Dietary patterns reflecting healthy food choices are associated with lower serum LPS activity

Gut microbes, diet, and genetics as drivers of metabolic liver disease: a narrative review outlining implications for precision medicine

Metabolic dysfunction-associated steatotic liver disease (MASLD) is rapidly increasing in prevalence, impacting over a third of the global population. The advanced form of MASLD, Metabolic dysfunction-associated steatohepatitis (MASH), is on track to become the number one indication for liver transplant. FDA-approved pharmacological agents are limited for MASH, despite over 400 ongoing clinical trials, with only a single drug (resmetirom) currently on the market. This is likely due to the heterogeneous nature of disease pathophysiology, which involves interactions between highly individualized genetic and environmental factors. To apply precision medicine approaches that overcome interpersonal variability, in-depth insights into interactions between genetics, nutrition, and the gut microbiome are needed, given that each have emerged as dynamic contributors to MASLD and MASH pathogenesis. Here, we discuss the associations and molecular underpinnings of several of these factors individually and outline their interactions in the context of both patient-based studies and preclinical animal model systems. Finally, we highlight gaps in knowledge that will require further investigation to aid in successfully implementing precision medicine to prevent and alleviate MASLD and MASH.

Regulation of endotoxemia through the gut microbiota: The role of the Mediterranean diet and its components

Endotoxemia is closely related to many diseases. As the largest endotoxin reservoir in the human body, the gut microbiota should be a key target for alleviating endotoxemia. The intestinal microbiota is believed to cause endotoxemia directly or indirectly by modifying the intestinal barrier function through dysbiosis, changing intestinal mucosal permeability and bacterial translocation. Diet is known to be the main environmental factor affecting the intestinal microbiota, and different diets and food components have a large impact on the gut microbiota. The Mediterranean diet, which received much attention in recent years, is believed to be able to regulate the gut microbiota, thereby maintaining the function of the intestinal barrier and alleviating endotoxemia. In this review, we focus on the relationship between the gut microbiota and endotoxemia, and how the Mediterranean dietary (MD) pattern can interfere with endotoxemia through the gut microbiota.

There is no association between serum endotoxin levels and inflammation in asthma

BACKROUND

Endotoxin, in lipopolysaccharide structure (LPS), is the main component of the outer membrane of gram negative bacteria. LPS levels were associated with inflammatory disease. Asthma is a chronic inflammatory disease involving many different cell types and cellular elements. The association between LPS serum levels and the asthma is not well known. The aim of this study was to investigate the association between the LPS serum levels and the severity of asthma, demographic data and laboratory parameters.

METHODOLOGY

The study included 67 patients aged >18 years with a diagnosis of asthma, and 15 healthy volunteers with no history of chronic disease as a control group. The Asthma Control Test (ACT), Respiratory Function Tests (RFTs), fractional exhaled nitric oxide (FeNO), and endotoxin levels were measured and compared between the groups. The endotoxin measurements were performed using the ELISA method.

RESULTS

The mild-moderate asthma group included 33 patients and the severe asthma group, 34 patients. The endotoxin level was measured as 17.78 (range 3.59 to 304.55) EU/ml in the patient group and 15 (range 4.01 to 74.06) EU/ml in the control group with no statistically significant difference determined between the groups. In the subgroups, the endotoxin level was measured as 15.21 (range 3.69 to 304.55) EU/ml in the mild-moderate group and 14.46 (range 3.59 to 278.86) EU/ml in the severe asthma group with no statistically significant difference determined between the groups.

CONCLUSION

The results of this study showed no relationship between serum endotoxin level and asthma or asthma severity.

Dose-Dependent Effects of Lipopolysaccharide on the Endothelium-Sepsis versus Metabolic Endotoxemia-Induced Cellular Senescence

The endothelium, the innermost cell layer of blood vessels, is not only a physical barrier between the bloodstream and the surrounding tissues but has also essential functions in vascular homeostasis. Therefore, it is not surprising that endothelial dysfunction is associated with most cardiovascular diseases. The functionality of the endothelium is compromised by endotoxemia, the presence of bacterial endotoxins in the bloodstream with the main endotoxin lipopolysaccharide (LPS). Therefore, this review will focus on the effects of LPS on the endothelium. Depending on the LPS concentration, the outcomes are either sepsis or, at lower concentrations, so-called low-dose or metabolic endotoxemia. Sepsis, a life-threatening condition evoked by hyperactivation of the immune response, includes breakdown of the endothelial barrier resulting in failure of multiple organs. A deeper understanding of the underlying mechanisms in the endothelium might help pave the way to new therapeutic options in sepsis treatment to prevent endothelial leakage and fatal septic shock. Low-dose endotoxemia or metabolic endotoxemia results in chronic inflammation leading to endothelial cell senescence, which entails endothelial dysfunction and thus plays a critical role in cardiovascular diseases. The identification of compounds counteracting senescence induction in endothelial cells might therefore help in delaying the onset or progression of age-related pathologies. Interestingly, two natural plant-derived substances, caffeine and curcumin, have shown potential in preventing endothelial cell senescence.

Molecular nutrition in life course perspective: Pinpointing metabolic pathways to target during periconception

Lifecourse nutrition encompasses nourishment from early development into parenthood. From preconception and pregnancy to childhood, late adolescence, and reproductive years, life course nutrition explores links between dietary exposures and health outcomes in current and future generations from a public health perspective, usually addressing lifestyle behaviours, reproductive well-being and maternal-child health strategies. However, nutritional factors that play a role in conceiving and sustaining new life might also require a molecular perspective and recognition of critical interactions between specific nutrients and relevant biochemical pathways. The present perspective summarises evidence about the links between diet during periconception and next-generation health and outlines the main metabolic networks involved in nutritional biology of this sensitive time frame.

The Impacts of Animal-Based Diets in Cardiovascular Disease Development: A Cellular and Physiological Overview

Cardiovascular disease (CVD) is the leading cause of death in the United States, and diet plays an instrumental role in CVD development. Plant-based diets have been strongly tied to a reduction in CVD incidence. In contrast, animal food consumption may increase CVD risk. While increased serum low-density lipoprotein (LDL) cholesterol concentrations are an established risk factor which may partially explain the positive association with animal foods and CVD, numerous other biochemical factors are also at play. Thus, the aim of this review is to summarize the major cellular and molecular effects of animal food consumption in relation to CVD development. Animal-food-centered diets may (1) increase cardiovascular toll-like receptor (TLR) signaling, due to increased serum endotoxins and oxidized LDL cholesterol, (2) increase cardiovascular lipotoxicity, (3) increase renin-angiotensin system components and subsequent angiotensin II type-1 receptor (AT1R) signaling and (4) increase serum trimethylamine-N-oxide concentrations. These nutritionally mediated factors independently increase cardiovascular oxidative stress and inflammation and are all independently tied to CVD development. Public policy efforts should continue to advocate for the consumption of a mostly plant-based diet, with the minimization of animal-based foods.

Central and Peripheral Effects of Lipopolysaccharide on Food Choice and Macronutrient Selection in Meat-Type Chick

This report aimed to determine the effect of lipopolysaccharide (LPS) on food intake in broiler chicks with different rations. All birds received a starter diet until five days of age, but experimental diets were provided on days of injections. In experimental group one, chickens received an intracerebroventricular (ICV) injection of LPS (25, 50, and 100 ng) with a standard diet. In experimental group two, chickens received intraperitoneal (IP) injections of LPS (50, 100, and 200 µg) with a standard diet. In experimental group three, birds received ICV injections of saline and different diets. Accordingly, a standard diet without fat, a diet containing 20% higher nutrient energy than the standard, a diet containing 20% less nutrient energy than the standard, and a standard diet containing fat were offered to them to investigate the desire of chickens for the diets. Experimental groups four, five, and six were similar to experimental group three, except that the chickens received ICV injections of LPS. In experimental groups seven, eight, and nine, chickens received IP injections of LPS with different diets. Afterward, their cumulative food intake was measured until 180 min post-injection. According to the results, ICV and IP injections of LPS decreased food intake (P<0.05). However, the ICV injection of saline increased the desire of chickens for the standard diet with fat (P<0.05). The ICV injection of the LPS (50 and 100 ng) increased the appetite for a standard diet with nutrient energy 20% higher than the standard and a standard diet containing fat, at 120 and 180 min after the injection (P<0.05). In addition, IP injection of LPS (200 µg) significantly increased the desire for a standard diet with nutrient energy 20% higher than the standard and a standard diet containing fat (P<0.05). These results suggested the desire of chickens for different types of rations is affected by central or peripheral administration of the LPS.

Association of Plasma Lipopolysaccharide-Binding Protein Concentration with Dietary Factors, Gut Microbiota, and Health Status in the Japanese General Adult Population: A Cross-Sectional Study

The influx of intestinal bacteria-derived lipopolysaccharide (LPS) into the blood has attracted attention as a cause of diseases. The aim of this study is investigating the associations between the influx of LPS, dietary factors, gut microbiota, and health status in the general adult population. Food/nutrient intake, gut microbiota, health status and plasma LPS-binding protein (LBP; LPS exposure indicator) were measured in 896 residents (58.1% female, mean age 54.7 years) of the rural Iwaki district of Japan, and each correlation was analyzed. As the results, plasma LBP concentration correlated with physical (right/left arms' muscle mass [β = -0.02, -0.03]), renal (plasma renin activity [β = 0.27], urine albumin creatinine ratio [β = 0.50]), adrenal cortical (cortisol [β = 0.14]), and thyroid function (free thyroxine [β = 0.05]), iron metabolism (serum iron [β = -0.14]), and markers of lifestyle-related diseases (all Qs < 0.20). Plasma LBP concentration were mainly negatively correlated with vegetables/their nutrients intake (all βs ≤ -0.004, Qs < 0.20). Plasma LBP concentration was positively correlated with the proportion of Prevotella (β = 0.32), Megamonas (β = 0.56), and Streptococcus (β = 0.65); and negatively correlated with Roseburia (β = -0.57) (all Qs < 0.20). Dietary factors correlated with plasma LBP concentration correlated with positively (all βs ≥ 0.07) or negatively (all βs ≤ -0.07) the proportion of these bacteria (all Qs < 0.20). Our results suggested that plasma LBP concentration in the Japanese general adult population was associated with various health issues, and that dietary habit was associated with plasma LBP concentration in relation to the intestinal bacteria.

Curcumin: a potential exogenous additive for the prevention of LPS-induced duck ileitis by the alleviation of inflammation and oxidative stress

BACKGROUND

Lipopolysaccharides (LPS) are the main pathogenic substances in Gram-negative bacteria. The aim of this study was to investigate the preventive effects of dietary curcumin (CUR) on LPS toxicity in the duck ileum. The duck diet was supplemented with CUR (0.5 g kg^-1 ) for 28 days, while the birds were injected with LPS (0.5 mg kg^-1 body weight per injection, administered as seven injections in the last week of the experimental period).

RESULTS

LPS significantly decreased the ileal villus-to-crypt ratio in the non-supplemented CUR group. Dietary CUR alleviated LPS-induced morphological damage to the ileum. Moreover, dietary CUR alleviated oxidative stress by increasing the levels of total superoxide dismutase (T-SOD) (P < 0.05) and glutathione S-transferase (GST) (P < 0.05) and decreasing the production of malonic dialdehyde (MDA) (P < 0.05) in control ducks and LPS-challenged ducks. Dietary CUR significantly inhibited the LPS-induced massive production of inflammatory factors (IL-1β, IL-6, and TNF-α) (P < 0.05). CUR induced the inhibition of TLR4 and activation of Nrf2 to reduce the expression of inflammation-related genes (TLR4, NF-κB, IKK, TXNIP, NLRP3, caspase-1, IL-1β, IL-6, and TNF-α). Moreover, dietary CUR ameliorated the decrease in claudin-1 and occludin expression (P < 0.05) and improved ZO-1 expression in the duck ileum (P < 0.05).

CONCLUSION

In conclusion, dietary CUR has beneficial effects on LPS-induced ileal damage, oxidative damage, and inflammatory response by inhibiting the TLR/NF-κB and activating the Nrf2 signaling pathways in ducks. This study provides valuable information regarding the therapeutic uses of CUR in duck ileitis. © 2022 Society of Chemical Industry.

Early Life Polychlorinated Biphenyl 126 Exposure Disrupts Gut Microbiota and Metabolic Homeostasis in Mice Fed with High-Fat Diet in Adulthood

Evidence supports the potential influence of persistent organic pollutants (POPs) on the pathogenesis and progression of obesity and diabetes. Diet-toxicant interactions appear to be important in diet-induced obesity/diabetes; however, the factors influencing this interaction, especially the early life environmental exposure, are unclear. Herein, we investigated the metabolic effects following early life five-day exposure (24 μg/kg body weight per day) to 3,3′,4,4′,5-pentacholorobiphenyl (PCB 126) at four months after exposure in mice fed with control (CTRL) or high-fat diet (HFD). Activation of aryl hydrocarbon receptor (AHR) signaling as well as higher levels of liver nucleotides were observed at 4 months after PCB 126 exposure in mice, independent of diet status. Inflammatory responses including higher levels of serum cytokines and adipose inflammatory gene expression caused by early life PCB 126 were observed only in HFD-fed mice in adulthood. Notably, early life PCB 126 exposure worsened HFD-induced impaired glucose homeostasis characterized by glucose intolerance and elevated gluconeogenesis and tricarboxylic acid (TCA) cycle flux without worsening the effects of HFD related to adiposity in adulthood. Furthermore, early life PCB 126 exposure resulted in diet-dependent changes in bacterial community structure and function later in life, as indicated by metagenomic and metabolomic analyses. These data contribute to a more comprehensive understanding of the interactions between diet and early life environmental chemical exposure.

Lipopolysaccharide-Induced Immunological Tolerance in Monocyte-Derived Dendritic Cells

Bacterial lipopolysaccharides (LPS), also referred to as endotoxins, are major outer surface membrane components present on almost all Gram-negative bacteria and are major determinants of sepsis-related clinical complications including septic shock. LPS acts as a strong stimulator of innate or natural immunity in a wide variety of eukaryotic species ranging from insects to humans including specific effects on the adaptive immune system. However, following immune stimulation, lipopolysaccharide can induce tolerance which is an essential immune-homeostatic response that prevents overactivation of the inflammatory response. The tolerance induced by LPS is a state of reduced immune responsiveness due to persistent and repeated challenges, resulting in decreased expression of pro-inflammatory modulators and up-regulation of antimicrobials and other mediators that promote a reduction of inflammation. The presence of environmental-derived LPS may play a key role in decreasing autoimmune diseases and gut tolerance to the plethora of ingested antigens. The use of LPS may be an important immune adjuvant as demonstrated by the promotion of IDO1 increase when present in the fusion protein complex of CTB-INS (a chimera of the cholera toxin B subunit linked to proinsulin) that inhibits human monocyte-derived DC (moDC) activation, which may act through an IDO1-dependent pathway. The resultant state of DC tolerance can be further enhanced by the presence of residual E. coli lipopolysaccharide (LPS) which is almost always present in partially purified CTB-INS preparations. The approach to using an adjuvant with an autoantigen in immunotherapy promises effective treatment for devastating tissue-specific autoimmune diseases like multiple sclerosis (MS) and type 1 diabetes (T1D).

Gut-Derived Sterile Inflammation and Parkinson's Disease

The etiology of Parkinson's disease (PD) is unknown, but evidence is increasing that there is a prominent inflammatory component to the illness. Epidemiological, genetic, and preclinical evidence support a role for gut-derived sterile inflammation. Pro-inflammatory bacteria are over-represented in the PD gut microbiota. There is evidence for decreased gut barrier function and leak of bacterial antigen across the gut epithelium with sub-mucosal inflammation and systemic exposure to the bacterial endotoxin lipopolysaccharide. Preclinical evidence supports these clinical findings and suggests that systemic inflammation can affect the CNS through vagal pathways or the systemic circulation. We will review recent preclinical and clinical evidence to support this mechanism and suggest possible treatments directed at the gut-brain axis.

Nutrition and cellular senescence in obesity-related disorders

Adequate nutrition is vital for immune homeostasis. However, the incidence of obesity is increasing worldwide due to the adoption of the Western diet and a sedentary lifestyle. Obesity is associated with chronic inflammation which alters the function of adipose tissue, liver, pancreas, and the nervous system. Inflammation is related to cellular senescence, distinguished by irreversible cell cycle arrest. Senescent cells secrete the senescence-associated secretory phenotype (SASP) which contains pro-inflammatory factors. Targeting processes in senescence might have a salutary approach to obesity. The present review highlights the impact of an unhealthy diet on tissues affected by obesity, and the mechanisms that promote the consequent inflammation and senescence.

Exercise and nutrition in type 1 diabetes: Insights from the FinnDiane cohort

Type 1 diabetes is a challenging disease, characterized by dynamic changes in the insulin need during life periods, seasons of the year, but also by everyday situations. In particular, changes in insulin need are evident before, during and after exercise and having meals. In the midst of different life demands, it can be very burdensome to achieve tight glycemic control to prevent late diabetes complications, and at the same time, to avoid hypoglycemia. Consequently, many individuals with type 1 diabetes are faced with diabetes distress, decreasing profoundly their quality of life. Today, the nationwide Finnish Diabetic Nephropathy (FinnDiane) Study, launched in 1997, has gathered data from more than 8,000 well-characterized individuals with type 1 diabetes, recruited from 93 centers all over Finland and has established its position as the world's leading project on studying complications in individuals with type 1 diabetes. Studying risk factors and mechanisms of diabetes complications is inconceivable without trying to understand the effects of exercise and nutrition on glycemic control and the development of diabetes complications. Therefore, in this paper we provide findings regarding food and exercise, accumulated during the 25 years of studying lives of Finnish people with type 1 diabetes.

Circulating Lipopolysaccharides and Impaired Antioxidant Status in Patients With Atrial Fibrillation. Data From the ATHERO-AF Study

Objectives: Atrial fibrillation (AF) is characterized by an oxidative imbalance, which is associated with an increased risk of cardiovascular events (CVEs). It is unclear whether low grade endotoxemia may contribute to the impaired antioxidant status in AF patients. We investigated the relationship between circulating lipopolysaccharides (LPS) and antioxidant status in AF patients.

Patients and Methods:Post-hoc analysis from the ongoing prospective observational cohort ATHERO-AF study including 907 patients. Antioxidant status was evaluated by the activity of glutathione peroxidase 3 (GPx3) and superoxide dismutase (SOD). Patients were divided into two groups to evaluate the risk of CVEs: (1) LPS below median and GPx3 above median (n = 254); (2) LPS above median and GPx3 below median (n = 263).

Results: The mean age was 73.5 ± 8.3 years, and 43.1% were women. Median LPS and GPx3 were 50.0 pg/ml [interquartile range (IQR) 15–108] and 20.0 U/ml (IQR 10.0–34.0), respectively. Patients of Groups 2 were older, with a higher prevalence of heart failure. LPS above the median was associated with reduced GPx3 [Odds Ratio for LPS 1.752, 95% Confidence Interval (CI) 1.344–2.285, p < 0.001] and SOD (OR 0.525, 95%CI 0.403–0.683) activity after adjustment for CHA₂DS₂VASc score. In a mean follow-up of 54.0 ± 36.8 months, 118 CVEs occurred, 42 in Group 1 and 76 in Group 2 (Log-Rank test p = 0.001). At multivariable Cox regression analysis, Group 2 was associated with a higher risk of CVEs [Hazard Ratio (HR) 1.644, 95%CI 1.117–2,421, p = 0.012], along with age ≥ 75 years (HR 2.035, 95%CI 1.394–2.972, p < 0.001), diabetes (HR 1.927, 95%CI 1.280–2.900, p = 0.002), and previous cerebrovascular disease (HR 1.895, 95%CI 1.251–2.870, p = 0.003) and previous cardiovascular disease (HR 1.708, 95%CI 1.149–2.538, p = 0.008).

Conclusions: Our study indicates that circulating LPS may contribute to impaired antioxidant status in patients with AF. Patients with coincidentally high LPS and reduced GPx3 activity showed the highest risk of CVEs.

Nut Consumption Is Associated with Lower Risk of Metabolic Syndrome and Its Components in Type 1 Diabetes

Although nut consumption has been associated with several health benefits, it has not been investigated in individuals with type 1 diabetes. Therefore, our aim was to assess nut consumption and its association with metabolic syndrome in adult individuals with type 1 diabetes taking part in the Finnish Diabetic Nephropathy Study. The nut intake of the 1058 participants was assessed from 3-day food records that were completed twice, and the number of weekly servings, assuming a serving size of 28.4 g, was calculated. Metabolic syndrome was defined as the presence of ≥3 of the cardiovascular risk factors: central obesity, high blood pressure (≥130/85 mmHg or use of antihypertensive medication), high triglyceride concentration (≥1.70 mmol/L or use of lipid-lowering medication), low HDL-cholesterol concentration (<1.00 mmol/L in men and <1.30 mmol/L in women or use of lipid-lowering medication), and hyperglycaemia. Overweight/obesity was defined as a BMI ≥25 kg/m². HbA_1c > 59 mmol/mol (>7.5%) was used as a criterion for suboptimal glycaemic control. Of the 1058 (mean age 46 years, 41.6% men) participants, 689 (54.1%) reported no nut intake. In the remaining sample, the median weekly nut intake was 40.8 g. In the adjusted models, higher nut intake, as the continuous number of weekly servings and the comparison of those with <2 and ≥2 weekly servings, was associated with lower metabolic syndrome score, waist circumference, HbA_1c, and BMI. Nut consumption as a continuous variable was negatively associated with the presence of metabolic syndrome, its blood pressure, triglyceride, and HDL-cholesterol components, and suboptimal glycaemic control. Consumption of ≥2 weekly servings was associated with lower odds of suboptimal glycaemic control (by 51.5%), overweight/obesity (by 33.4%), and metabolic syndrome (by 51.8%) and meeting the waist (by 37.3%), blood pressure (by 44.5%), triglyceride (by 37.7%), and HDL-cholesterol (by 36.2%) components of the metabolic syndrome. In conclusion, a weekly nut intake of ≥2 servings was beneficially associated with all the components of the metabolic syndrome in type 1 diabetes. The causality of this association will need to be investigated.

Dietary Fat Effect on the Gut Microbiome, and Its Role in the Modulation of Gastrointestinal Disorders in Children with Autism Spectrum Disorder

Children with autism spectrum disorder (ASD) report a higher frequency and severity of gastrointestinal disorders (GID) than typically developing (TD) children. GID-associated discomfort increases feelings of anxiety and frustration, contributing to the severity of ASD. Emerging evidence supports the biological intersection of neurodevelopment and microbiome, indicating the integral contribution of GM in the development and function of the nervous system, and mental health, and disease balance. Dysbiotic GM could be a contributing factor in the pathogenesis of GID in children with ASD. High-fat diets may modulate GM through accelerated growth of bile-tolerant bacteria, altered bacterial ratios, and reduced bacterial diversity, which may increase the risk of GID. Notably, saturated fatty acids are considered to have a pronounced effect on the increase of bile-tolerant bacteria and reduction in microbial diversity. Additionally, omega-3 exerts a favorable impact on GM and gut health due to its anti-inflammatory properties. Despite inconsistencies in the data elaborated in the review, the dietary fat composition, as part of an overall dietary intervention, plays a role in modulating GID, specifically in ASD, due to the altered microbiome profile. This review emphasizes the need to conduct future experimental studies investigating the effect of diets with varying fatty acid compositions on GID-specific microbiome profiles in children with ASD.

Alkaline phosphatase attenuates LPS-induced liver injury by regulating the miR-146a-related inflammatory pathway

Lipopolysaccharide (LPS) can remain in dairy products after the sterilization of milk powder and may pose a threat to the health of infants and young children. There is a large amount of alkaline phosphatase (ALP) in raw milk, which can remove the phosphate bond of LPS, thus, detoxifying it. ALP is regarded as an indicator of the success of milk sterilization due to its strong heat resistance. ALP can alleviate the toxicity of LPS in enteritis and nephritis models, but the mechanism by which oral-intake of ALP protects liver tissue from LPS stimulation is unclear. In this study, an in vivo acute mouse liver injury model was induced by C. sakazakii LPS (200 μg/kg) and used to verify the protective mechanism of ALP (200 U/kg) on mice livers. The related pathways were also verified by in vitro cell culture. Enzyme linked immunosorbent assays (ELISAs), quantitative reverse transcription PCR (RT-qPCR) and western blotting were used to detect the levels of inflammatory factors at the protein level and RNA level, and to confirm the inflammation of liver tissue caused by LPS. ALP was found to alleviate acute liver injury in vitro by activating miR-146a. We found that ALP could up-regulate the level of miR146a and subsequently alleviates the expression of TLR4, TNF-α, matured IL-1β, and NF-κB in mouse liver tissue and hepatocytes; thus, reducing liver inflammation. Herein, we demonstrated for the first time that oral-intake of ALP protected liver tissue by up-regulating the expression of miR-146a and alleviating inflammatory reactions; thus, providing a research basis for the proper processing of milk. This study also suggests that producers should improve the awareness of the protective effects of bioactive proteins in raw milk.

Anti-Inflammatory Activities of Euglena gracilis Extracts

Dietary supplementation with nutrients able to control intestinal and systemic inflammation is of marketable interest. Indeed, gastrointestinal homeostasis plays a significant role in maintaining human health. In this setting, E. gracilis may sustain or promote human health, but the effects on the intestinal inflammatory milieu are not clear. In this study, we investigated the anti-inflammatory activity of E. gracilis and inferred possible mechanisms. Paramylon, crude, and fractionated extracts were obtained from E. gracilis grown in vitro. Phytoconstituents of the extracts were characterized using TLC and HPLC UV-Vis. The anti-inflammatory and antioxidant activities were investigated in primary human macrophages and an intestinal epithelial cell line (HT-29). The analysis of the extracts led to identifying β-carotene, neoxanthin, diadinoxanthin, canthaxanthin, and breakdown products such as pheophytins and pheophorbides. E. gracilis fractionated extracts reduced the production of tumor necrosis factor-α triggered by bacterial lipopolysaccharide (LPS) in the short and long terms. Pheophytin a and b and canthaxanthin increased the intracellular reducing potential and dampened the production of LPS-induced reactive oxygen species and lipid peroxidation, intracellular events usually involved in the perpetuation of chronic inflammatory disorders. This study rationalizes the role of specific extract fractions of E. gracilis in controlling LPS-driven intestinal inflammation.

Mediterranean diet and prudent diet are both associated with low circulating esterified 3-hydroxy fatty acids, a proxy of LPS burden, among older adults

BACKGROUND

LPS-type endotoxins, naturally found in the gut microbiota, are recognized as triggers of inflammation and emerge as detrimental factors of healthy aging. Nutrition represents a promising strategy to reduce LPS burden, yet little is known about the relation of diet to circulating LPS concentrations.

OBJECTIVE

The aim was to evaluate the associations between food groups, dietary patterns, and circulating 3-hydroxy fatty acids (3-OH FAs), a proxy of LPS burden.

METHODS

In a cross-sectional study of 698 French older community-dwelling individuals, 3-OH FA concentrations were measured by LC-tandem MS. Dietary patterns were determined using food-frequency questionnaires. Adherence to a Mediterranean-type diet was computed according to the consumption of 8 food groups (fruits, vegetables, legumes, cereals, fish, olive oil, meat, and dairy products) and alcohol intake (range: 0, low adherence, to 18, high adherence). Three a posteriori dietary patterns were derived from factor analysis: complex carbohydrate (rich in rice, pasta, eggs, poultry, and potatoes), traditional (rich in alcohol, meat, processed meats-cold cuts, and legumes), and prudent (rich in vegetables and fruits and low in cookies) diets. Linear regression models were applied.

RESULTS

The frequency of consumption of each food group was not associated with 3-OH FA concentrations. Greater adherence to both the Mediterranean diet and the prudent diet were associated with lower circulating 3-OH FAs (β [95% CI] for each additional point of score: -0.12 [-0.22, -0.01] and -0.27 [-0.48, -0.07], respectively). In contrast, greater adherence to the traditional diet was associated with higher concentration of 3-OH FAs (β [95% CI] 0.22 [0.001, 0.46]). The adherence to the complex-carbohydrate diet was not associated with 3-OH FA concentrations.

CONCLUSIONS

Based on 2 complementary approaches, the identified plant-based dietary patterns were associated with lower 3-OH FA concentrations, and thus a lower LPS burden, which is considered a potent trigger of inflammatory response.

Native Low-Density Lipoproteins Act in Synergy with Lipopolysaccharide to Alter the Balance of Human Monocyte Subsets and Their Ability to Produce IL-1 Beta, CCR2, and CX3CR1 In Vitro and In Vivo: Implications in Atherogenesis

Increasing evidence has demonstrated that oxidized low-density lipoproteins (oxLDL) and lipopolysaccharide (LPS) enhance accumulation of interleukin (IL)-1 beta-producing macrophages in atherosclerotic lesions. However, the potential synergistic effect of native LDL (nLDL) and LPS on the inflammatory ability and migration pattern of monocyte subpopulations remains elusive and is examined here. In vitro, whole blood cells from healthy donors (n = 20) were incubated with 100 μg/mL nLDL, 10 ng/mL LPS, or nLDL + LPS for 9 h. Flow cytometry assays revealed that nLDL significantly decreases the classical monocyte (CM) percentage and increases the non-classical monocyte (NCM) subset. While nLDL + LPS significantly increased the number of NCMs expressing IL-1 beta and the C-C chemokine receptor type 2 (CCR2), the amount of NCMs expressing the CX3C chemokine receptor 1 (CX3CR1) decreased. In vivo, patients (n = 85) with serum LDL-cholesterol (LDL-C) >100 mg/dL showed an increase in NCM, IL-1 beta, LPS-binding protein (LBP), and Castelli’s atherogenic risk index as compared to controls (n = 65) with optimal LDL-C concentrations (≤100 mg/dL). This work demonstrates for the first time that nLDL acts in synergy with LPS to alter the balance of human monocyte subsets and their ability to produce inflammatory cytokines and chemokine receptors with prominent roles in atherogenesis.

Impact of Fat Intake on Blood Glucose Control and Cardiovascular Risk Factors in Children and Adolescents with Type 1 Diabetes

Nutrition therapy is a cornerstone of type 1 diabetes (T1D) management. Glycemic control is affected by diet composition, which can contribute to the development of diabetes complications. However, the specific role of macronutrients is still debated, particularly fat intake. This review aims at assessing the relationship between fat intake and glycemic control, cardiovascular risk factors, inflammation, and microbiota, in children and adolescents with T1D. High fat meals are followed by delayed and prolonged hyperglycemia and higher glycated hemoglobin A1c levels have been frequently reported in individuals with T1D consuming high amounts of fat. High fat intake has also been associated with increased cardiovascular risk, which is higher in people with diabetes than in healthy subjects. Finally, high fat meals lead to postprandial pro-inflammatory responses through different mechanisms, including gut microbiota modifications. Different fatty acids were proposed to have a specific role in metabolic regulation, however, further investigation is still necessary. In conclusion, available evidence suggests that a high fat intake should be avoided by children and adolescents with T1D, who should be encouraged to adhere to a healthy and balanced diet, as suggested by ISPAD and ADA recommendations. This nutritional choice might be beneficial for reducing cardiovascular risk and inflammation.

Possible Biochemical Processes Underlying the Positive Health Effects of Plant-Based Diets-A Narrative Review

Plant-based diets are becoming more popular for many reasons, and epidemiological as well as clinical data also suggest that a well-balanced vegan diet can be adopted for the prevention, and in some cases, in the treatment of many diseases. In this narrative review, we provide an overview of the relationships between these diets and various conditions and their potential biochemical background. As whole plant foods are very rich in food-derived antioxidants and other phytochemicals, they have many positive physiological effects on different aspects of health. In the background of the beneficial health effects, several biochemical processes could stand, including the reduced formation of trimethylamine oxide (TMAO) or decreased serum insulin-like growth factor 1 (IGF-1) levels and altered signaling pathways such as mechanistic target of rapamycin (mTOR). In addition, the composition of plant-based diets may play a role in preventing lipotoxicity, avoiding N-glycolylneuraminic acid (Neu5Gc), and reducing foodborne endotoxin intake. In this article, we attempt to draw attention to the growing knowledge about these diets and provide starting points for further research.

Interaction between Lipopolysaccharide and Gut Microbiota in Inflammatory Bowel Diseases

Lipopolysaccharides (LPSs) are bacterial surface glycolipids, produced by Gram-negative bacteria. LPS is known to determine acute inflammatory reactions, particularly in the context of sepsis. However, LPS can also trigger chronic inflammation. In this case, the source of LPS is not an external infection, but rather an increase in endogenous production, which is usually sustained by gut microbiota (GM), and LPS contained in food. The first site in which LPS can exert its inflammatory action is the gut: both GM and gut-associated lymphoid tissue (GALT) are influenced by LPS and shift towards an inflammatory pattern. The changes in GM and GALT induced by LPS are quite similar to the ones seen in IBD: GM loses diversity, while GALT T regulatory (Tregs) lymphocytes are reduced in number, with an increase in Th17 and Th1 lymphocytes. Additionally, the innate immune system is triggered, through the activation of toll-like receptor (TLR)-4, while the epithelium is directly damaged, further triggering inflammation. In this review, we will discuss the importance of the crosstalk between LPS, GM, and GALT, and discuss the possible implications.

Two Gut Microbiota-Derived Toxins Are Closely Associated with Cardiovascular Diseases: A Review

Cardiovascular diseases (CVDs) have become a major health problem because of the associated high morbidity and mortality rates observed in affected patients. Gut microbiota has recently been implicated as a novel endocrine organ that plays critical roles in the regulation of cardiometabolic and renal functions of the host via the production of bioactive metabolites. This review investigated the evidence from several clinical and experimental studies that indicated an association between the gut microbiota-derived toxins and CVDs. We mainly focused on the pro-inflammatory gut microbiota-derived toxins, namely lipopolysaccharides, derived from Gram-negative bacteria, and trimethylamine N-oxide and described the present status of research in association with these toxins, including our previous research findings. Several clinical studies aimed at exploring the effectiveness of reducing the levels of these toxins to inhibit cardiovascular events are currently under investigation or in the planning stages. We believe that some of the methods discussed in this review to eliminate or reduce the levels of such toxins in the body could be clinically applied to prevent CVDs in the near future.

Adipose Tissue Macrophage Polarization in Healthy and Unhealthy Obesity

Over 650 million adults are obese (body mass index ≥ 30 kg/m²) worldwide. Obesity is commonly associated with several comorbidities, including cardiovascular disease and type II diabetes. However, compiled estimates suggest that from 5 to 40% of obese individuals do not experience metabolic or cardiovascular complications. The existence of the metabolically unhealthy obese (MUO) and the metabolically healthy obese (MHO) phenotypes suggests that underlying differences exist in both tissues and overall systemic function. Macrophage accumulation in white adipose tissue (AT) in obesity is typically associated with insulin resistance. However, as plastic cells, macrophages respond to stimuli in their microenvironments, altering their polarization between pro- and anti-inflammatory phenotypes, depending on the state of their surroundings. The dichotomous nature of MHO and MUO clinical phenotypes suggests that differences in white AT function dictate local inflammatory responses by driving changes in macrophage subtypes. As obesity requires extensive AT expansion, we posit that remodeling capacity with adipose expansion potentiates favorable macrophage profiles in MHO as compared with MUO individuals. In this review, we discuss how differences in adipogenesis, AT extracellular matrix deposition and breakdown, and AT angiogenesis perpetuate altered AT macrophage profiles in MUO compared with MHO. We discuss how non-autonomous effects of remote organ systems, including the liver, gastrointestinal tract, and cardiovascular system, interact with white adipose favorably in MHO. Preferential AT macrophage profiles in MHO stem from sustained AT function and improved overall fitness and systemic health.

Lauric acid ameliorates lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-induced liver inflammation by mediating TLR4/MyD88 pathway in Sprague Dawley (SD) rats

BACKGROUND

Lipopolysaccharide (LPS) is an endotoxin that leads to inflammation in many organs, including liver. It binds to pattern recognition receptors, that generally recognise pathogen expressed molecules to transduce signals that result in a multifaceted network of intracellular responses ending up in inflammation. Aim In this study, we used lauric acid (LA), a constituent abundantly found in coconut oil to determine its anti-inflammatory role in LPS-induced liver inflammation in Sprague Dawley (SD) rats.

METHOD

Male SD rats were divided into five groups (n = 8), injected with LPS and thereafter treated with LA (50 and 100 mg/kg) or vehicle orally for 14 days. After fourteen days of LA treatment, all the groups were humanely killed to investigate biochemical parameters followed by pro-inflammatory cytokine markers; tumour necrosis factor-α (TNF-α), interleukin-6 (IL-6), and IL-1β. Moreover, liver tissues were harvested for histopathological studies and evaluation of targeted protein expression with western blot and localisation through immunohistochemistry (IHC).

RESULTS

The study results showed that treatment of LA 50 and 100 mg/kg for 14 days were able to reduce the elevated level of pro-inflammatory cytokines, liver inflammation, and downregulated the expression of TLR4/NF-κB mediating proteins in liver tissues.

CONCLUSION

These findings suggest that treatment of LA has a protective role against LPS-induced liver inflammation in rats, thus, warrants further in-depth investigation through mechanistic approaches in different study models.

Pediatric Non-Alcoholic Fatty Liver Disease: Nutritional Origins and Potential Molecular Mechanisms

Non-alcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD) is the number one chronic liver disease worldwide and is estimated to affect nearly 40% of obese youth and up to 10% of the general pediatric population without any obvious signs or symptoms. Although the early stages of NAFLD are reversible with diet and lifestyle modifications, detecting such stages is hindered by a lack of non-invasive methods of risk assessment and diagnosis. This absence of non-invasive means of diagnosis is directly related to the scarcity of long-term prospective studies of pediatric NAFLD in children and adolescents. In the majority of pediatric NAFLD cases, the mechanisms driving the origin and rapid progression of NAFLD remain unknown. The progression from NAFLD to non-alcoholic steatohepatitis (NASH) in youth is associated with unique histological features and possible immune processes and metabolic pathways that may reflect different mechanisms compared with adults. Recent data suggest that circulating microRNAs (miRNAs) are important new biomarkers underlying pathways of liver injury. Several factors may contribute to pediatric NAFLD development, including high-sugar diets, in utero exposures via epigenetic alterations, changes in the neonatal microbiome, and altered immune system development and mitochondrial function. This review focuses on the unique aspects of pediatric NAFLD and how nutritional exposures impact the immune system, mitochondria, and liver/gastrointestinal metabolic health. These factors highlight the need for answers to how NAFLD develops in children and for early stage-specific interventions.

Bioactivities of hen's egg yolk phosvitin and its functional phosphopeptides in food industry and health

Phosvitin, one of the most noteworthy bioactive components of hen egg yolk, is an amphiphilic protein that stands out with its unique composition and functionality in the food industry and health. Phosvitin consists of 4% of egg yolk dry matter and 11% of egg yolk proteins. It is considered as the most phosphorylated protein with 10% phosphorus. Besides, some potential novel phosphopeptides containing clusters of phosphoserines can be derived from hen's egg yolk phosvitin. Phosvitin, which has many functional features thanks to its unique structure, is known primarily for its metal bonds binding (iron, calcium, etc.) feature. On the other hand, its phosphopeptides may increase the bioavailability of metals compared to phosvitin. Although this feature of phosvitin may partially decrease the bioavailability of especially iron in the egg, it allows the phosvitin to have many bioactivities in the food industry and health. Lipid oxidation, which is a serious problem in the food industry, can be inhibited by adding phosvitin and its derived phosphopeptides to the food production chain via inhibiting bivalent iron. Because phosvitin is an amphiphilic protein capable of chelating, it also shows potential antibacterial effects against the Gram-negative bacteria. Moreover, the literature has recently been attempting to define the promising relationship between phosvitin and its phosphopeptides and plenty of health-promoting activities such as immune-enhancing, melanogenesis inhibitor, anti-ageing, and anticancer. In this review, current information on the hen's egg yolk phosvitin and its phosphopeptides and their bioactivities in the food industry and health are discussed and some future directions are given.

Interactions among endotoxin, uric acid, and lactate in relation to the risk of type 2 diabetes: A population-based study

BACKGROUND

Blood levels of endotoxin, uric acid (UA), or lactate (LAC) are associated with type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM). Thus, we explored the interactions among blood endotoxin, UA, and LAC levels and the risk of T2DM.

METHODS

This population-based cross-sectional study included 2520 Chinese adults. Fasting blood endotoxin, UA, and LAC levels were determined and the cut-off values were obtained from the receiver operating characteristic curve analysis. The study population was classified into two or four subgroups based on low or high, or both low and high levels of endotoxin, UA, and LAC, respectively.

RESULTS

The odds ratios (ORs) for T2DM (all P < .05) were higher in the high groups than the low groups of endotoxin, UA, or LAC, respectively. Participants in the groups with high levels of both endotoxin and UA, endotoxin and LAC, or UA and LAC, had 4.71 (95% CI 3.01-7.37), 5.13 (95% CI 3.29-7.99), or 3.73 (95% CI 2.34-5.94) times higher risk for T2DM compared to those in groups with low levels of both endotoxin and UA, endotoxin and LAC, or UA and LAC (all P < 0.05), respectively. In the interaction analysis, an interactive effect between endotoxin and UA (P < .05), or endotoxin and LAC (P < .05), but not UA and LAC, was observed that contributed to an increased risk of T2DM.

CONCLUSIONS

The interaction between levels of endotoxin and UA or levels of endotoxin and LAC was related to an increased risk of T2DM in the Chinese population.

Poor Adherence to Mediterranean Diet and Serum Lipopolysaccharide are Associated with Oxidative Stress in Patients with Non-Alcoholic Fatty Liver Disease

Oxidative stress plays a pivotal role in non-alcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD). Factors inducing oxidative stress in NAFLD may be several; however, a relationship with the adherence to Mediterranean Diet (Med-diet) and with serum lipopolysaccharide (LPS) has been poorly investigated in this setting. The aim was to investigate factors associated with impaired oxidative stress in NAFLD, focusing on the potential role of LPS and Med-diet. We enrolled 238 consecutive outpatients from the PLINIO study, in whom we measured the soluble Nox2-derived peptide (sNox2-dp), a marker of systemic oxidative stress, and serum LPS. Adherence to Med-diet was investigated by a nine-item validated dietary questionnaire. Serum sNox2-dp and LPS were higher in patients with NAFLD compared to those without (25.0 vs. 9.0 pg/mL, p < 0.001 and 62.0 vs. 44.9 pg/mL, p < 0.001, respectively). In patients with NAFLD, the highest sNox2-dp tertile was associated with the top serum LPS tertile (Odds Ratio (OR): 4.71; p < 0.001), APRI > 0.7 (OR: 6.96; p = 0.005) and Med-diet-score > 6 (OR: 0.14; p = 0.026). Analyzing individual foods, the daily consumption of wine (OR: 0.29, p = 0.046) and the adequate weekly consumption of fish (OR: 0.32, p = 0.030) inversely correlated with the top sNox2-dp tertile. In conclusion, patients with NAFLD showed impaired oxidative stress. Levels of sNox2 correlated with serum LPS and with low adherence to Med-Diet.

Gut-Muscle AxisExists and May Affect Skeletal Muscle Adaptation to Training

Excessive training may limit physiological muscle adaptation through chronic oxidative stress and inflammation. Improper diet and overtraining may also disrupt intestinal homeostasis and in consequence enhance inflammation. Altogether, these factors may lead to an imbalance in the gut ecosystem, causing dysregulation of the immune system. Therefore, it seems to be important to optimize the intestinal microbiota composition, which is able to modulate the immune system and reduce oxidative stress. Moreover, the optimal intestinal microbiota composition may have an impact on muscle protein synthesis and mitochondrial biogenesis and function, as well as muscle glycogen storage. Aproperly balanced microbiome may also reduce inflammatory markers and reactive oxygen species production, which may further attenuate macromolecules damage. Consequently, supplementation with probiotics may have some beneficial effect on aerobic and anaerobic performance. The phenomenon of gut-muscle axis should be continuously explored to function maintenance, not only in athletes.

Coffee Consumption and C-Reactive Protein Levels: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis

Coffee contains bioactive compounds with anti-inflammatory properties, and its consumption may reduce c-reactive protein (CRP) levels, a biomarker of chronic inflammation. A previous meta-analysis reported no overall association between blood CRP level and coffee consumption by modeling the coffee consumption in categories, with substantial heterogeneity. However, the coffee cup volume was not considered. We conducted a systematic review and dose-response meta-analysis investigating the association between coffee consumption and CRP levels reported in previous observational studies. A dose-response meta-analysis was conducted by mixed-effects meta-regression models using the volume of coffee consumed as metric. Eleven studies from three continents were identified using the PubMed database, totaling 61,047 participants. Three studies with the largest sample sizes observed a statistically significant association between coffee and CRP levels, which was inverse among European and United States (US) women and Japanese men (1.3%-5.5% decrease in CRP per 100 mL of coffee consumed) and positive among European men (2.2% increase). Other studies showed no statistically significant associations. When all studies were combined in the dose-response meta-analysis, no statistically significant associations were observed among all participants or when stratified by gender or geographic location, reflecting the conflicting associations reported in the included studies. Further studies are warranted to explore these inconsistent associations.

Food additive "lauric acid" possess non-toxic profile on biochemical, haematological and histopathological studies in female Sprague Dawley (SD) rats

Background

Lauric acid (LA), a common constituent of coconut oil, is used as food additives and supplements in various formulations. Despite various potential pharmacological properties, no scientific evidence on its dose-related toxicity and safety is available till date.

Objective

The current study was conducted to evaluate acute oral toxicity of LA on normal rats.

Methods

The study was conducted in accordance with the Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development guidelines (OECD 423) with slight modifications. LA was administered orally to female Sprague Dawley (SD) rats (n = 6/group) at a single dose of 300 and 2,000 mg/kg body weight, respectively, while normal control received vehicle only. Animals from all the three groups were monitored for any behavioural and toxicological changes and mortality for two weeks. Food and fluid consumption, body weight was monitored on daily basis. At the end (on day 15th) of the experimental period, blood was collected for haematological and biochemical analysis. Further, all the animals were euthanized, and internal organs were harvested for histopathological investigation using four different stainings; haematoxylin and eosin, Masson trichrome, Periodic Acid Schiff and Picro Sirius Red for gross pathology through microscopical observation.

Results

The study results showed no LA treatment-related mortality and morbidity at two different dosages. Daily food and water consumption, body weight, relative organ weight, haematological, and biochemical analysis were observed to be normal with no severe alterations to the internal tissues.

Conclusion

The current finding suggests that single oral administration of LA, even up to 2,000 mg/kg body weight, did not exhibit any signs of toxicity in SD rats; thus, it was safe to be used on disease models in animals.

Effect of dietary 25-hydroxycholecalciferol supplementation and high stocking density on performance, egg quality, and tibia quality in laying hens

This study was conducted to determine the effects of 25-hydroxycholecalciferol (25-OH-D₃) on performance, egg quality, tibia quality, and serum hormones concentration in laying hens reared under high stocking density. A total of 800 45-week-old Lohmann laying hens were randomly allotted into a 2 × 2 factorial design with 2 levels of dietary 25-OH-D₃ levels (0 and 69 μg/kg) and 2 rates of stocking densities [506 (low density) and 338 (high density) cm²/hen]. Laying hens were monitored for 16 wk. High stocking density decreased laying rate, egg weight, and feed intake compared with low stocking density (P < 0.01) during 1 to 8 wk and 1 to 16 wk. Overall, high stocking density increased eggshell lightness value and decreased shell redness and yellowness value, strength, thickness, and relative weight compared with low stocking density (P < 0.05). Dietary supplementation with 25-OH-D₃ reduced the value of the eggshell lightness and increased its yellowness and eggshells weight (P ≤ 0.05). The increase in eggshell thickness was more pronounced when 25-OH-D₃ was supplemented to layers under high stocking density (interaction, P < 0.05). Layers under high stocking density had lower ash content and calcium content in the tibia than layers under low stocking density (P = 0.04); dietary 25-OH-D₃ increased tibia strength compared with no addition (P = 0.05). Layers under high stocking density had higher serum concentrations of 25-OH-D₃, corticosterone (CORT), lipopolysaccharide (LPS), and osteocalcin (OC; P < 0.05), lower content of parathyroid hormone (PTH) compared with layers under low stocking density (P < 0.01). Dietary 25-OH-D₃ increased serum concentration of 25-OH-D₃, carbonic anhydrase (CA), and calcitonin (CT) (P < 0.01) and reduced corticosterone, lipopolysaccharide and osteocalcin concentration (P ≤ 0.05). The increase effect in PTH was more pronounced when 25-OH-D₃ was supplemented to layers under high stocking density (interaction, P = 0.05). Overall, the results gathered in this study indicate that high stocking density result in reducing production performance, shell color and quality, and tibia health, whereas dietary 25-OH-D₃ was able to maintain tibia health and to mitigate the negative impact of high stocking density on productive performance.

LPS Modulates the Expression of Iron-Related Immune Genes in Two Antarctic Notothenoids

The non-specific immunity can induce iron deprivation as a defense mechanism against potential bacterial pathogens, but little information is available as to its role in Antarctic fish. In this study the response of iron metabolism related genes was evaluated in liver and head kidney of the Antarctic notothenoids Notothenia coriiceps and Notothenia rossii 7 days after lipopolysaccharide (LPS) injection. Average plasma Fe²⁺ concentration was unaffected by treatment in any of the species. The gene expression response to LPS varied between tissues and species, being stronger in N. coriiceps and more prominent in the head kidney than liver. The reaction to LPS was marked by increased individual variability in most genes analyzed, even when the change in expression was not statistically significant, suggesting different individual sensitivity and coping responses in these wild fish. We found that iron related genes had an attenuated and homogenous response to LPS but there was no detectable relationship between plasma Fe²⁺ and gene expression. However, overall in both tissues and species LPS exposure set a multilevel response that concur to promote intracellular accumulation of iron, an indication that Antarctic Notothenoids use innate nutritional immunity as a resistance mechanism against pathogens.

Perceived Stress and Adherence to the Dietary Recommendations and Blood Glucose Levels in Type 1 Diabetes

Stress may negatively impact self-management of diabetes and thereby deteriorate glycaemic control. Eating is the most frequently reported stress-release method. In this study, we investigated the association between perceived stress (PS), dietary adherence, and glycaemic control. Data from participants in the FinnDiane Study with type 1 diabetes who had completed a diet questionnaire and Cohen's perceived stress scale (PSS) were included. In addition to using a continuous PSS score, participants were divided into three groups based on the PSS scores: the first PSS quartile, low levels of PS; second and third quartiles, moderate levels of PS; and fourth quartile, high levels of PS. A diet score reflecting the level of adherence to dietary recommendations was calculated. Analyses were conducted in the whole sample and in subgroups divided by body mass index (BMI < 25 kg/m² vs. BMI ≥ 25 kg/m²). In the whole sample, high PS and continuous stress score were negatively associated with the diet score and with adherence to fish, fresh vegetable, low-fat liquid milk product, and vegetable oil-based cooking fat recommendations. The stress score was negatively associated with the diet score both in lean and in those overweight or obese. However, fish and fresh vegetable recommendations were only affected in those with corpulence. PS was not associated with mean blood glucose concentrations in the whole sample. When divided by BMI status, worse glycaemic control was observed in lean subjects reporting stress. In individuals with overweight or obesity, instead, high glucose concentrations were observed regardless of the level of perceived stress. Interventions to improve stress management could improve dietary adherence and glycaemic control and could thereby have the potential to improve long-term health and well-being of individuals with type 1 diabetes.

Meal timing, meal frequency, and breakfast skipping in adult individuals with type 1 diabetes - associations with glycaemic control

We assessed meal timing, meal frequency, and breakfast consumption habits of adult individuals with type 1 diabetes (n = 1007) taking part in the Finnish Diabetic Nephropathy Study, and studied whether they are associated with glycaemic control. Data on dietary intake and blood glucose measurements were retrieved from food records. HbA_1c was measured at the study visit. In the whole sample, four peaks of energy intake emerged. Energy intake was the greatest in the evening, followed by midday. Altogether 7% of the participants reported no energy intake between 05:00 and 09:59 (breakfast skippers). While breakfast skippers reported lower number of meals, no difference was observed in the total energy intake between those eating and omitting breakfast. In a multivariable model, skipping breakfast was associated with higher mean blood glucose concentrations and lower odds of good glycaemic control. A median of 6 daily meals was reported. Adjusted for confounders, the number of meals was negatively associated with HbA_1c, and the mean of the blood glucose measurements, but positively associated with the variability of these measurements. Our observations support the habit of a regular meal pattern, including consumption of breakfast and multiple smaller meals for good glycaemic control in adults with type 1 diabetes. However, an increase in the blood glucose variability may additionally be expected with an increase in the number of meals eaten.

Human Postprandial Nutrient Metabolism and Low-Grade Inflammation: A Narrative Review

The importance of the postprandial state has been acknowledged, since hyperglycemia and hyperlipidemia are linked with several chronic systemic low-grade inflammation conditions. Humans spend more than 16 h per day in the postprandial state and the postprandial state is acknowledged as a complex interplay between nutrients, hormones and diet-derived metabolites. The purpose of this review is to provide insight into the physiology of the postprandial inflammatory response, the role of different nutrients, the pro-inflammatory effects of metabolic endotoxemia and the anti-inflammatory effects of bile acids. Moreover, we discuss nutritional strategies that may be linked to the described pathways to modulate the inflammatory component of the postprandial response.

Interactive association of lipopolysaccharide and free fatty acid with the prevalence of type 2 diabetes: A community-based cross-sectional study

AIMS/INTRODUCTION

Increased blood lipopolysaccharide (LPS) or free fatty acid (FFA) levels correlate with an increased risk of type 2 diabetes. The purpose of the present study was to evaluate the interactive effect of serum LPS and FFA levels on the prevalence of type 2 diabetes.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

This cross-sectional study included 2,553 community-dwelling Chinese adults. Fasting serum LPS levels were determined using the Limulus Amebocyte Lysate Chromogenic Endpoint assay, and FFA levels were determined using an enzymatic method. The participants were divided into three groups according to the tertiles of LPS or FFA levels or nine groups according to the tertiles of LPS and FFA levels. The odd ratios (ORs) for type 2 diabetes were estimated using logistic regression analysis.

RESULTS

We found that higher serum LPS or FFA levels were associated with higher high-sensitivity C-reactive protein levels (P < 0.001), homeostatic model assessment of insulin resistance levels (P < 0.001) and ORs for type 2 diabetes (P < 0.01). Meanwhile, there were significant interactions between LPS and FFA in terms of the high-sensitivity C-reactive protein level (P < 0.001), homeostatic model assessment of insulin resistance level (P < 0.001) and ORs for type 2 diabetes (P < 0.001). In the fully adjusted logistic regression model, the OR for participants with type 2 diabetes in the higher LPS and FFA level group were 6.58 (95% confidence interval 3.05-14.18, P < 0.001) compared with that in participants in the lower LPS and FFA level group.

CONCLUSIONS

The interaction between LPS and FFA was associated with an increased risk of type 2 diabetes in community-dwelling Chinese adults.

Associations of dietary macronutrient and fibre intake with glycaemia in individuals with Type 1 diabetes

AIMS

To study the association between dietary intake and glycaemia in Type 1 diabetes.

METHODS

Data on energy and nutrient intakes, and the mean and coefficient of variation of self-monitored blood glucose measurements were obtained from records completed by 1000 adults with Type 1 diabetes. Associations between these measures of glycaemia and dietary intake were investigated using generalized linear regression, with and without macronutrient substitution.

RESULTS

In the first set of analyses, fibre intake was associated with lower mean self-monitored blood glucose values (β = -0.428, 95% CI -0.624 to -0.231; P<0.001). In these same analyses, carbohydrate (β = 0.011, 95% CI 0.002 to 0.020; P=0.014), alcohol (β = 0.013, 95% CI 0.003 to 0.023; P=0.009) and monounsaturated fatty acid intakes (β=0.012, 95% CI 0.001 to 0.023; P=0.029) were associated with higher variability in blood glucose measurements. In the macronutrient substitution analyses, substituting proteins for either carbohydrates (β = -0.026, 95% CI -0.040 to -0.013; P<0.001), fats (β = -0.018, 95% CI -0.033 to -0.004; P=0.014), or alcohol (β = -0.026, 95% CI -0.045 to -0.006; P=0.010), or fats for carbohydrates (β=-0.009, 95% CI -0.017 to -0.001; P=0.030), were all associated with lower variability in the measured blood glucose values. After adjusting for fibre intake, no significant results were observed in analyses of mean self-monitored blood glucose.

CONCLUSIONS

This observational, cross-sectional study indicates that dietary fibre is associated with lower mean blood glucose concentrations in people with Type 1 diabetes. Glycaemic excursions were reduced when protein was substituted for other macronutrients and when fat replaced carbohydrate, after adjusting for fibre intake.

Regulation of Gut Microbiota and Metabolic Endotoxemia with Dietary Factors

Metabolic endotoxemia is a condition in which blood lipopolysaccharide (LPS) levels are elevated, regardless of the presence of obvious infection. It has been suggested to lead to chronic inflammation-related diseases such as obesity, type 2 diabetes mellitus, non-alcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD), pancreatitis, amyotrophic lateral sclerosis, and Alzheimer’s disease. In addition, it has attracted attention as a target for the prevention and treatment of these chronic diseases. As metabolic endotoxemia was first reported in mice that were fed a high-fat diet, research regarding its relationship with diets has been actively conducted in humans and animals. In this review, we summarize the relationship between fat intake and induction of metabolic endotoxemia, focusing on gut dysbiosis and the influx, kinetics, and metabolism of LPS. We also summarize the recent findings about dietary factors that attenuate metabolic endotoxemia, focusing on the regulation of gut microbiota. We hope that in the future, control of metabolic endotoxemia using dietary factors will help maintain human health.

Dietary intake in type 1 diabetes at different stages of diabetic kidney disease

AIM

Diet plays an important role in the kidney health of individuals with type 1 diabetes. However, not much is known about dietary practices at different stages of diabetic nephropathy. We aimed at investigating food intake, dietary patterns, and nutrient intakes in individuals with type 1 diabetes differing in renal status.

METHODS

Data were available from 1874 individuals with type 1 diabetes (45% men, age 48 ± 13 years). Diet was assessed at the levels of food items and diet patterns (diet questionnaire), and energy and nutrient intakes (food record). Six groups were formed based on the eGFR or dialysis and transplantation status.

RESULTS

Reductions in liquid-milk product and salt consumption, and increase in special diet adherence were observed at the early stages of eGFR decline. Reduced coffee consumption was observed after eGFR was <30 ml/min/1.73 m². With advancing kidney failure, rye bread consumption decreased, but that of wheat bread increased. Compared to those with intact kidney function (the index group), the Fish and vegetable diet pattern scores were higher in individuals with mildly-to-severely decreased eGFR. Instead, the Sweet pattern scores were lower than in the index group in all other groups. Energy intake was lower in all groups compared to those with intact kidney function. Advancing kidney failure was associated with reductions in protein intake per body weight, and in the intakes of sodium, potassium, calcium, and phosphorus.

CONCLUSIONS

Differences in the dietary intake are seen already at the early stages of kidney function decline.

Dietary carbohydrate intake and cardio-metabolic risk factors in type 1 diabetes

AIMS

Low-carbohydrate diet (LCD) has gained interest among individuals with diabetes as a means to manage glycaemia. We investigated the adherence to LCD in the Finnish Diabetic Nephropathy Study and whether carbohydrate restriction is associated with cardio-metabolic risk factors.

METHODS

Cross-sectional data were available from 902 individuals with type 1 diabetes (44% men, age 47 ± 13 years). Dietary data were collected twice with a 3-day diet record. Mean of the measurements was used. Carbohydrate intake <130 g/day or <26 E% was used as indication of LCD. Individuals reporting LCD were compared to sex-, diabetes duration- and eGFR-matched controls with higher carbohydrate intakes (>253 g/day or >48 E%). In the whole population, carbohydrate-to-fat ratio was calculated and its association with health variables was investigated.

RESULTS

Higher carbohydrate-to-fat ratio was associated with higher blood glucose variability, higher blood pressure, lower HDL cholesterol concentration, and in men with lower waist-to-hip ratio. LCD adherence (n = 69) was associated with lower BMI (25.6 vs. 27.8 kg/m², p = 0.030), lower variability of blood glucose measurements (0.38 vs. 0.45 mmol/l, p = 0.030), and lower diastolic blood pressure (74 vs. 79 mmHg, p = 0.048). Men reporting LCD had higher total (5.1 vs. 4.0 mmol/l, p = 0.007) and non-HDL cholesterol (3.4 vs. 2.7 mmol/l, p = 0.021). Women with LCD had higher HDL-cholesterol concentration (1.9 vs. 1.5 mmol/l, p = 0.014).

CONCLUSIONS

Reduced blood glucose variability, related to LCD, could have clinical relevance to individuals with type 1 diabetes.

Dysbiosis of Gram-negative gut microbiota and the associated serum lipopolysaccharide exacerbates inflammation in type 2 diabetic patients with chronic kidney disease

Lipopolysaccharide (LPS), a potent endotoxin present in the outer membrane of Gram-negative bacteria, causes chronic immune responses associated with inflammation. In the present study, the association between LPS and the dysbiosis of Gram-negative bacteria in the gut microbiome was determined in patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM) and chronic kidney disease (T2DM-CKD; stages 4 and 5, not on dialysis) compared with healthy individuals. Microbiome diversity was analyzed in patients with T2DM-CKD and healthy controls by sequencing the hypervariable sub-regions of the 16S ribosomal RNA gene from stool samples. Serum samples were assayed by ELISA for LPS, C-reactive protein (CRP), tumor necrosis factor-α (TNFα), interleukin-6 (IL6) and endothelin-1. A total of four gut Gram-negative phyla (Bacteroidetes, Proteobacteria, Fusobacteria and Verrucomicrobia) were identified in the gut microbiome of the T2DM-CKD and control groups. Proteobacteria, Verrucomicrobia and Fusobacteria exhibited significantly increased relative abundance in patients with T2DM-CKD when compared with controls (P<0.05). The levels of serum LPS were significantly increased in patients with T2DM-CKD compared with controls (P<0.05). Elevated serum LPS was significantly correlated with increased levels of TNFα, IL6 and CRP. The dysbiosis of Gram-negative bacteria in the gut microbiome of patients with T2DM-CKD may contribute to the elevated serum levels of LPS and the consequential effects on the inflammatory biomarkers in these patients. The association between the dysbiosis of Gram-negative bacteria in the gut microbiome of patients with T2DM-CKD, increased LPS levels and the effects on inflammatory biomarkers may provide insight into potential diagnostic and therapeutic approaches in the treatment of T2DM-CKD.

Metabolic Endotoxemia: A Potential Underlying Mechanism of the Relationship between Dietary Fat Intake and Risk for Cognitive Impairments in Humans?

(1) Background: Nutrition is a major lifestyle factor that can prevent the risk of cognitive impairment and dementia. Diet-induced metabolic endotoxemia has been proposed as a major root cause of inflammation and these pathways emerge as detrimental factors of healthy ageing. The aim of this paper was to update research focusing on the relationship between a fat-rich diet and endotoxemia, and to discuss the potential role of endotoxemia in cognitive performances. (2) Methods: We conducted a non-systematic literature review based on the PubMed database related to fat-rich meals, metabolic endotoxemia and cognitive disorders including dementia in humans. A total of 40 articles out of 942 in the first screening met the inclusion criteria. (3) Results: Evidence suggested that a fat-rich diet, depending on its quality, quantity and concomitant healthy food components, could influence metabolic endotoxemia. Since only heterogeneous cross-sectional studies are available, it remains unclear to what extent endotoxemia could be associated or not with cognitive disorders and dementia. (4) Conclusions: A fat-rich diet has the capability to provide significant increases in circulating endotoxins, which highlights nutritional strategies as a promising area for future research on inflammatory-associated diseases. The role of endotoxemia in cognitive disorders and dementia remains unclear and deserves further investigation.

The effect of palmitic acid on inflammatory response in macrophages: an overview of molecular mechanisms

Palmitic acid is a saturated fatty acid whose blood concentration is elevated in obese patients. This causes inflammatory responses, where toll-like receptors (TLR), TLR2 and TLR4, play an important role. Nevertheless, palmitic acid is not only a TLR agonist. In the cell, this fatty acid is converted into phospholipids, diacylglycerol and ceramides. They trigger the activation of various signaling pathways that are common for LPS-mediated TLR4 activation. In particular, metabolic products of palmitic acid affect the activation of various PKCs, ER stress and cause an increase in ROS generation. Thanks to this, palmitic acid also strengthens the TLR4-induced signaling. In this review, we discuss the mechanisms of inflammatory response induced by palmitic acid. In particular, we focus on describing its effect on ER stress and IRE1α, and the mechanisms of NF-κB activation. We also present the mechanisms of inflammasome NLRP3 activation and the effect of palmitic acid on enhanced inflammatory response by increasing the expression of FABP4/aP2. Finally, we focus on the consequences of inflammatory responses, in particular, the effect of TNF-α, IL-1β and IL-6 on insulin resistance. Due to the high importance of macrophages and the production of proinflammatory cytokines by them, this work mainly focuses on these cells.

Diet Quality Is Low and Differs by Sex in People with HIV

Background

People with HIV (PWH) are at risk for developing metabolic comorbidities driven, in part, by immune activation/inflammation. Little is known about diet quality, a potential modifiable factor in PWH.

Objectives

This study aimed to explore diet quality in terms of conformance with US dietary guidelines by calculating Healthy Eating Index-2010 (HEI) scores among adults with and without HIV in Boston, MA, and determine associations with HEI and markers of immune activation/inflammation.

Methods

One-hundred and three HIV-infected [50 women, 53 men; mean ± SD age: 47 ± 7 y; body mass index (BMI, in kg/m2): 26 ± 5] and 38 uninfected adults (17 women, 21 men; age: 46 ± 7 y; BMI: 28 ± 4) were included in this cross-sectional analysis. Participants who completed a 4-d food record from which HEI could be calculated were included. HEI was compared between participants with and without HIV, within HIV-infected participants stratified by sex, and by HIV serostatus and sex. In the HIV group, predictors of HEI were determined in multivariable modeling. Univariate associations with diet quality and inflammation/immune markers were assessed.

Results

The HEI score was 51.3 in the HIV-infected participants and 57.3 in the HIV-uninfected participants (P = 0.052). In the comparison by HIV serostatus and sex, HIV-infected women had significantly lower HEI (49.2) compared with HIV-infected men (55.7) (P = 0.005) and HIV-uninfected men (61.8) (P = 0.002). Adjusting for potential confounding factors, sex remained an independent predictor of HEI in HIV (P = 0.02). In the HIV group, higher log HEI was associated with lower concentration of the immune activation marker sCD14 (P = 0.009).

Conclusions

Diet quality tended to be lower in HIV-infected individuals compared with HIV-uninfected individuals and was lower among HIV-infected women compared with HIV-infected men, and HIV-uninfected men. There may also be an association with diet quality and sCD14 in PWH. Future prospective studies are needed to confirm these findings and determine whether improving diet quality is a useful strategy to reduce metabolic abnormalities in this population. This study was registered at clinicaltrials.gov as NCT00455793.