncovered a unique Anxa1hi neutrophil subpopulation exhibiting pro-reparative properties. This subpopulation is characterized by immaturity and demonstrated osteogenic and angiogenic capabilities in vivo, partially mediated through the secretion of oncostatin M (OSM) signals. The findings suggest that this functional heterogeneity arises from M2-EVs disrupting the neutrophil maturation trajectory, with pivotal reprogramming genes, such as Acvrl1 and Fpr2, driving the differentiation of the Anxa1hi reparative subpopulation. This work underscores the potential of targeting M2 macrophage-neutrophil interactions to promote the regeneration of inflamed bone tissues.

Muscle-Derived Small Extracellular Vesicles Mediate Exercise-Induced Cognitive Protection in Chronic Cerebral Hypoperfusion

Physical exercise protects against cognitive impairment caused by chronic cerebral hypoperfusion (CCH). However, the mechanisms through which exercise sends signals from the periphery to the central nervous system remain incompletely understood. This study demonstrated that exercise promotes the secretion of muscle-derived small extracellular vesicles (sEVs), which facilitate interorgan communication between the muscle and the brain. Systematic delivery of muscle-derived sEVs enhances synaptic plasticity and alleviated cognitive impairment in CCH. Notably, miRNA sequencing reveal miR-17/20a-5p as key cargos in sEVs involved in the exercise-induced muscle-brain crosstalk. Muscle-derived sEVs are also identified as the primary source of swimming-induced miR-17/20a-5p in circulating sEVs. Mechanistically, miR-17/20a-5p binds to the DEP-domain containing mTOR-interacting protein (DEPTOR) and activates the mammalian target of rapamycin (mTOR) pathway in the hippocampus. Depletion of miR-17/20a-5p from muscle-derived sEVs impairs the exercise-induced enhancement of synaptic plasticity and cognitive function. Moreover, overexpression of DEPTOR in the hippocampus attenuates the cognitive benefits of exercise. Conversely, hippocampus-specific activation of mTOR reverses these effects, highlighting the crucial role of mTOR in mediating the positive effects of exercise. Collectively, these findings identify miR-17/20a-5p in muscle-derived sEVs as the exercise-induced myokine with potent effects on the brain, emphasizing the therapeutic potential of exercise in managing cognitive impairment.

The cell biology of Extracellular Vesicles: A jigsaw puzzle with a myriad of pieces

Extracellular vesicle (EV) research has expanded beyond traditional boundaries, evolving into an inter-kingdom endeavor. First described over 50 years ago, EVs are now recognized as playing diverse roles in basic cellular functions, such as intercellular communication, transport, and cell migration. Their biogenesis and secretion involve complex molecular processes, with cargos that include proteins, lipids, and genetic material. Despite advances, isolation and purification methods are still developing. EVs are present in all body fluids, with different subtypes fulfilling distinct roles. Nonetheless, in biological ecosystems, vesicle diversity can be seen as a strength where each one complements the other in the dialogue between cells and tissues. The involvement of EVs in homeostasis and disease and their well-recognized potential for diagnosis and therapeutics will continue to boost investigations to reveal their fundamental biology.

Decoding Complex Biological Milieus: SHINER's Approach to Profiling and Functioning of Extracellular Vesicle Subpopulations

Extracellular vesicles (EVs) are celebrated for their pivotal roles in cellular communication and their potential in disease diagnosis and therapeutic applications. However, their inherent heterogeneity acts as a double-edged sword, complicating the isolation of specific EV subpopulations. Conventional EV isolation methods often fall short, relying on biophysical properties, while affinity-based techniques may compromise EV integrity and utility with harsh recovery conditions. To address these limitations, the SHINER (subpopulation homogeneous isolation and nondestructive EV release) workflow is introduced, which redefines how EVs are isolated and recoverd, featuring the innovative SWITCHER (switchable extracellular vesicle releaser) tool. The SHINER workflow facilitates the precise purification and gentle recovery of target EV subpopulations from complex biological mixtures, preserving their structural integrity and biological functionality. Importantly, SHINER demonstrates exceptional adaptability to multiple markers and clinical applications. It not only enhances the ability to trace EV origins for accurate disease diagnosis but also advances fundamental EV research and provides standardized EV materials for therapeutic innovations. By improving the understanding of EVs and enabling the development of personalized diagnostics and treatments, SHINER propels EV-based science into new frontiers of advanced medicine, offering transformative potential for healthcare.

Extracellular vesicle-based point-of-care testing for diagnosis and monitoring of Alzheimer's disease

Extracellular vesicles (EVs) show potential for early diagnosis of Alzheimer's disease (AD) and monitoring of its progression. However, EV-based AD diagnosis faces challenges due to the small size and low abundance of biomarkers. Here, we report a fully integrated organic electrochemical transistor (OECT) sensor for ultrafast, accurate, and convenient point-of-care testing (POCT) of serum EVs from AD patients. By utilizing acoustoelectric enrichment, the EVs can be quickly propelled, significantly enriched, and specifically bound to the OECT detection area, achieving a gain of over 280 times response in 30 s. The integrated POCT sensor can detect serum EVs from AD patients with a limit of detection as low as 500 EV particles/mL and a reduced detection time of just two minutes. Furthermore, the integrated POCT sensors were used to monitor AD progression in an AD mouse model by testing the mouse Aβ EVs at different time courses (up to 18 months) and compared with the Aβ accumulation using high-resolution magnetic resonance imaging (MRI). This innovative technology has the potential for accurate and rapid diagnosis of Alzheimer's and other neurodegenerative diseases, and monitoring of disease progression and treatment response.

Characterization, microRNA profiling, and immunomodulatory role of plasma-derived exosomes from olive flounder (Paralichthys olivaceus) in response to viral hemorrhagic septicemia virus

Viral hemorrhagic septicemia virus (VHSV) is a highly pathogenic virus that frequently infects olive flounder (Paralichthys olivaceus), causing viral hemorrhagic septicemia (VHS), and posing a significant threat to global aquaculture. This study characterizes plasma-derived exosomes from olive flounder following VHSV challenge (VHSV-Exo) or phosphate buffered saline (PBS) injection (PBS-Exo), comparing their morphology, physicochemical properties, molecular profiles, and immunomodulatory functions. Both PBS-Exo (118.3 ± 8.6 nm) and VHSV-Exo (82.6 ± 5.9 nm) exhibited the typical cup-shaped morphology of exosomes. The successful isolation and purity of exosomes were confirmed by the presence of exosome markers (CD81, CD9, and CD63) and the absence of albumin. High-throughput sequencing identified 13 differentially expressed (DE) microRNAs (miRNAs) between PBS-Exo and VHSV-Exo, including six upregulated and seven downregulated miRNAs (log2 fold change ≥1 or ≤ -1). Toxicity assessments revealed that neither PBS-Exo nor VHSV-Exo were toxic to murine macrophage Raw 264.7 cells or zebrafish larvae at tested doses (up to 100 and 400 μg/mL, respectively). The absence of green fluorescence at 96 h post-treatment of VHSV-Exo indicated minimal reactive oxygen species generation, further supporting exosome safety. Functional studies demonstrated that both in vitro (Raw 264.7 cells) and in vivo (adult zebrafish) treatments with exosomes regulated immune-related genes and proteins expression. Notabaly, VHSV-Exo exhibited superior immunomodulatory effects, as evidenced by enhanced immune gene and protein expression. To our knowledge, this is the first study demonstrating the immunomodulatory potential of VHSV-Exo. These findings highlight VHSV-Exo as a promising immunomodulatory agent, with potential applications as a prophylactic vaccine candidate against VHSV infection in aquaculture.

L1CAM+ extracellular vesicles derived from the serum of adolescents with major depressive disorder induce depression-like phenotypes in adolescent mice

BACKGROUND

It has been reported that L1 cell adhesion molecule (L1CAM) antibody can capture neuron-derived extracellular vesicles (NDEVs) derived from peripheral blood. This antibody is significantly associated with occurrence of adult psychiatric disorders. However, the role and mechanism of L1CAM+ EVs (L1+ EVs) in adolescent with major depressive disorder (AMDD) is not well understood. This research aimed to explore the function and potential mechanism of L1+ EVs and miRNAs genes in AMDD.

METHODS

L1+ EVs derived from the serum of AMDD and healthy controls (HC) were transplanted into adolescent mice via tail vein. Their effects were explored using behavioral tests, hippocampal Nissl staining, and whole genome mRNA sequencing. MiRNAs expression in L1+ EVs was evaluated by whole-genome sequencing and qRT-PCR. Bioinformatics analysis was employed to explore the possible pathogenic molecular mechanisms of these miRNAs in AMDD.

RESULTS

Transplantation of L1+ EVs from AMDD induced depression-like behavior and hippocampal neuronal damage in adolescent mice and aberrant expression of 298 mRNA genes. The molecular signals related to MDD were enriched in the top pathways of the differentially expressed genes. Compared with HC, miR-375-3p and miR-200a-3p were upregulated in L1+ EVs from AMDD, miR-375-3p was also increased in the hippocampus of AMDD serum L1+ EVs-recipient mice. Bioinformatics analysis revealed that miR-375-3p might modulate the network of molecules associated with the MAPK pathway via protein interaction involving hippocampal differential genes Cadm2, Cacna2d1, and Casz1.

CONCLUSION

MiR-375-3p might contribute to L1+ EVs-induced AMDD. L1+ EVs miR-375-3p and miR-200a-3p could potentially serve as potential biomarkers for AMDD.

Methionine-Specific Bioconjugation for Single-Molecule Force Spectroscopy of Cell Surface Proteins

Cell surface proteins play crucial roles in various cellular processes, including intercellular communication, adhesion, and immune responses. However, investigating these proteins using single-molecule force spectroscopy (SMFS) has been hindered by challenges in site-specific protein modification while preserving their native state. Here, we introduce a methionine-specific bioconjugation strategy utilizing a bespoke hypervalent iodine reagent for highly selective, rapid, and robust methionine labeling. Since methionine is often the first amino acid incorporated into proteins via initiator tRNA, this approach enables precise N-terminal labeling and attachment, facilitating more reliable SMFS studies. The resulting covalent linkage remains intact during mechanical unfolding or conformational changes of proteins, with a mechanical stability exceeding 600 pN, allowing accurate measurements before detachment from AFM cantilever tips or cell surfaces. Additionally, this method improves sampling rates and data quality. We successfully applied this technique to light-induced protein printing and natural surface protein studies, demonstrating its potential for advancing protein mechanics research in living cells. This strategy provides significant advantages for SMFS in the study of complex cellular systems.

Extracellular vesicles in triple-negative breast cancer: current updates, challenges and future prospects

Breast cancer (BC) remains a complex and widespread problem, affecting millions of women worldwide, Among the various subtypes of BC, triple-negative breast cancer (TNBC) is particularly challenging, representing approximately 20% of all BC cases, and the survival rate of TNBC patients is generally worse than other subtypes of BC. TNBC is a heterogeneous disease characterized by lack of expression of three receptors: estrogen (ER), progesterone (PR), and human epidermal growth factor receptor 2 (HER2), resulting conventional hormonal therapies are ineffective for its management. Despite various therapeutic approaches have been explored, but no definitive solution has been found yet for TNBC. Current treatments options are chemotherapy, immunotherapy, radiotherapy and surgery, although, these therapies have some limitations, such as the development of resistance to anti-cancer drugs, and off-target toxicity, which remain primary obstacles and significant challenges for TNBC. Several findings have shown that EVs exhibit significant therapeutic promise in many diseases, and a similar important role has been observed in various types of tumor. Studies suggest that EVs may offer a potential solution for the management of TNBC. This review highlights the multifaceted roles of EVs in TNBC, emphasizing their involvement in disease progression, diagnosis and therapeutic approach, as well as their potential as biomarkers and drug delivery.

Differential expression of bovine milk-derived exosomal miRNAs and their role in modulating endometrial receptivity during early pregnancy

Endometrial receptivity is critical for successful implantation of bovine embryos. MicroRNA (miRNA), as a key regulator of uterine receptivity, is involved in physiological processes such as cell differentiation, proliferation, and apoptosis. The aim of this study was to identify pregnancy-specific miRNAs derived from milk exosomes of non-pregnant and early pregnant cows. In addition, bioinformatics analysis was used to assess the differential expression, target genes, and functions of these miRNAs in order to examine their significance in endometrial cell regulation. Exosomes were isolated from milk using an exosome extraction kit and then identified by Western blotting and transmission electron microscopy. We used Illumina high-throughput sequencing to profile miRNAs and identify differentially expressed miRNAs in bovine milk-derived exosomes at different stages of pregnancy (days 15, 25 and 30) and in non-pregnant cows (day 0). The sequencing data revealed a significant upregulation of bta-miR-125b in pregnant cows at days 15 and 25 compared to non-pregnant cows. Bta-miR-125b targets the Leukemia inhibitory factor (LIF), which is thought to play a critical role in the development of endometrial receptivity by regulating gene expression. KEGG pathway enrichment and Gene Ontology analysis indicated that the target genes of the differential miRNAs were significantly enriched in the key signaling pathways, including the MAPK, phosphatidylinositol signaling system and PI3K-Akt signaling pathways, as well as physiological activities such as RNA polymerase II transcriptional regulation, protein phosphorylation, apoptosis control and cell proliferation regulation. These signaling pathways and physiological activities are all indispensable parts during the process of pregnancy. These findings emphasize bta-miR-125b critical function in regulating endometrial receptivity via important signaling pathways, providing potential indicators for early pregnancy detection and insights into enhancing reproductive efficiency in dairy cows.

The Effects of Extracellular Vesicles Derived from Hydatid Cyst Fluid on the Expression of microRNAs Involved in Liver Fibrosis

INTRODUCTION

Hydatidosis is a zoonotic neglected disease caused by the larval stage of Echinococcus granulosus. Evidence suggests a communication between hydatid cyst (HC) and hosts via extracellular vesicles (EVs). However, a little is known about the communication between EVs derived from HC fluid (HCF) and host cells. The current study aimed to investigate the effect of HCF derived EVs on expression of fibrotic and anti-fibrotic miRNAs in THP-1 cell line.

METHODS

In the current study, EVs were isolated using ultracentrifugation from wild-infected sheep HCF and characterized by western blot, electron microscope, and size distribution analysis. The effects of EVs on the expression levels of microRNAs (mir-16, mir-29a, and mir-155) involved in liver fibrosis were investigated using quantitative real-time PCR (qRT-PCR), 3 and 24 h after incubation.

RESULTS

Western blot analyses confirmed the expression of CD63 marker, while Calnexin and CD81 were absent in EVs samples. The SEM and morphology revealed round shape vesicles. The DLS analysis showed average size distribution 130.6 nm diameter. The expression levels of mir-16 and mir-29a were significantly upregulated after 3 h for 8.66 and 3.420, respectively, while they were significantly downregulated after 24 h for 3.853 and 1.859, respectively.

CONCLUSION

The main mechanism of the communication between EVs derived from HCF and their host remains unclear. Our results suggest that HC may modulate the expression of miRNAs, involved in liver fibrosis via EVs.

Reduction of alternative polarization of macrophages by short-term activated hepatic stellate cell-derived small extracellular vesicles

BACKGROUND

Activated hepatic stellate cells (HSCs) induce alternative (M2) polarization of macrophages and contribute to the progression of fibrosis and hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC). However, the effects of small extracellular vesicles released by HSCs (HSC-sEVs) during activation remain largely unknown.

METHODS

The aim of this study was to investigate the role of extracellular vesicles released by HSCs (HSC-sEVs) at different stages of activation in macrophage polarization. The effects of sEVs from short-term activated and long-term activated HSCs on liver macrophages was studied. Small RNA sequencing analyses were performed to obtain differential miRNAs transported by the short-term and long-term activated HSC- sEVs. The in vivo effects of short-term activated HSC-sEV-specific miRNA on liver macrophage and liver fibrosis were confirmed in a CCl4-induced liver injury mouse model. To study the tumor suppressive effects of the macrophages educated by short-term activated HSC-sEV-specific miRNA, human hepatoma cells were mixed and subcutaneously cotransplanted with miR-99a-5p mimic-pretreated macrophages.

RESULTS

We found that consistent with activated HSCs, long-term activated HSC-sEVs (14dHSC-sEVs) induce bone marrow-derived monocytes (MOs) toward an M2 phenotype, but short-term activated HSC-sEVs (3dHSC-sEVs) induce the resident macrophages (Kupffer cells, KCs) toward a classically activated (M1) phenotype. We identified five 3dHSC-sEV-specific miRNAs, including miR-99a-5p. In vitro and in vivo experiments support that miR-99a-5p negatively regulates alternative polarization of macrophages, decreases collagen deposition in chronic liver injury model, and suppresses the progression of hepatoma in a xenograft model partially by targeting CD93.

CONCLUSION

Collectively, our work reveals an unexpected proinflammatory role of 3dHSC-sEVs, preliminarily explores the underlying mechanism, and evaluates the therapeutic potential of 3dHSC-sEV-specific miR-99a-5p for liver fibrosis and tumorigenesis.

A Simple Modification Results in a Significant Improvement in Measuring the Size of Extracellular Vesicles

OBJECTIVE

Size distribution is an important biophysical property of extracellular vesicles (EVs). EVs include small EVs (s-EVs) and large EVs (l-EVs) by size. Differential ultracentrifugation (dUC) is widely used to separate EVs from biofluids, but it can precipitate large impurity particles. Dynamic light scattering (DLS) is a simple and fast method for analyzing the size distribution of EVs. However, this approach is nonideal for heterogeneous and polydisperse samples since a small quantity of large impurity particles can markedly disturb the DLS results. Here, we developed a simple method to improve the reliability of DLS measurements.

METHODS

Plasma was obtained from 13 volunteers. The plasma was first processed by dUC to obtain crude l-EVs. The crude l-EVs were filtered with syringe filters (pore size of 1 μm and membrane material of hydrophilic polyvinylidene fluoride (PVDF)) to remove large impurity particles from l-EVs. The size distributions of the crude l-EVs and filtered l-EVs were measured via DLS.

RESULTS

After the samples were filtered, the coefficients of variation of the hydrodynamic radius and Peak 1 intensity of the filtered l-EVs decreased from 20.39% (12.76-28.96%) and 20.44% (14.58-28.32%) to 3.05% (1.79-4.72%) and 3.43% (1.76-5.88%), respectively, compared with those of the crude l-EVs.

CONCLUSION

These findings suggest that filtration can effectively separate circulating l-EVs in plasma to remove large impurity particles and make samples suitable for characterization by DLS. Our findings provide a simple method to improve precision via DLS to measure the size distribution of EVs.

The roles of extracellular vesicles in mental disorders: information carriers, biomarkers, therapeutic agents

Mental disorders are complex conditions that encompass various symptoms and types, affecting approximately 1 in 8 people globally. They place a significant burden on both families and society as a whole. So far, the etiology of mental disorders remains poorly understood, making diagnosis and treatment particularly challenging. Extracellular vesicles (EVs) are nanoscale particles produced by cells and released into the extracellular space. They contain bioactive molecules including nucleotides, proteins, lipids, and metabolites, which can mediate intercellular communication and are involved in various physiological and pathological processes. Recent studies have shown that EVs are closely linked to mental disorders like schizophrenia, major depressive disorder, and bipolar disorder, playing a key role in their development, diagnosis, prognosis, and treatment. Therefore, based on recent research findings, this paper aims to describe the roles of EVs in mental disorders and summarize their potential applications in diagnosis and treatment, providing new ideas for the future clinical transformation and application of EVs.

Elucidation of extracellular vesicles behavior during capillary isoelectric focusing

In this study, we investigated the behavior of extracellular vesicles (EVs), during capillary isoelectric focusing (cIEF). For that, we used different approaches, imaging cIEF with a whole-column imaging detection (WCID) and conventional cIEF as well as different detection methods (LIF after EV labelling, native fluorescence and UV). Our study reveals that EVs exhibit significant aggregation during their migration toward, and upon reaching, their isoelectric point (pI). By optimizing key parameters such as voltage and the addition of solubilizers, we successfully reduced this issue, particularly with bovine milk EVs. Our findings also showed distinct pI regions observed for EVs isolated from different sources: bovine milk EVs shows acidic pI characteristics (4.0-4.1), while pig and human plasma EVs exhibit more basic pI zones (4.7-4.9 and 5.8-6.7, respectively). The study was extended to cIEF coupled to laser induced fluorescence detection (LIF) using intra-vesicular CFDA-labeled EVs, to better understand their susceptibilities. Prolonged mobilization time due to long capillary lengths adversely affected EV's integrity in conventional cIEF. Our study reveals the necessity to specific cIEF optimization for each EV source due to variations in charge distribution and aggregation behavior across different pI regions. The use of a short capillary length (<10 cm), low electric field and solubilizers such as Tween-20 is recommended to preserve EVs integrity during cIEF-EV studies.

Inflammation-triggered Gli1+ stem cells engage with extracellular vesicles to prime aberrant neutrophils to exacerbate periodontal immunopathology

Periodontitis is a prevalent and progressive detrimental disease characterized by chronic inflammation, and the immunopathological mechanisms are not yet fully understood. Mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) play crucial roles as immunoregulators and maintain tissue homeostasis and regeneration, but their in vivo function in immunopathology and periodontal tissue deterioration is still unclear. Here, we utilized multiple transgenic mouse models to specifically mark, ablate and modulate Gli1+ cells, a critical and representative subset of MSCs in the periodontium, to explore their specific role in periodontal immunopathology. We revealed that Gli1+ cells, upon challenge with an inflammatory microenvironment, significantly induce rapid trafficking and aberrant activation of neutrophils, thus exacerbating alveolar bone destruction. Mechanistically, extracellular vesicles (EVs) released by Gli1+ cells act as crucial immune regulators in periodontal tissue, mediating the recruitment and activation of neutrophils through increased neutrophil generation of reactive oxygen species and stimulation of nuclear factor kappa-B signaling. Furthermore, we discovered that CXC motif chemokine ligand 1 (CXCL1) is exposed on the surface of EVs derived from inflammation-challenged Gli1+ cells to prime aberrant neutrophils via the CXCL1-CXC motif chemokine receptor 2 (CXCR2) axis. Importantly, specific inhibition of EV release from Gli1+ cells or pharmacological therapy with GANT61 ameliorates periodontal inflammation and alveolar bone loss. Collectively, our findings identify previously unrecognized roles of Gli1+ cells in orchestrating infiltration and promoting aberrant activation of neutrophils under inflammation, which provides pathological insights and potential therapeutic targets for periodontitis.

Extracellular Vesicle-Packaged Linc-ZNF25-1 from Pancreatic Cancer Cell Promotes Pancreatic Stellate Cell Uptake of Asparagine to Advance Chemoresistance

Extensive fibrous stroma plays an important role in gemcitabine (GEM) resistance. However, the mechanism by which pancreatic cancer cells interact with pancreatic stellate cells (PSCs) to promote GEM resistance remains unclear. This study investigates the role of metabolic crosstalk between these two cells in inducing GEM resistance. Extracellular vesicles (EVs) of parental and GEM-resistant pancreatic cancer cells are extracted and performed metabolic assays and long noncoding RNA (lncRNA) sequencing. Pancreatic cancer cell-derived EVs promote PSCs activation and extracellular matrix formation, and GEM-resistant pancreatic cancer cells produce more asparagine (Asn), favoring PSCs activation. Mechanistically, pancreatic cancer cell-derived EVs mediate linc-ZNF25-1 to promote Asn uptake via the IGF2BP3/c-Myc/SLC1A5 pathway in PSCs. In addition, mouse models elucidate the oncogenic function of linc-ZNF25-1 and the enhanced therapeutic effect of asparaginase (L-ASNase) in combination with GEM in pancreatic cancer. This study demonstrates that pancreatic cancer cell-derived EVs promote the uptake of Asn released from pancreatic cancer cells through the upregulation of SLC1A5 in PSCs, facilitating PSCs activation and pancreatic cancer resistance to GEM. L-ASNase in combination with GEM is a potential therapeutic strategy for targeting stromal cells to enhance the efficacy of chemotherapeutic agents against pancreatic cancer.

Extracellular particles: emerging insights into central nervous system diseases

Extracellular particles (EPs), including extracellular vesicles (EVs) and non-vesicular extracellular particles (NVEPs), are multimolecular biomaterials released by cells that play a crucial role in intercellular communication. Recently, new subtypes of EPs associated with central nervous system (CNS), such as exophers and supermeres have been identified. These EPs provide new perspectives for understanding the pathological progression of CNS disorders and confer potential diagnostic value for liquid biopsies in neurodegenerative diseases (NDs). Moreover, EPs have emerged as promising drug delivery vehicles and targeted platforms for CNS-specific therapies. In this review, we delineate the landscape of EP subtypes and their roles in the pathophysiology of CNS diseases. We also review the recent advances of EP-based diagnosis in NDs and highlight the importance of analytical platforms with single-particle resolution in the exploitation of potential biomarkers. Furthermore, we summarize the application of engineered EVs in the treatment of CNS diseases and outline the underexplored potential of NVEPs as novel therapeutic agents.

Genetically modified extracellular vesicles loaded with activated gasdermin D potentially inhibit prostate-specific membrane antigen-positive prostate carcinoma growth and enhance immunotherapy

Prostate cancer (PCa) is associated with poor immunogenicity and lymphocytic infiltration, and immunotherapy effective against PCa remains unavailable. Pyroptosis, a novel immunotherapeutic modality for cancer, promotes systemic immune responses leading to immunogenic cell death in solid tumors. This paper describes the preparation and analysis of PSMAscFv-EVN-GSDMD; this genetically engineered recombinant extracellular vesicle (EV) expresses a single-chain variable antibody fragment (scFv) with high affinity for prostate-specific membrane antigen (PSMA) on their surfaces and is loaded with the N-terminal domain of gasdermin D (GSDMD). Both in vitro and in vivo, PSMAscFv-EVN-GSDMD effectively targeted PSMA-positive PCa cells and induced pyroptosis through the carrier properties of EVs and the specificity of PSMAscFv. In the 22RV1 and PSMA-transfected RM-1-inoculated PCa mouse models, PSMAscFv-EVN-GSDMD efficiently inhibited tumor growth and promoted tumor immune responses. In conclusion, PSMAscFv-EVN-GSDMD can convert the immunosuppressive "cold" tumor microenvironment of PCa into an immunogenic "hot" tumor microenvironment.

Nanoscopic Profiling of Small Extracellular Vesicles via High-Speed Atomic Force Microscopy (HS-AFM) Videography

Small extracellular vesicles (sEVs), which carry lipids, proteins and RNAs from their parent cells, serve as biomarkers for specific cell types and biological states. These vesicles, including exosomes and microvesicles, facilitate intercellular communication by transferring cellular components between cells. Current methods, such as ultracentrifugation and Tim-4 affinity method, yield high-purity sEVs. However, despite their small size, purified sEVs remain heterogeneous due to their varied intracellular origins. In this technical note, we used high-speed atomic force microscopy (HS-AFM) in conjunction with exosome markers (IgGCD63 and IgGCD81) to explore the intracellular origins of sEVs at single-sEV resolution. Our results first revealed the nanotopology of HEK293T-derived sEVs under physiological conditions. Larger sEVs (diameter > 100 nm) exhibited greater height fluctuations compared to smaller sEVs (diameter ≤ 100 nm). Next, we found that mouse-origin IgGCD63, and rabbit-origin IgGcontrol and IgGCD81, exhibited the iconic 'Y' conformation, and similar structural dynamics properties. Last, exosome marker antibodies predominantly co-localised with sEVd ≤ 100 nm but not with sEVd > 100 nm, demonstrating the CD63-CD81-enriched sEV and CD63-CD81-depleted sEV subpopulations. In summary, we demonstrate that nanoscopic profiling of surface exosome markers on sEVs using HS-AFM is feasible for characterising distinct sEV subpopulations in a heterogeneous sEV mixture.

Aromatase reduces sperm motility by down-regulating the expression of proteins related to ATP synthesis in seminal plasma extracellular vesicles

BACKGROUND

Aromatase, encoded by Cyp19a1, is the rate limiting enzyme in biosynthesis of estrogens, and excessive aromatase can reduce the semen quality in roosters. Seminal plasma extracellular vesicles (SPEV) are nanoscale vesicles that carry and transmit signaling molecules, thereby affecting semen quality. Currently it is still unclear whether SPEV are involved in the process of that aromatase affects the quality semen in chicken. To clarify this issue, lentivirus carrying Cyp19a1 (LV-CYP19A1) for over-expression of aromatase was constructed and injected to testis of 35-week-old roosters. Semen quality and seminal plasma hormone were measured, and SPEV were also extracted and proteome sequencing was performed after treatment of LV-CYP19A1.

RESULTS

The results indicated that semen volume, fertility, sperm motility, testosterone (T) levels were significantly decreased, and estradiol (E2) levels were significantly increased in LV-CYP19A1 group than those in control group (P < 0.05). Through proteomic analysis of SPEV, we identified 966 differentially expressed proteins (DEPs) in the comparison of LV-CYP19A1 group and control group. Gene Ontology (GO) and Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes (KEGG) items of DEPs are mainly enriched in ATP synthesis coupled electron transport, flagellated sperm motility, regulation of steroid biosynthetic process, and PI3K-Akt signaling pathway. Furthermore, 8 proteins including ENO4, APOB, SDHA, SDHB, UQCRC1, VIN, PITGB3 and FXN were identified as key proteins in SPEV involving in the process of aromatase regulated rooster semen quality.

CONCLUSIONS

Our results reveal that aromatase can down-regulate the protein expression related to regulation of ATP synthesis and metabolism, and sperm motility in SPEV, thereby reducing semen quality in roosters.

Profiling Nascent Tumor Extracellular Vesicles via Metabolic Timestamping and Aptamer-Driven Specific Click Chemistry

Tumor-derived extracellular vesicles (tEVs) are essential mediators of tumor progression and therapeutic resistance, yet their secretion dynamics and cargo composition in response to therapies remain poorly understood. Here, we present STAMP, specific click-tagging driven by aptamer for tEV labeled with a metabolic timestamp, which exploits the unique kinetics and thermodynamics of aptamer to significantly enhance the local concentration of clickable probes on tEVs for their covalent attachment to the timestamp, resulting in the selective microfluidic isolation of nascent tEVs following stimulation. In a PD-L1 antibody-treated model, we demonstrated the feasibility of STAMP and revealed a robust positive correlation between the nascent EpCAM+ EV levels and tumor volume. Proteome profiling of isolated nascent tEVs identified previously unknown upregulated vesicle proteins following immunotherapy, including key regulators of immune activation and suppression, suggesting that tumors orchestrate an intricate dual adaptive response through tEV secretion modulation to simultaneously elicit therapeutic sensitivity and resistance. Notably, among the upregulated proteins, we identified HSP70, whose enhanced presentation on tEVs promotes antitumor immunity and inhibits tumor growth. Thus, STAMP provides an effective gateway for studying EV dynamics with cell-origin accuracy and for identifying potential therapeutic targets based on EV transitions.

Migrasomes, critical players in intercellular communication

Migrasomes are a newly discovered type of extracellular vesicle (EV) formed during cell migration, playing a pivotal role in intercellular communication. These vesicles are generated by retracting fibers of migrating cells and encapsulate various molecules, such as proteins, lipids, and RNA, allowing the transfer of biochemical signals to neighboring cells. Current evidence suggests that migrasomes are involved in a wide range of physiological processes such as embryogenesis, angiogenesis, immune modulation, and mitochondrial quality control. Moreover, migrasomes are implicated in pathological conditions, including cancer metastasis, cardiovascular diseases, and viral infections. To fully understand their significance, it is critical to first explore the molecular mechanisms underlying their formation and function. Recent studies have shed light on the biogenesis, release, and biological properties of migrasomes, all of which are key to understanding their role in cell-to-cell communication. In this review, we provide an up-to-date summary of migrasome biogenesis, release, characterization, and their biological activities in intercellular communication, while also proposing potential new functions for these vesicles.

Bro1 proteins determine tumor immune evasion and metastasis by controlling secretion or degradation of multivesicular bodies

Exosomes play pleiotropic tumor-promoting functions and are secreted by fusion of multivesicular bodies (MVBs) with the plasma membrane. However, MVBs are also directed to lysosomes for degradation, and the mechanism controlling different fates of MVBs remains elusive. Here, we show that the pro-tumor protein WDR4 enhances exosome secretion from mouse and human cancer cells through degrading the endosomal sorting complex required for transport (ESCRT)-associated Bro1-family protein PTPN23. Mechanistically, PTPN23 and ALIX compete for binding to syntenin, thereby directing MVBs toward degradation and secretion, respectively. ALIX, but not PTPN23, recruits actin-capping proteins CAPZA1/CAPZB to prevent branched filamentous actin (F-actin) accumulation around MVBs, thus enabling MVBs trafficking to the cell periphery for secretion. Functionally, WDR4/ALIX-dependent exosomes load a set of pro-tumor proteins through LAMP2A, thereby potentiating metastasis and immune evasion in mice. Our study highlights a previously unappreciated coupling between the biogenesis mechanism and the fate decision of MVBs and its importance in determining exosomal cargos, which have a profound impact on tumor progression.

Advances in Tracing Techniques: Mapping the Trajectory of Mesenchymal Stem-Cell-Derived Extracellular Vesicles

Mesenchymal stem-cell-derived extracellular vesicles (MSC-EVs) are nanoscale lipid bilayer vesicles secreted by mesenchymal stem cells. They inherit the parent cell's attributes, facilitating tissue repair and regeneration, promoting angiogenesis, and modulating the immune response, while offering advantages like reduced immunogenicity, straightforward administration, and enhanced stability for long-term storage. These characteristics elevate MSC-EVs as highly promising in cell-free therapy with notable clinical potential. It is critical to delve into their pharmacokinetics and thoroughly elucidate their intracellular and in vivo trajectories. A detailed summary and evaluation of existing tracing strategies are needed to establish standardized protocols. Here, we have summarized and anticipated the research progress of MSC-EVs in various biomedical imaging techniques, including fluorescence imaging, bioluminescence imaging, nuclear imaging (PET, SPECT), tomographic imaging (CT, MRI), and photoacoustic imaging. The challenges and prospects of MSC-EV tracing strategies, with particular emphasis on clinical translation, have been analyzed, with promising solutions proposed.

Activation of proresolving macrophages in dorsal root ganglia attenuates persistent arthritis pain

Pain independent of disease activity is frequently reported by rheumatoid arthritis patients and remains undertreated. Preclinical evidence suggests that imbalance of neuroimmune proresolving interactions within dorsal root ganglia (DRG) rather than at the site of inflammation plays mechanistic roles in persistent arthritis pain. Here, we inhibited production of proresolving lipid mediators by silencing 12/15-lipoxygenase expression in CX3CR1+ monocyte/macrophages conditional knockout (cKO) mice. In an arthritis model, hind paw mechanical hypersensitivity is exacerbated in male and female cKO mice in association with DRG infiltration of neutrophils, which migrate in response to leukotriene B4 released by macrophages through 5-lipoxygenase conversion of arachidonic acid provided by neuron-derived vesicles. Neutrophils apoptosis promotes primary macrophage efferocytosis which is defective in cKO macrophages. In wild-type (WT) and cKO mice, intrathecal injection of MerTK activating antibody, attenuates persistent hypersensitivity and polarizes DRG macrophages toward a proresolving phenotype with production of antinociceptive lipoxin A4. Thus, we delineate a neuron-macrophage-neutrophil bidirectional circuit that can be exploited to reduce persistent arthritis pain.

Real-Time Isolation and Versatile Detection for Extracellular Vesicles Based on Ordered Porous Layer Interferometry

Extracellular vesicles (EVs) are progressively becoming novel instruments for clinical therapeutics and liquid biopsies. Due to the complexity of biofluids and the physicochemical properties of EVs, the biological activity, velocity, and efficiency of EV isolation are always unsatisfying. Here, we present a real-time isolation approach of EVs derived from cells and urine using ordered porous layer interferometry with a silica colloidal crystal film as the sensing substrate, achieving efficiency greater than 90%. The online concentration detection function is performed during the isolation process on the basis of its real-time monitoring characteristic. Using membrane protein markers of urine EVs as targets, this technique has a high diagnostic value for liquid biopsy of prostate cancer. Furthermore, we compared multiple EV membrane protein expression and binding dissociation kinetic data from cells and urine. In summary, this multifunctional approach provides a novel strategy for the rapid EVs isolation, concentration detection, drug target screening, and liquid biopsy of various body fluids.

Contribution of tumor microenvironment (TME) to tumor apoptosis, angiogenesis, metastasis, and drug resistance

The tumor microenvironment (TME) contains tumor cells, surrounding cells, and secreted factors. It provides a favorable environment for the maintenance of cancer stem cells (CSCs), the spread of cancer cells to metastatic sites, angiogenesis, and apoptosis, as well as the growth, proliferation, invasion, and drug resistance of cancer cells. Cancer cells rely on the activation of oncogenes, inactivation of tumor suppressors, and the support of a normal stroma for their growth, proliferation, and survival, all of which are provided by the TME. The TME is characterized by the presence of various cells, including cancer-associated fibroblasts (CAFs), tumor-associated macrophages (TAMs), CD8 + cytotoxic T cells (CTLs), regulatory T cells (Tregs), myeloid-derived suppressor cells (MDSCs), mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs), endothelial cells, adipocytes, and neuroendocrine (NE) cells. The high expression of inflammatory cytokines, angiogenic factors, and anti-apoptotic factors, as well as drug resistance mechanisms in the TME, contributes to the poor therapeutic efficacy of anticancer drugs and tumor progression. Hence, this review describes the mechanisms through which the TME is involved in apoptosis, angiogenesis, metastasis, and drug resistance in tumor cells.

The Silent Conversation: How Small RNAs Shape Plant-Microbe Relationships

This review highlights the emerging role of cross-kingdom RNA interference in plant-microbe interactions, particularly the transfer of sRNAs from microbes to plants and vice versa, emphasizing the importance of this mechanism in both mutualistic and pathogenic contexts. As plants adapted to terrestrial life, they formed symbiotic relationships with microbes, essential for nutrient uptake and defense. Emerging evidence underscores sRNAs, including small interfering RNAs (siRNAs) and microRNAs (miRNAs), as critical regulators of gene expression and immune responses in plant-microbe interactions. In mutualistic symbioses, such as mycorrhizal fungi and nitrogen-fixing bacteria associations, sRNAs are hypothesized to regulate nutrient exchange and symbiotic stability. In pathogenic scenarios, microbes utilize sRNAs to undermine plant defenses, while plants employ strategies like host-induced gene silencing (HIGS) to counteract these threats. We further explore the emerging role of extracellular vesicles (EVs) in sRNA transport, which is critical for facilitating interspecies communication in both pathogenic and mutualistic contexts. Although the potential of ckRNAi in mutualistic interactions is promising, the review highlights the need for further experimental validation to establish its true significance in these relationships. By synthesizing current research, this review highlights the intricate molecular dialogues mediated by sRNAs in plant-microbe interactions and identifies critical gaps, proposing future research directions aimed at harnessing these mechanisms for agricultural advancements.

Engineering Extracellular Vesicles Secreted by Human Brain Organoids with Different Regional Identity

Extracellular vesicles (EVs) are membrane-bound nanovesicles that show significance in intercellular communications and high therapeutic potential. In this study, a novel type of EV subpopulation, matrix-bound nanovesicles (MBVs), was identified from a decellularized extracellular matrix of brain organoids that were derived from human pluripotent stem cells to compare with supernatant EVs (SuEVs) isolated from spent media. The organoids generated 10-fold more MBVs than did SuEVs. SuEVs contained more enriched microRNA cargo than MBVs, and the microRNA relative abundance changed during organoid maturation. The forebrain and hindbrain organoid SuEVs had a highly overlapped protein cargo based on proteomics analysis. More membrane proteins, including integrins, were identified in MBVs than SuEVs, which could contribute to MBV retention in matrices. Lipidomics data showed that MBVs were enriched in glycerophospholipids and sphingolipids, which affect the lipid membrane rigidity and recruitment of integral membrane proteins. To mimic ischemic stroke, in vitro oxygen and glucose deprivation model results revealed stronger recovery effects of MBVs than SuEVs at the same dose. The effects were exerted by regulating autophagy, reactive oxygen species scavenging, and anti-inflammatory ability. This study laid the foundation for advancing our knowledge of intercellular communication and for developing cell-free based therapies for treating neurological disorders such as ischemic stroke.

Extracellular vesicles in endometrial-related diseases: role, potential and challenges

Endometrial dysfunction underlies many common gynecologic disorders, such as endometriosis, endometrial cancer, intrauterine adhesions, and endometritis, which affect many women around the world. Extracellular vesicles play an important role in the pathophysiologic process of endometrial-related diseases. Extracellular vesicles are released by cells, which usually act as a form of intercellular communication, affecting biological processes such as fibrosis, angiogenesis, cell proliferation, and inflammatory responses by transferring their own proteins, lipids, RNA transcripts, and DNA for messaging, and play a key role in physiological dynamic homeostasis and disease development. This review combines the studies of the last decade, using the sub-description method to introduce the application of different sources of extracellular vesicles in the diagnosis and treatment of related diseases, and discusses the challenges faced by extracellular vesicles in the diagnostic and therapeutic application of endometriosis-related diseases, with the aim of contributing to our understanding of the mechanism of action of extracellular vesicles and their therapeutic roles, so as to provide a reference for the development of endometriosis-related diseases, as well as their prognosis and treatment.

Uptake of small extracellular vesicles by recipient cells is facilitated by paracrine adhesion signaling

Small extracellular vesicles (sEVs) play crucial roles in intercellular communication. However, the internalization of individual sEVs by recipient cells has not been directly observed. Here, we examined these mechanisms using state-of-the-art imaging techniques. Single-molecule imaging shows that tumor-derived sEVs can be classified into several subtypes. Simultaneous single-sEV particle tracking and observation of super-resolution movies of membrane invaginations in living cells reveal that all sEV subtypes are internalized via clathrin-independent endocytosis mediated by galectin-3 and lysosome-associated membrane protein-2C, while some subtypes that recruited raft markers are internalized through caveolae. Integrin β1 and talin-1 accumulate in recipient cell plasma membranes beneath all sEV subtypes. Paracrine, but not autocrine, sEV binding triggers Ca2+ mobilization induced by the activation of Src family kinases and phospholipase Cγ. Subsequent Ca2+-induced activation of calcineurin-dynamin promotes sEV internalization, leading to the recycling pathway. Thus, we clarified the detailed mechanisms of sEV internalization driven by paracrine adhesion signaling.

Flow cytometric procedures for deep characterization of nanoparticles

In recent years, there has been a notable increasing interest surrounding the identification and quantification of nano-sized particles, including extracellular vesicles (EVs) and viruses. The challenge posed by the nano-sized dimension of these particles makes precise examination a significant undertaking. Among the different techniques for the accurate study of EVs, flow cytometry stands out as the ideal method. It is characterized by high sensitivity, low time consumption, non-destructive sampling, and high throughput. In this article, we propose the optimization of flow cytometry procedures to identify, quantify, and purify EVs and virus-like particles. The protocol aims to reduce artefacts and errors in nano-sized particles counting, overall caused by the swarming effect. Different threshold strategies were compared to ensure result specificity. Additionally, the critical parameters to consider when using conventional flow cytometry outside of the common experimental context of use have also been identified. Finally, fluorescent-EVs sorting protocol was also developed with highly reliable results using a conventional cell sorter.

Exosome-Inspired Lipid Nanoparticles for Enhanced Tissue Penetration

The extracellular matrix (ECM) is a complex network of biomolecules with varying pore sizes, posing a challenge for the effective penetration of lipid nanoparticles. In contrast, cell-derived lipid nanoparticles, such as exosomes, have demonstrated the ability to travel to distant organs, indicating their capacity to penetrate the ECM. Here, we designed exosome-like vesicles (ELVs) inspired by exosomes' distinct transport phenomena. Specifically, we integrated three exosomal components (anionic lipid, cholesterol, and aquaporin-1) associated with transport into our ELVs to mimic the superior diffusion behavior of exosomes over synthetic lipid nanoparticles. Surprisingly, both bulk- and single-particle-diffusion studies revealed a more than 33 times increase in the effective diffusion coefficient within model ECM compared to conventional lipid nanoparticles. Furthermore, ELVs show an 80% increase in the effective diffusion coefficient within biological tissues. The excellent transport behavior of ELVs was further validated in vivo, where intratumoral injection showcased their superior transport. These findings provide insights into lipid nanoparticle design for improved tissue penetration.

Roles of extracellular vesicles from different origins in metabolic-associated fatty liver disease: progress and perspectives

Metabolic-Associated Fatty Liver Disease (MAFLD) is the most common chronic liver disease worldwide, associated with systemic metabolic dysregulation. It can progress from simple hepatic steatosis (MAFL) to more severe conditions like Metabolic-Associated Steatohepatitis (MASH), fibrosis, cirrhosis, and Hepatocellular Carcinoma (HCC). There is a critical lack of reliable non-invasive diagnostic methods and effective pharmaceutical treatments for MAFLD/MASH, emphasizing the need for further research. Extracellular vesicles (EVs) are nanoscale structures that play important roles in cell signaling by delivering bioactive molecules. However, there is a significant gap in literature regarding the roles of EVs from hosts, plants, and microbiota in MAFLD. This review explores the potential of EVs from various sources-host, plants, and microbiota-as biomarkers, therapeutic agents, drug carriers, and treatment targets for MAFLD. Firstly, the roles of host-derived extracellular vesicles (EVs) in MAFLD, with a focus on cell-type specific EVs and their components-proteins, miRNAs, and lipids-for disease diagnosis and monitoring were discussed. Moreover, it highlighted the therapeutic potential of mesenchymal stem cell (MSC)-derived EVs in reducing lipid accumulation and liver injury, and immune cell-derived EVs in mitigating inflammation and fibrosis. The review also discussed the use of host-derived EVs as drug carriers and therapeutic targets due to their ability to deliver bioactive molecules that impact disease mechanisms. Additionally, it summarized research on plant-derived EVs, which help reduce liver lipid accumulation, inflammation, and enhance gut barrier function in MAFLD. Also, the review explored microbial-derived EVs as novel therapeutic targets, particularly in relation to insulin resistance, liver inflammation, and dysfunction in MAFLD. Overall, by exploring the diverse roles of EVs from host, plant, and microbiota sources in MAFLD, this review offers valuable insights into their potential as non-invasive biomarkers and novel therapeutic strategies, which could pave the way for more effective diagnostic and treatment options for this increasingly prevalent liver disease. Notably, the challenges of translating EVs into clinical practice were also thoroughly discussed, aiming to provide possible directions and strategies for future research.

Differential protein and mRNA cargo loading into engineered large and small extracellular vesicles reveals differences in in vitro and in vivo assays

Extracellular vesicles (EV) represent an advanced platform for genetic material and protein delivery, particularly when they are loaded through the so-called endogenous loading method. This study investigates the differences between large EV (lEV) and small EV (sEV) obtained from genetically engineered C2C12 myoblasts overexpressing two different model biomolecules. Erythropoietin (EPO) is a secretory protein with anti-inflammatory, angiogenic and hematopoietic effects, while TGL is a chimeric cytosolic protein containing green fluorescent protein (GFP) and luciferase, used for imaging. We compared these EV subtypes in terms of protein and nucleic acid loading, intercellular cargo transfer capacity, and subsequent functional effects both in vitro and in vivo. Our results demonstrated that lEV exhibited higher protein and mRNA cargo content than sEV, which also translated into increased intercellular cargo transfer capacity, even when dosing according to the constitutive sEV and lEV secretion ratio (10,1). Indeed, we showed that, although receptor cells successfully internalized both EV subtypes, cells treated with lEV displayed stronger intracellular luciferase signals and higher EPO protein secretion compared to those treated with sEV. In terms of functional effects, both EV subtypes exerted anti-inflammatory and antioxidant effects in lipopolysaccharide-activated macrophages, as well as angiogenic effects in human umbilical vein endothelial cells. Finally, in vivo studies evidenced that subcutaneously administered lEV led to a more significant increase in hematocrit levels and red blood cell counts than sEV. Taken together, these findings suggest that the protein and mRNA cargo differ between endogenously loaded EV subtypes, and that this variation in cargo loading leads to differences in their functional outcomes. Therefore, the choice of EV subtype could be critical for optimizing EV-based delivery strategies for biologic drugs.

Malondialdehyde-specific natural IgM inhibit NETosis triggered by culprit site-derived extracellular vesicles from myocardial infarction patients

BACKGROUND AND AIMS

Neutrophil extracellular traps (NETs) trigger atherothrombosis during acute myocardial infarction (AMI), but mechanisms of induction remain unclear. Levels of extracellular vesicles (EV) carrying oxidation-specific epitopes (OSE), which are targeted by specific natural immunoglobulin M (IgM), are increased at the culprit site in AMI. This study investigated EV as inducers of NETosis and assessed the inhibitory effect of natural anti-OSE-IgM in this process.

METHODS

Blood from the culprit and peripheral site of ST-segment elevation myocardial infarction (STEMI) patients (n = 28) was collected, and myocardial function assessed by cardiac magnetic resonance imaging (cMRI) 4 ± 2 days and 195 ± 15 days post-AMI. Extracellular vesicles were isolated from patient plasma and cell culture supernatants for neutrophil stimulation in vitro and in vivo, in the presence of a malondialdehyde (MDA)-specific IgM or an isotype control. NETosis and neutrophil functions were assessed via enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay and fluorescence microscopy. Pharmacological inhibitors were used to map signalling pathways. Neutrophil extracellular trap markers and anti-OSE-IgM were measured by ELISA.

RESULTS

CD45+ MDA+ EV and NET markers were elevated at the culprit site. Extracellular vesicles induced neutrophil activation and NET formation via TLR4 and PAD4, and mice injected with EV showed increased NETosis. Malondialdehyde-specific IgM levels were inversely associated with citH3 in STEMI patient blood. An MDA-specific IgM inhibited EV-induced NET release in vitro and in vivo. CD45+ MDA+ EV concentrations inversely correlated with left ventricular ejection fraction post-AMI.

CONCLUSIONS

Culprit site-derived EV induce NETosis, while MDA-specific natural IgM inhibit this effect, potentially impacting outcome after AMI.

Tumor-derived extracellular vesicles: key drivers of immunomodulation in breast cancer

Breast cancer (BC) remains a significant global health challenge characterized by its heterogeneity and treatment complexities. Extracellular vesicles (EVs) are small membranous particles released by cells, facilitating intercellular communication by transporting bioactive molecules such as proteins, lipids, and nucleic acids. Tumor-derived EVs have emerged as pivotal regulators in the tumor microenvironment (TME) and drivers of BC progression. These EVs carry diverse cargoes of bioactive molecules, influencing critical processes such as immune modulation, angiogenesis, and metastasis. By altering the behaviors of immune cells including macrophages, dendritic cells, and T cells, tumor-derived EVs contribute to immune evasion and tumor growth. Furthermore, Tumor-derived EVs play a role in mediating drug resistance, impacting the effectiveness of therapeutic interventions. Understanding the multifaceted roles of BC tumor-derived EVs is essential for the development of innovative therapeutic strategies. Targeting pathways mediated by EVs holds promise for enhancing the efficacy of cancer treatments and improving patient outcomes. This comprehensive review provides insights into the intricate interactions of tumor-derived EVs in immune modulation and BC progression, highlighting potential therapeutic targets and avenues for novel cancer therapies.

Extracellular Vesicles Separation and Biomedical Application Based on Affinity Recognition and Antifouling Coating Bifunctional Microsphere

Extracellular vesicles (EVs) are crucial mediators in various physiological and pathological processes, facilitating intercellular communication and offering potential as diagnostic disease markers. However, existing EVs separation methods have limitations that hinder their clinical application. In this study, we present a novel approach using bifunctional silica microspheres (SiO2-PTB-PS) for the specific, nondestructive isolation of EVs from complex biological media. The isolated EVs were subsequently used for direct cancer detection in clinical samples. The SiO2-PTB-PS microspheres, functionalized with a phosphatidylserine (PS) recognition peptide (PSpep), specifically bound to PS on the EVs surface. Additionally, an anti-adhesion coating on the silica microspheres minimized protein contamination, enhancing purity. This affinity-based recognition and antifouling strategy ensured high-purity EVs separation. Furthermore, we developed a detection system combining SiO2-PTB-PS microspheres with surface-enhanced Raman scattering (SERS) nanoprobes to identify protein tyrosine kinase 7 (PTK7) and epithelial cell adhesion (EpCAM) on the EVs membrane, achieving 80% precision in distinguishing cancer patients from healthy donors. The SiO2-PTB-PS microsphere system shows significant promise as a biotechnology tool, advancing the clinical application of EVs-based diagnostics.

Killing the killers: Natural killer cell therapy targeting glioma stem cells in high-grade glioma

High-grade gliomas (HGGs), including glioblastoma (GBM) in adults and diffuse intrinsic pontine glioma (DIPG) in children, are among the most aggressive and deadly brain tumors. A key factor in their resilience is the presence of glioma stem cells (GSCs), which drive tumor initiation, progression, and resistance to treatment. Targeting and eradicating GSCs holds potential for curing both GBM and DIPG. Natural killer (NK) cells, as part of the innate immune system, naturally recognize and destroy malignant cells. Recent advances in NK cell-based therapies, such as chimeric antigen receptor (CAR)-NK cells, NK cell engagers, and NK cell-derived exosomes, offer promising approaches for treating GBM and DIPG, particularly by addressing the persistence of GSCs. This review highlights these advancements, explores challenges such as the blood-brain barrier and the immunosuppressive tumor microenvironment, and proposes future directions for improving and clinically advancing these NK cell-based therapies for HGGs.