Mechanisms of the anti-inflammatory effects of the natural secosteroids physalins in a model of intestinal ischaemia and reperfusion injury

Genus Physalis L.: A review of resources and cultivation, chemical composition, pharmacological effects and applications

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

The genus Physalis L. (Solanaceae) is commonly used in the treatment of dermatitis, leprosy, bronchitis, pneumonia, hepatitis and rheumatism in China and other Asian countries.

AIM OF THE REVIEW

This article reviews the resources, cultivation, phytochemistry, pharmacological properties, and applications of Physalis L., and proposes further research strategies to enhance its therapeutic potential in treating various human diseases.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

We conducted a systematic search of electronic databases, including CNKI, SciFinder and PubMed, using the term "Physalis L." to collect information on the resources, phytochemistry, pharmacological activities, and applications of Physalis L. in China during the past ten years (2013.1-2023.1).

RESULTS

So far, a variety of chemical constituents have been isolated and identified from Physalis L. mainly including steroids, flavonoids, and so on. Various pharmacological activities were evaluated by studying different extracts of Physalis L., these activities include anti-inflammatory, antibacterial, antioxidant, antiviral, antineoplastic, and other aspects.

CONCLUSION

Physalis L. occupies an important position in the traditional medical system. It is cost-effective and is a significant plant with therapeutic applications in modern medicine. However, further in-depth studies are needed to determine the medical use of this plant resources and cultivation, chemical composition, pharmacological effects and applications.

Physalin H ameliorates LPS-induced acute lung injury via KEAP1/NRF2 axis

Physalin H (PH), a withanolide isolated from Physalisangulata L. has been reported to have anti-inflammatory effect. However, its impact on acute lung injury (ALI) remains unexplored. In this study, we observed that PH significantly alleviated inflammation in LPS-stimulated macrophages by suppressing the release of proinflammatory cytokines (TNF-α, IL-1β, and IL-6) and down-regulating the expression of the inflammation-related genes. RNA sequencing analysis revealed a significant up-regulation of the NRF2 pathway by PH. Further investigation elucidated that PH attenuated the ubiquitination of NRF2 by impeding the interaction between NRF2 and KEAP1, thereby facilitating NRF2 nuclear translocation and up-regulating the expression of target genes. Consequently, it regulated redox system and exerted anti-inflammatory effect. Consistently, PH also significantly alleviated pathological damage and inflammation in LPS-induced ALI mice model, which could be reversed by administration of an NRF2 inhibitor. Collectively, these results suggest that PH ameliorates ALI by activating the KEAP1/NRF2 pathway. These findings provide a foundation for further development of pH as a new anti-inflammatory agent for ALI therapy.

Physalin H, physalin B, and isophysalin B suppress the quorum-sensing function of Staphylococcus aureus by binding to AgrA

The virulence of Staphylococcus aureus, including methicillin-resistant S. aureus (MRSA), depends on the expression of toxins and virulence factors controlled by the quorum-sensing (QS) system, encoded on the virulence accessory gene regulator (agr) locus. The aim of this study was to identify a phytochemical that inhibits Agr-QS function and to elucidate its mechanism. We screened 577 compounds and identified physalin H, physalin B, and isophysalin B--phytochemicals belonging to physalins found in plants of the Solanaceae family--as novel Agr-QS modulators. Biological analyses and in vitro protein-DNA binding assays suggested that these physalins suppress gene expression related to the Agr-QS system by inhibiting binding of the key response regulator AgrA to the agr promoters, reducing the function of hemolytic toxins downstream of these genes in MRSA. Furthermore, although physalin F suppressed gene expression in the Agr-QS system, its anti-hemolytic activity was lower than that of physalins H, B, and isophysalin B. Conversely, five physalins isolated from the same plant with the ability to suppress Agr-QS did not reduce bacterial Agr-QS activity but inhibited AgrA binding to DNA in vitro. A docking simulation revealed that physalin interacts with the DNA-binding site of AgrA in three docking states. The carbonyl oxygens at C-1 and C-18 of physalins, which can suppress Agr-QS, were directed to residues N201 and R198 of AgrA, respectively, whereas these carbonyl oxygens of physalins, without Agr-QS suppression activity, were oriented in different directions. Next, 100-ns molecular dynamics simulations revealed that the hydrogen bond formed between the carbonyl oxygen at C-15 of physalins and L186 of AgrA functions as an anchor, sustaining the interaction between the carbonyl oxygen at C-1 of physalins and N201 of AgrA. Thus, these results suggest that physalin H, physalin B, and isophysalin B inhibit the interaction of AgrA with the agr promoters by binding to the DNA-binding site of AgrA, suppressing the Agr-QS function of S. aureus. Physalins that suppress the Agr-QS function are proposed as potential lead compounds in the anti-virulence strategy for MRSA infections.

Therapeutic Applications of Physalins: Powerful Natural Weapons

Physalins, or 16,24-cyclo-13,14-seco steroids, are compounds belonging to the class of withanolides that can be found in plants of Solanaceae family, mainly in species belonging to the genus Physalis spp., which are annual herbaceous plants widely distributed in tropical and subtropical regions of the world. Physalins are versatile molecules that act in several cell signaling pathways and activate different mechanisms of cell death or immunomodulation. A number of studies have shown a variety of actions of these compounds, including anticancer, anti-inflammatory, antiparasitic, antimicrobial, antinociceptive, and antiviral activities. Here we reviewed the main findings related to the anticancer, immunomodulatory, and antiparasitic activities of physalins and its mechanisms of action, highlighting the \challenges and future directions in the pharmacological application of physalins.

Physalin B ameliorates inflammatory responses in lipopolysaccharide-induced acute lung injury mice by inhibiting NF-κB and NLRP3 via the activation of the PI3K/Akt pathway

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Physalin B (PB) is an active constituent of Physalis alkekengi L. var. Franchetii, which is a traditional medicine for clearing heat and detoxification, resolving phlegm, and diuresis. It has been commonly applied to treat sore throat, phlegm-heat, cough, dysuria, pemphigus, and eczema.

AIM OF STUDY

Physalin B has shown efficacy as an anti-acute lung injury (ALI) agent previously; however, its mechanisms of action remain unclear. In the present study, we established a lipopolysaccharide-induced septic ALI model using BALB/c mice to further confirm the therapeutic potential of PB and to assess the underlying molecular mechanisms.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

We used 75% ethanol and macroporous resin for extraction, separation, and enrichment of PB. The LPS-induced ALI mouse model was used to determine anti-inflammatory effects of PB. The severity of acute lung injury was evaluated by hematoxylin and eosin staining, wet/dry lung ratio, and myeloperoxidase (MPO) activity in lung tissue. An automatic analyzer was used to measure the arterial blood gas index. Protein levels of pro-inflammatory cytokines in serum, bronchoalveolar lavage fluid (BALF), and lung tissue was measured using an ELISA. Quantitative RT-PCR was used to measure changes in RNA levels of pro-inflammatory cytokines in the lungs. A fluorometric assay kit was used for determination of apoptosis-related factors to assess anti-apoptotic effects of PB. Western blotting was used to assess levels of key pathway proteins and apoptosis-related proteins. Connections between the pathways were tested through inhibitor experiments.

RESULTS

Pretreatment with PB (15 mg kg^-1 d^-1, i.g.) significantly reduced lung wet/dry weight ratios and MPO activity in blood and BALF of ALI mice, and it alleviated LPS-induced inflammatory cell infiltration in lung tissue. The levels of pro-inflammatory factors TNF-α, IL-6, and IL-1β and their mRNA levels in blood, BALF, and lung tissue were reduced following PB pretreatment. PB pretreatment also downregulated the apoptotic factors caspase-3, caspase-9, and apoptotic protein Bax, and it upregulated apoptotic protein Bcl-2. The NF-κB and NLRP3 pathways were inhibited through activation of the PI3K/Akt pathway due to PB pretreatment, whereas administration of PI3K inhibitors increased activation of these pathways.

CONCLUSIONS

Taken together, our results suggest that the anti-ALI properties of PB are closely associated with the inactivation of NF-κB and NLRP3 by altering the PI3K/Akt pathway. Furthermore, our findings provide a novel strategy for application of PB as a potential agent for treating patients with ALI. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first study to elucidate the underlying mechanism of action of PB against ALI.

Modulatory Properties of Food and Nutraceutical Components Targeting NLRP3 Inflammasome Activation

Inflammasomes are key intracellular multimeric proteins able to initiate the cellular inflammatory signaling pathway. NLRP3 inflammasome represents one of the main protein complexes involved in the development of inflammatory events, and its activity has been largely demonstrated to be connected with inflammatory or autoinflammatory disorders, including diabetes, gouty arthritis, liver fibrosis, Alzheimer’s disease, respiratory syndromes, atherosclerosis, and cancer initiation. In recent years, it has been demonstrated how dietary intake and nutritional status represent important environmental elements that can modulate metabolic inflammation, since food matrices are an important source of several bioactive compounds. In this review, an updated status of knowledge regarding food bioactive compounds as NLRP3 inflammasome modulators is discussed. Several chemical classes, namely polyphenols, organosulfurs, terpenes, fatty acids, proteins, amino acids, saponins, sterols, polysaccharides, carotenoids, vitamins, and probiotics, have been shown to possess NLRP3 inflammasome-modulating activity through in vitro and in vivo assays, mainly demonstrating an anti-NLRP3 inflammasome activity. Plant foods are particularly rich in important bioactive compounds, each of them can have different effects on the pathway of inflammatory response, confirming the importance of the nutritional pattern (food model) as a whole rather than any single nutrient or functional compound.

Natural Products from Physalis alkekengi L. var. franchetii (Mast.) Makino: A Review on Their Structural Analysis, Quality Control, Pharmacology, and Pharmacokinetics

The calyxes and fruits of Physalis alkekengi L. var. franchetii (Mast.) Makino (P. alkekengi), a medicinal and edible plant, are frequently used as heat-clearing and detoxifying agents in thousands of Chinese medicine prescriptions. For thousands of years in China, they have been widely used in clinical practice to treat throat disease, hepatitis, and bacillary dysentery. This systematic review summarizes their structural analysis, quality control, pharmacology, and pharmacokinetics. Furthermore, the possible development trends and perspectives for future research studies on this medicinal plant are discussed. Relevant information on the calyxes and fruits of P. alkekengi was collected from electronic databases, Chinese herbal classics, and Chinese Pharmacopoeia. Moreover, information was collected from ancient documents in China. The components isolated and identified in P. alkekengi include steroids, flavonoids, phenylpropanoids, alkaloids, nucleosides, terpenoids, megastigmane, aliphatic derivatives, organic acids, coumarins, and sucrose esters. Steroids, particularly physalins and flavonoids, are the major characteristic and bioactive ingredients in P. alkekengi. According to the literature, physalins are synthesized by the mevalonate and 2-C-methyl-d-erythritol-4-phosphate pathways, and flavonoids are synthesized by the phenylpropanoid pathway. Since the chemical components and pharmacological effects of P. alkekengi are complex and varied, there are different standards for the evaluation of its quality and efficacy. In most cases, the analysis was performed using high-performance liquid chromatography coupled with ultraviolet detection. A pharmacological study showed that the crude extracts and isolated compounds from P. alkekengi had extensive in vitro and in vivo biological activities (e.g., anti-inflammatory, anti-tumor, immunosuppressive, antibacterial, anti-leishmanial, anti-asthmatic, anti-diabetic, anti-oxidative, anti-malarial, anti-Alzheimer's disease, and vasodilatory). Moreover, the relevant anti-inflammatory and anti-tumor mechanisms were elucidated. The reported activities indicate the great pharmacological potential of P. alkekengi. Similarly, studies on the pharmacokinetics of specific compounds will also contribute to the progress of clinical research in this setting.

Protective effects of syringic acid on inflammation, apoptosis and intestinal barrier function in Caco-2 cells following oxygen-glucose deprivation/reoxygenation-induced injury

Syringic acid (SA) is an abundant phenolic acid compound that has been demonstrated to yield therapeutic benefits in myocardial and renal ischemia/reperfusion (I/R). However, the role of SA in intestinal I/R injury is unclear. Thus, the present study aimed to investigate the protective effect of SA against intestinal I/R injury. Caco-2 cells were incubated with different doses of SA before oxygen-glucose deprivation/reoxygenation (OGD/R) induction. The viability of Caco-2 cells, the activity of lactate dehydrogenase (LDH), the production of pro-inflammatory cytokines and the levels of reactive oxygen species, superoxide dismutase and malondialdehyde were measured. Apoptosis was evaluated using a TUNEL assay and western blotting. Transepithelial electrical resistance and western blotting were performed to evaluate intestinal barrier function in Caco-2 cells. The present study revealed that pretreatment with SA significantly increased cell viability and reduced LDH release in Caco-2 cells subjected to OGD/R treatment. In addition, SA suppressed OGD/R-induced inflammatory responses by reducing pro-inflammatory cytokine levels. Furthermore, the levels of oxidative stress and apoptosis were ameliorated by SA. SA also alleviated the intestinal barrier disruption exhibited by Caco-2 cells after OGD/R injury. Overall, the present study revealed that SA may potentially protect Caco-2 cells from OGD/R injury, and that this effect may be attributed to its anti-inflammatory and anti-apoptotic activities, as well as its ability to protect the function of the intestinal barrier.

Physalin B inhibits PDGF-BB-induced VSMC proliferation, migration and phenotypic transformation by activating the Nrf2 pathway

Vascular intimal hyperplasia is a hallmark event in vascular restenosis. The excessive proliferation, migration and phenotypic transformation of vascular smooth muscle cells (VSMCs) play important roles in the pathological mechanism of vascular intimal hyperplasia. Physalin B is an alcoholate isolated from Physalis (Solanaceae) that has a wide range of biological activities. However, the effect of physalin B on VSMCs is currently unclear. In this study, we demonstrated that physalin B significantly inhibited the proliferation, migration and phenotypic transformation of VSMCs induced by PDGF-BB. Physalin B also reduced inflammation and oxidative stress in VSMCs induced by PDGF-BB. Mechanistic studies showed that physalin B plays a role mainly by activating Nrf2. After Nrf2 activation, physalin B mitigates oxidative stress by enhancing the expression of the antioxidant gene HO-1; on the other hand, physalin B inhibits the NF-κB pathway to alleviate the inflammatory response. These two effects ultimately reduce the proliferation, migration and phenotypic transformation of VSMCs induced by PDGF-BB. In addition, in the mouse carotid artery ligation model, physalin B prevented intimal hyperplasia and inhibited the proliferation, migration and phenotypic transformation of cells in the hyperplastic intima. In conclusion, we provided significant evidence that physalin B abrogates PDGF-BB-induced VSMC proliferation, migration, phenotypic transformation and intimal hyperplasia by activating Nrf2-mediated signal transduction. Therefore, physalin B may be a potential therapeutic agent for preventing or treating restenosis.

Naturally occurring physalins from the genus Physalis: A review

Physalins, including physalins and neophysalins, are a class of highly oxygenated ergostane-type steroids. They are commonly known by the name of 16,24-cyclo-13,14-seco steroids, in which the disconnection of C-13 and C-14 produces an eight or nine-membered ring and the carbocyclization of C-16 and C-24 generates a new six-membered ring. Meanwhile, the oxidation of C-18 methyl to carboxyl group forms a 18,20-lactone, and the oxidation of C-14 and C-17 gets a heterocyclic oxygen acrossing rings C and D. Additionly, physalins frequently form an oxygen bridge to connect C-14 to C-27. Physalins are a kind of characteristic constituents from the species of the genus Physalis (Solanaceae), which are reported with a wide array of pharmacological activities, including anticancer, anti-inflammatory, immunoregulatory, antimicrobial, trypanocidal and leishmanicidal, antinociceptive, antidiabetic and some other activities. Herein,the research progress of physalins from the genus Physalis during the decade from 1970 to 2021 on phytochemistry, pharmacology, pharmacokinetics and application in China are systematically presented and discussed for the first time.

Evaluation of analgesic and anti-inflammatory activities and molecular docking analysis of steroidal lactones from Datura stramonium L

BACKGROUND

Datura stramonium L. is widely used across the world for its therapeutic potential to treat inflammatory disorders. The current work was designed to isolate and identify steroidal lactones from D. stramonium leaves and evaluate their anti-inflammatory and analgesic properties.

METHODS

Several compounds were isolated from D. stramonium leaves and characterized by nuclear magnetic resonance and high-resonance electron spray ionization mass spectrometry techniques. Further, anti-inflammatory properties of these compounds were evaluated by in vitro assays, such as release of NO and pro-inflammatory cytokines by lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-activated J774A.1 macrophages. Using in vivo models, anti-inflammatory and analgesic effects were examined by mouse tail-flick, carrageenan-induced inflammation in rat paw model, vascular permeability in rats, and acetic acid-induced writhing in mice. The docking studies were performed for assessing the binding efficiency of the test compounds with cyclooxygenase-1 (COX-1) and COX-2, lectin-like oxidized low-density lipoprotein receptor-1 (LOX-1), inducible nitric oxide synthases (iNOS) and nuclear factor-κB (NF-κB).

RESULTS

Three lactones were isolated and confirmed as daturalactone (D1), 12-deoxywithastramonolide (D23), and daturilin (D27). Further, the isolated compounds showed nitric oxide inhibition and pro-inflammatory cytokines released by LPS-activated J774A.1 macrophages. The in vivo results suggest that D1, D23 and D27 (20 mg/kg) were able to reduce the pain and inflammation in various animal models. The docking analysis showed that these three compounds actively bind with COX-1, COX-2, LOX-1, NF-κB, and iNOS, validating the anti-inflammatory effects of the lactones.

CONCLUSION

These findings demonstrate substantial anti-inflammatory and analgesic properties of D. stramonium-derived lactones and their potential as anti-inflammatory agents to treat chronic inflammatory ailments.

Physalis angulata reduces the progression of chronic experimental periodontitis by immunomodulatory mechanisms

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Physalis angulata is an herb found in tropical and subtropical regions of the world; it is widely applied in popular medicine due to the therapeutic properties of the whole plant and its parts. Extracts and infusions of this plant have been extensively applied in folk medicine worldwide to treat inflammatory and immune-mediated diseases, including oral inflammatory conditions such as sore throat and gingivitis.

AIM OF THE STUDY

The present study was designed to investigate the protective effects of the ethanolic extract of P. angulata (EEPA) in a murine model of chronic periodontitis, aiming to corroborate its traditional use as an anti-inflammatory and immunomodulatory agent, and to point out possible mechanisms involved in these effects.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

EEPA was obtained from the stems of P. angulata collected in Belém (PA, Brazil). Chronic periodontitis was induced in male C57BL/6 mice by 12 administrations of lipopolysaccharide (LPS; 20 μg/1μL) into the gingival papilla in the course of 28 days. Starting from the 15^th day after the first LPS injection, mice were daily treated with EEPA (50 or 100 mg/kg), nimesulide (25 mg/kg, reference drug), or vehicle by oral route for 14 days. At the end of the experimental period, alveolar bone loss was evaluated along with the gingival expression of biomarkers of periodontitis and cytokines by RT-q-PCR and ELISA. Hematological and biochemical parameters suggestive of systemic toxicity were also evaluated. The transcriptional activity of NF-κB was investigated using the luciferase assay in macrophages.

RESULTS

Mice with chronic experimental periodontitis suffered alveolar bone loss that was prevented by the treatment with EEPA (50 or 100 mg/kg) or nimesulide (25 mg/kg). EEPA (50 and 100 mg/kg) and nimesulide (25 mg/kg) reduced mRNA levels of MMP-9 mRNA, but not of TIMP-1 in gingival tissue of periodontitis-induced mice. Both treatments also reduced the production of the pro-inflammatory cytokines IL-1β and IL-6. The treatment with EEPA (100 mg/kg) increased the production of the anti-inflammatory cytokine TGF-β. No hematological or biochemical alterations were caused by the daily treatment with EEPA. In vitro luciferase assay suggested that a putative mechanism of EEPA is reducing the transcriptional activity of NF-κB.

CONCLUSIONS

EEPA exhibited a disease-modifying effect in the chronic experimental periodontitis, along with unidentifiable systemic toxicity. This work corroborates the traditional use of P. angulata in oral inflammatory conditions and provides mechanistic hypotheses to explain its therapeutic effects.

Physalin B ameliorates nonalcoholic steatohepatitis by stimulating autophagy and NRF2 activation mediated improvement in oxidative stress

Non-alcoholic steatohepatitis (NASH) is the progressive stage of non-alcoholic fatty liver disease that may ultimately lead to cirrhosis and liver cancer, and there are few therapeutic options for its treatment. Physalin B (PB), a withanolide isolated from Physalis species (Solanaceae), exhibits a broad spectrum of biological activities, however, the potential role of PB in NASH has not been evaluated. The present study investigated the protective effects of PB against NASH and further elucidated the mechanisms of PB in hepatic autophagy and oxidative stress in vitro and in vivo. We conducted a series of experiments using methionine-choline deficient (MCD) diet induced NASH mice and cultured L02 cells. Serum markers of liver injury, morphology, and the histology of liver tissues were investigated. Western blot assays and quantitative real-time PCR were used to investigate the hepatoprotective effect of PB. PB significantly ameliorated hepatic injury, including hepatic index, transaminase activities, histology, and inflammation in MCD-induced mice. Moreover, PB markedly increased the expression of P62 and the ratio of LC3Ⅱ/Ⅰ in vitro and in vivo. Furthermore, PB promoted the interaction between endogenous KEAP1 and P62, reduced the interaction between KEAP1 and NRF2, activated the nuclear translocation of NRF2 and NRF2 target gene expression, and ultimately attenuated oxidative stress. In addition, knockdown of P62 blocked PB-mediated activation of NRF2 in L02 cells. These results clearly indicated that PB ameliorated NASH by stimulating autophagy and P62-KEAP1-NRF2 antioxidative signaling, suggesting that PB is expected to become a novel therapeutic drug for NASH.

In vitro and In Vivo Immunomodulatory Activity of Physalis angulata Concentrated Ethanolic Extract

The need for new immunomodulatory drugs is due to the side effects associated with the prolonged use of the currently used immunomodulatory drugs. In this context, the present work aimed to investigate the immunomodulatory effect of an ethanolic concentrated extract from Physalis angulata. The cytotoxicity of samples was determined using peritoneal macrophages though the Alamar Blue assay. The immunomodulatory activity of the ethanolic extract from P. angulata on activated macrophages was determined by measurement of nitrite and cytokine production. The immunosuppressive effects of the ethanolic extract from P. angulata was evaluated on lymphocyte proliferation and cytokine production. The effects of the extract on cell cycle progression and cell death on lymphocytes were evaluated by flow cytometry. Lastly, the ethanolic extract from P. angulata was tested in vivo in toxicological tests and in models of peritonitis and delayed-type hypersensitivity response. The ethanolic extract from P. angulata decreased nitrite, interleukin-6, interleukin-12, and TNF-α production by activated macrophages without affecting the cell viability. In addition, the ethanolic extract from P. angulata inhibited lymphoproliferation and the secretion of interleukin-2, interleukin-6, and IFN-γ, and increased interleukin-4 secretion by activated splenocytes. Flow cytometry analysis in lymphocyte cultures showed that treatment with the ethanolic extract from P. angulata induces cell cycle arrest in the G1 phase followed by cell death by apoptosis. Moreover, mice treated with the extract from P. angulata at 100 or 200 mg/kg did not show signs of toxicity or alterations in serum components. Finally, the ethanolic extract from P. angulata significantly reduced neutrophil migration and reduced paw edema in bovine serum albumin-induced the delayed-type hypersensitivity response model. Our results demonstrate the potential of the ethanolic extract of P. angulata as an alternative for the treatment of immune-inflammatory diseases.

Synthesis of DFGH-Ring Derivatives of Physalins via One-Pot Construction of GH-Ring and Evaluation of Their NF-κB-Inhibitory Activity

We designed and synthesized a series of derivatives containing the right-side DFGH-ring structure of physalin-type natural products, decorated with a hydrophobic substituent. The synthetic scheme utilizes a highly efficient, one-pot protocol for simultaneous construction of the GH-ring system, promoted by HF/pyridine. Among the compounds synthesized, 5d inhibited TNF-α-stimulated NF-κB activation with similar potency to physalin B.

Withametelin: a biologically active withanolide in cancer, inflammation, pain and depression

Withanolides are natural medicinal agents whose safety and therapeutic profiles make them valuable to mankind. Among multiple withanolides, withametelin is underexplored. The present study was aimed to create a general biological profile of isolated withametelin from Datura innoxia Mill. targeting different biological models. In-silico studies include drug-likeliness, pharmacokinetics, toxicity, molecular targets and cytotoxicity to cancer cell lines predictions. In silico directed preliminary in-vitro evaluation comprised of cancer/normal cell cytotoxicity, DPPH and protein kinase inhibition assays while in-vivo bioactivities include antiinflammatory, analgesic, antidepressant and anticoagulant assays. Pharmacological findings were strengthened by molecular docking studies to check interactions with various proteins and to propose the future path of studies. Results indicated compliance with Lipinski drug-likeliness rule (score −0.55). ADMET prediction showed strong plasma protein binding, GI absorption (Caco-2 cells permeability = 46.74 nm/s), blood brain barrier penetration (Cbrain/Cblood = 0.31), efflux by P-glycoprotein, metabolism by CYP1A2, CYP2C19 and CYP3A4, medium hERG inhibition and non-carcinogenicity in rodents. Predicted molecular targets included mainly receptors (glucocorticoid, kappa opioid, delta opioid, adrenergic and dopamine), oxidoreductase (arachidonate 5-lipoxygenase and cyclooxygenase-2), enzymes (HMG-CoA reductase) and kinase (NFκb). Withametelin was more cytotoxic to cancer cells (DU145 IC₅₀ 7.67 ± 0.54 µM) than normal lymphocytes (IC₅₀ 33.55 ± 1.31 µM). It also showed good antioxidant and protein kinase inhibition potentials. Furthermore, withametelin (20 mg/kg) significantly reduced inflammatory paw edema (68.94 ± 5.55%), heat-induced pain (78.94 ± 6.87%) and immobility time (50%) in animals. Molecular docking showed hydrogen bonding interactions (binding energies: −11.3 to −7.8 kcal/mol) with arachidonate 5 lipoxygenase, NFκb and glucocorticoid receptor. Withametelin has potential for advance investigations for its cytotoxic, anti-inflammatory, analgesic and antidepressant activities.

Anti-colitic effects of Physalin B on dextran sodium sulfate-induced BALB/c mice by suppressing multiple inflammatory signaling pathways

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Physalin B is one of the main active withanolide existed in Physalis alkekengi L. var. franchetii (Mast.) Makino, a famous traditional Chinese food and herbal medicine, which has been widely used as heat-clearing and toxin-resolving medicine for the treatment of various inflammatory disease, such as cough, excessive phlegm, pharyngitis, sore throat, pemphigus, eczema, and jaundice.

AIM OF THE STUDY

We aimed to confirm the therapeutic effects of Physalin B on ulcerative colitis (UC) and enrich the further application of its traditional anti-inflammatory effect.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

The anti-UC effects of Physalin B were evaluated in Balb/c mice with dextran sulfate sodium (DSS) induction. The body weight, colon length, disease activity index (DAI) and pathological changes of colon tissue were measured. Cytokine levels were detected by ELISA. NF-κB pathway and protein levels of related pathways, such as signal transducer and activator of transcription 3 (STAT3), β-arrestin1 and NOD-like receptor pyrin domain-containing protein 3 (NLRP3) inflammasome were detected by western blot.

RESULTS

The dose of Physalin B that is not cytotoxic could dramatically reduce the levels of TNF-α, IL-6 and IL-1β on LPS-stimulated RAW 264.7 cells. Meanwhile, Physalin B dramatically improved clinical signs and symptoms, alleviated body weight loss and colon length shortening in DSS-induced UC mice. Meanwhile, Physalin B also dramatically relieved the pathological damage, reduced in the activity of myeloperoxidase (MPO) and reestablished the balance of pro-inflammatory cytokines. Physalin B could suppress DSS-induced activation of NF-κB. Moreover, Physalin B also markedly suppressed the activation of STAT3, β-arrestin1 and NLRP3 inflammasome.

CONCLUSION

This study preliminary confirmed the therapeutic effect of Physalin B on experimental acute UC mice and provided robust evidence support for the anti-inflammatory effect of Physalin B, suggesting that Physalin B might be a potential agent for the therapeutic efficacy on UC.

Bioactive compounds induced in Physalis angulata L. by methyl-jasmonate: an investigation of compound accumulation patterns and biosynthesis-related candidate genes

We employed both metabolomic and transcriptomic approaches to explore the accumulation patterns of physalins, flavonoids and chlorogenic acid in Physalis angulata and revealed the genes associated with the biosynthesis of bioactive compounds under methyl-jasmonate (MeJA) treatment. Physalis angulata L. is an annual Solanaceae plant with a number of medicinally active compounds. Despite the potential pharmacological benefits of P. angulata, the scarce genomic information regarding this plant has limited the studies on the mechanisms of bioactive compound biosynthesis. To facilitate the basic understanding of the main chemical constituent biosynthesis pathways, we performed both metabolomic and transcriptomic approaches to reveal the genes associated with the biosynthesis of bioactive compounds under methyl-jasmonate (MeJA) treatment. Untargeted metabolome analysis showed that most physalins, flavonoids and chlorogenic acid were significantly upregulated. Targeted HPLC-MS/MS analysis confirmed variations in the contents of two important representative steroid derivatives (physalins B and G), total flavonoids, neochlorogenic acid, and chlorogenic acid between MeJA-treated plants and controls. Transcript levels of a few steroid biosynthesis-, flavonoid biosynthesis-, and chlorogenic acid biosynthesis-related genes were upregulated, providing a potential explanation for MeJA-induced active ingredient synthesis in P. angulata. Systematic correlation analysis identified a number of novel candidate genes associated with bioactive compound biosynthesis. These results may help to elucidate the regulatory mechanism underlying MeJA-induced active compound accumulation and provide several valuable candidate genes for further functional study.

Reversal of Peripheral Neuropathic Pain by the Small-Molecule Natural Product Physalin F via Block of CaV2.3 (R-Type) and CaV2.2 (N-Type) Voltage-Gated Calcium Channels

No universally efficacious therapy exists for chronic pain, a disease affecting one-fifth of the global population. An overreliance on the prescription of opioids for chronic pain despite their poor ability to improve function has led to a national opioid crisis. In 2018, the NIH launched a Helping to End Addiction Long-term plan to spur discovery and validation of novel targets and mechanisms to develop alternative nonaddictive treatment options. Phytochemicals with medicinal properties have long been used for various treatments worldwide. The natural product physalin F, isolated from the Physalis acutifolia (family: Solanaceae) herb, demonstrated antinociceptive effects in models of inflammatory pain, consistent with earlier reports of its anti-inflammatory and immunomodulatory activities. However, the target of action of physalin F remained unknown. Here, using whole-cell and slice electrophysiology, competition binding assays, and experimental models of neuropathic pain, we uncovered a molecular target for physalin F's antinociceptive actions. We found that physalin F (i) blocks CaV2.3 (R-type) and CaV2.2 (N-type) voltage-gated calcium channels in dorsal root ganglion (DRG) neurons, (ii) does not affect CaV3 (T-type) voltage-gated calcium channels or voltage-gated sodium or potassium channels, (iii) does not bind G-protein coupled opioid receptors, (iv) inhibits the frequency of spontaneous excitatory postsynaptic currents (EPSCs) in spinal cord slices, and (v) reverses tactile hypersensitivity in models of paclitaxel-induced peripheral neuropathy and spinal nerve ligation. Identifying CaV2.2 as a molecular target of physalin F may spur its use as a tool for mechanistic studies and position it as a structural template for future synthetic compounds.

Comparative Metabolomic and Proteomic Analyses Reveal the Regulation Mechanism Underlying MeJA-Induced Bioactive Compound Accumulation in Cutleaf Groundcherry ( Physalis angulata L.) Hairy Roots

Cutleaf groundcherry ( Physalis angulata L.) is an annual plant with a number of medicinal ingredients. However, studies about the secondary metabolism of P. angulata are very limited. An integrated metabolome and proteome approach was used to reveal the variations in the metabolism associated with bioactive compounds under methyl-jasmonate (MeJA) treatment. Application of MeJA to the hairy roots could significantly increase the accumulation of most active ingredients. A targeted approach confirmed the variations in physalins D and H between MeJA treatment and the controls. Increases in the levels of a number of terpenoid backbone biosynthesis and steroid biosynthesis related enzymes, cytochrome P450 monooxygenases and 3β-hydroxysterioid dehydrogenase might provide a potential explanation for the MeJA-induced active ingredient synthesis. Our results may contribute to a deeper understanding of the regulation mechanism underlying the MeJA-induced active compound accumulation in P. angulata.

Physalin B Suppresses Inflammatory Response to Lipopolysaccharide in RAW264.7 Cells by Inhibiting NF-κB Signaling

Physalin B from Physalis angulata L. (Solanaceae) is a naturally occurring secosteroid with multiple biological activities. But its anti-inflammatory activity and mechanism remain unclear. Physalin B effects on RAW264.7 macrophages stimulated by lipopolysaccharide (LPS) were observed in this study. The expression and secretion of tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α) and interleukin-6 (IL-6) induced by LPS were significantly inhibited by physalin B. Meanwhile, the NF-κB nuclear translocation induced by LPS was inhibited by physalin B. The anti-inflammatory effects of physalin B could not be inhibited by mifepristone (RU486), the blocker of glucocorticoid receptor. In conclusion, physalin B can suppress inflammatory response to LPS in macrophages by inhibiting the production of inflammatory cytokines via NF-κB signaling.

Physalis alkekengi L. var. franchetii (Mast.) Makino: An ethnomedical, phytochemical and pharmacological review

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

The calyxes and fruits of Physalis alkekengi L. var. franchetii (Mast.) Makino (Physalis Calyx seu Fructus), have been widely used in traditional and indigenous Chinese medicines for the therapy of cough, excessive phlegm, pharyngitis, sore throat, dysuria, pemphigus, eczema, and jaundice with a long history.

AIM OF THE REVIEW

The present review aims to achieve a comprehensive and up-to-date investigation in ethnomedical uses, phytochemistry, pharmacology, and toxicity of P. alkekengi var. franchetii, particularly its calyxes and fruits. Through analysis of these findings, evidences supporting their applications in ethnomedicines are illustrated. Possible perspectives and opportunities for the future research are analyzed to highlight the gaps in our knowledge that deserves further investigation.

MATERIAL AND METHODS

Information on P. alkekengi var. franchetii was collected via electronic search of major scientific databases (e.g. Web of Science, SciFinder, Google Scholar, Pubmed, Elsevier, SpringerLink, Wiley online and China Knowledge Resource Integrated) for publications on this medicinal plant. Information was also obtained from local classic herbal literature on ethnopharmacology.

RESULTS

About 124 chemical ingredients have been characterized from different parts of this plant. Steroids (particularly physalins) and flavonoids are the major characteristic and bioactive constituents. The crude extracts and the isolated compounds have demonstrated various in vitro and in vivo pharmacological functions, such as anti-inflammation, inhibition of tumor cell proliferation, antimicrobial activity, diuretic effect, anti-diabetes, anti-asthma, immunomodulation, and anti-oxidation.

CONCLUSIONS

P. alkekengi var. franchetii is an important medicinal plant for the ethnomedical therapy of microbial infection, inflammation, and respiratory diseases (e.g. cough, excessive phlegm, pharyngitis). Phytochemical and pharmacological investigations of this plant definitely increased in the past half century. The chemical profiles, including ingredients and structures, have been adequately verified. Modern pharmacological studies supported its uses in the traditional and folk medicines, however, the molecular mechanisms of purified compounds remained unclear and were worth of further exploration. Therefore, the researchers should be paid more attention to a better utilization of this plant.

Intestinal anti-inflammatory activity of Ground Cherry (Physalis angulata L.) standardized CO2 phytopharmaceutical preparation

AIM

To investigate the effects of Ground Cherry (Physalis angulata L.) standardized supercritical CO₂ extract in trinitrobenzenesulphonic acid (TNBS) model of rat intestinal inflammation.

METHODS

The animals were divided into groups that received vehicle or P. angulata extract (PACO₂) orally at the doses 25, 50 and 100 mg/kg daily by 5 d before TNBS damage. Protective effects of PACO₂ were assessed by macroscopic analysis, biochemical determinations of the levels of myeloperoxidase (MPO), alkaline phosphatase (ALP), glutathione and cytokines (such as INF-γ, IL-1β, IL-6, IL-10 and TNF-α), gene expression evaluation (including Hsp70, heparanase, NF-κB, mitogen-activated protein kinases (Mapk) 1, 3, 6 and 9, and the mucins genes Muc 1, 2, 3 and 4) and histopathological studies using optical, and electronic (transmission and scanning) microscopy.

RESULTS

PACO₂ extract promoted a significant reduction in MPO and ALP activities, reducing oxidative stress and neutrophil infiltration. These effects were accompanied by significant reduction of colonic levels of IFN-γ and IL-6 and down-regulation of heparanase, Hsp70, Mapk3, Mapk9, Muc1 and Muc2 genes expression when compared with TNBS-control animals. In addition, protective effects were also evidenced by reduced neutrophil infiltration, recovery of cell architecture and replacement of mucin by histopathological and ultrastructural analysis.

CONCLUSION

Physalis angulata supercritical CO₂ extract is an intestinal anti-inflammatory product that modulates oxidative stress, immune response and expression of inflammatory mediators, with potentially utility for treating inflammatory bowel disease.

Synthesis of the Right-Side Structure of Type B Physalins

We present a full account of our synthetic studies on the racemic DEFGH-ring moiety of physalins, featuring domino ring transformation of a tricyclic key intermediate. We also report the results of a detailed mechanistic examination of the domino ring transformation, as well as a reoptimization of the 2,3-Wittig rearrangement and methylation steps. Furthermore, we have newly established a method for the preparation of an optically active synthetic intermediate by enzymatic kinetic resolution. Our work provides access to both natural and nonnatural right-side physalin structures.

HMGB1-TLR4 signaling participates in renal ischemia reperfusion injury and could be attenuated by dexamethasone-mediated inhibition of the ERK/NF-κB pathway

Studies have shown that the HMGB1-TLR4 (High-mobility group protein B1, toll-like receptor 4) pathway participates in renal ischemic reperfusion injury (IRI) and that dexamethasone (DEX) could protect the kidney against IRI. This study aims to examine the protective effects of DEX on renal IRI and further explore the possible mechanism of action. During mouse renal IRI, HMGB1-TLR4 signals changed markedly including HMGB1 translocation and TLR4 up-regulation, resulting in histological damage and an increase in MPO expression. Treatment with DEX markedly decreased the damage to renal function (serum Cr and BUN; kidney KIM-1 expression) and the histological pathology of the kidney after renal IRI. The activation of GR by DEX did not suppress p38 and JNK activity but inhibited ERK phosphorylation. Treatment with DEX also attenuated IκB-α phosphorylation and further reduced NF-κB expression in the nucleus by decreasing acetylation of the p65 subunit. Furthermore, the HMGB1-TLR4 inflammatory pathway was inhibited via the attenuated translocation of HMGB1 from the nucleus to the cytoplasm and the down-regulation of TLR4 expression through DEX treatment. The inhibition of HMGB1 translocation may interact with acetyltransferase and attenuate HMGB1 acetylation. As a result, the levels of cytokines (TNF-α, IL-6, and IL-1β) were down-regulated and inflammatory cell infiltration after renal IRI was attenuated by treatment with DEX. This study demonstrated that the HMGB1-TLR4 pathway may play a critical role in renal IRI. DEX may attenuate renal IRI by suppressing ERK and NF-κB activation, followed by attenuating the HMGB1-TLR4 pathway through inhibiting acetyltransferases.

Effect of osmopriming on germination and initial growth of Physalis angulata L. under salt stress and on expression of associated genes

ABSTRACT This study aimed to evaluate the effects of priming on seed germination under salt stress and gene expression in seeds and seedlings of P. angulata L. After priming for 10 days, seed germination was tested in plastic trays containing 15 ml of water (0 dS m-1 - control) or 15 ml of NaCl solution (2, 4, 6, 8, 10, 12, 14 and 16 dS m-1). Fresh and dry weight of shoots and roots of seedlings were evaluated at 0, 2, 4, 6, 8 dS m-1. Total RNA was extracted from whole seeds and seedlings followed by RT-qPCR. The target genes selected for this study were: ascorbate peroxidase (APX), glutathione-S-transferase (GST), thioredoxin (TXN), high affinity potassium transporter protein 1 (HAK1) and salt overly sensitive 1 (SOS1). At an electroconductivity of 14 dS m-1 the primed seeds still germinated to 72%, in contrast with the non-primed seeds which did not germinate. The relative expression of APX was higher in primed seeds and this may have contributed to the maintenance of high germination in primed seeds at high salt concentrations. GST and TXN displayed increased transcript levels in shoots and roots of seedlings from primed seeds. Priming improved seed germination as well as salt tolerance and this is correlated with increased expression of APX in seeds and SOS1, GST and TXN in seedlings.

Bifidobacterium longum subsp. infantis BB-02 attenuates acute murine experimental model of inflammatory bowel disease

Inflammatory bowel diseases (IBD) are chronic inflammatory conditions, characterised by remissions and relapses episodes, whose main manifestations are ulcerative colitis and Crohn's disease. Ulcerative colitis (UC), one of the main forms of IBD, has as standard treatment the use of corticosteroids and anti-inflammatory drugs. The use of antibiotics has been also reported, but the possible adverse effects, such as disturbance of the indigenous microbiota or resistance induction, should be taken into consideration, and thus the use of probiotics emerges as a possible alternative option of treatment. In this study, the oral administration of Bifidobacterium longum subsp. infantis BB-02 was evaluated as a preventive strategy for acute experimental UC induced in female BALB/c mice by ingestion of 3.5% dextran sulphate sodium in drinking water during 7 days. During this time, the daily disease activity index was evaluated, and on the seventh day the animals were euthanised to collect intestines and liver for analysis. Treatment with the probiotic resulted in clinical improvement of the animals. The histological and morphometric analyses showed a reduction of lesions and oedema in the gut, but there was no increase in the production of mucin. The dosage of secretory immunoglobulin A was significantly higher in the colitis group and reduced in the group treated with the probiotic. There was also a reduction in the inflammation of the colon, as demonstrated by a decrease in neutrophils infiltration, and KC/CXCL-1 levels. The intestinal permeability, which is typically increased during the onset of IBD, was also reduced by treatment with probiotic. Based on these data, it can be concluded that the bacterium B. infantis BB-02 has a probiotic potential for the attenuation of UC, but further studies should be conducted to verify the mechanism of protective action of the bacterium.

In vivo pharmacokinetics of and tissue distribution study of physalin B after intravenous administration in rats by liquid chromatography with tandem mass spectrometry

A rapid and sensitive liquid chromatography tandem mass spectrometry quantitative analysis method was established for the pharmacokinetics and tissue distribution study of physalin B in rat. Physalin B and physalin H (internal standard, IS) were separated on an Agilent Eclips XDB C8 column. MS detection was performed on a triple quadrupole tandem mass spectrometer in the multiple reaction monitoring mode with a positive eletrospray ionization source. The assay was validated in the concentration ranges of 22.6-22600 ng/mL for heart and lung and 4.52-4520 ng/mL for other tissues. The intra- and inter-day precisions (RSD) were ≤9.23 and ≤12.51%, respectively, with accuracy (%) in the range of 88.07-113.2%. A pharmacokinetic study showed that physalin B has a long dwell time with a half-life of 321.2 ± 29.5 min and clearance of 175.4 ± 25.7 mL/min/kg after intravenous administration. Additionally, physalin B showed a wide tissue distribution with a special higher penetration in lung. The data presented in this study could provide useful information for the further study of physalin B. Copyright © 2016 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

Epithelial NAIPs protect against colonic tumorigenesis

NLR family apoptosis inhibitory proteins (NAIPs) belong to both the Nod-like receptor (NLR) and the inhibitor of apoptosis (IAP) families. NAIPs are known to form an inflammasome with NLRC4, but other in vivo functions remain unexplored. Using mice deficient for all NAIP paralogs (Naip1-6(Δ/Δ)), we show that NAIPs are key regulators of colorectal tumorigenesis. Naip1-6(Δ/Δ) mice developed increased colorectal tumors, in an epithelial-intrinsic manner, in a model of colitis-associated cancer. Increased tumorigenesis, however, was not driven by an exacerbated inflammatory response. Instead, Naip1-6(Δ/Δ) mice were protected from severe colitis and displayed increased antiapoptotic and proliferation-related gene expression. Naip1-6(Δ/Δ) mice also displayed increased tumorigenesis in an inflammation-independent model of colorectal cancer. Moreover, Naip1-6(Δ/Δ) mice, but not Nlrc4-null mice, displayed hyper-activation of STAT3 and failed to activate p53 18 h after carcinogen exposure. This suggests that NAIPs protect against tumor initiation in the colon by promoting the removal of carcinogen-elicited epithelium, likely in a NLRC4 inflammasome-independent manner. Collectively, we demonstrate a novel epithelial-intrinsic function of NAIPs in protecting the colonic epithelium against tumorigenesis.

Antinociceptive properties of physalins from Physalis angulata

Pain is the most common reason a patient sees a physician. Nevertheless, the use of typical painkillers is not completely effective in controlling all pain syndromes; therefore further attempts have been made to develop improved analgesic drugs. The present study was undertaken to evaluate the antinociceptive properties of physalins B (1), D (2), F (3), and G (4) isolated from Physalis angulata in inflammatory and centrally mediated pain tests in mice. Systemic pretreatment with 1-4 produced dose-related antinociceptive effects on the writhing and formalin tests, traditional screening tools for the assessment of analgesic drugs. On the other hand, only 3 inhibited inflammatory parameters such as hyperalgesia, edema, and local production of TNF-α following induction with complete Freund's adjuvant. Treatment with 1, 3, and 4 produced an antinociceptive effect on the tail flick test, suggesting a centrally mediated antinociception. Reinforcing this idea, 2-4 enhanced the mice latency reaction time during the hot plate test. Mice treated with physalins did not demonstrate motor performance alterations. These results suggest that 1-4 present antinociceptive properties associated with central, but not anti-inflammatory, events and indicate a new pharmacological property of physalins.

Unprecedent aminophysalin from Physalis angulata

The 95% ethanol extract of the whole plant of Physalis angulata Linn. afforded one new skeletal physalin named aminophysalin A (1) and one new naturally occurring 5β-hydroxy-6a-chloro-5,6-dihydrophysalin B (2), together with five known physalins (3-7). Their structures were elucidated through MS, IR, NMR spectroscopy analyses and X-ray crystallography. Aminophysalin A (1) had an absolutely unusual structural feature in the chemistry of physalins with a nitrogen atom. Compounds 1-7 were evaluated for quinone reductase activities in hepa 1c1c7 cells. Physalin H (6) showed strong quinone reductase induction activity with IR (Induction ratio, QR induction activity) value of 3.74±0.02, using 4-bromoflavone as a positive control substance (2.17±0.01, 10 μg/mL), while compounds 1, 2, 3, 5 showed weak quinone reductase induction activity.

4β-Hydroxywithanolide E isolated from Physalis pruinosa calyx decreases inflammatory responses by inhibiting the NF-κB signaling in diabetic mouse adipose tissue

BACKGROUND

Chronic inflammation in adipose tissue together with obesity induces insulin resistance. Inhibitors of chronic inflammation in adipose tissue can be a potent candidate for the treatment of diabetes; however, only a few compounds have been discovered so far. The objective of this study was to find a novel inhibitor that can suppress the inflammatory response in adipose tissue and to elucidate the intracellular signaling mechanisms of the compound.

METHODS

To find the active compounds, we established an assay system to evaluate the inhibition of induced MCP-1 production in adipocyte/macrophage coculture in a plant extract library. The active compound was isolated by performing high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) and was determined as 4β-hydroxywithanolide E (4βHWE) by nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) and mass spectroscopy (MS) spectral analyses. The effect of 4βHWE on inflammation in adipose tissue was assessed with adipocyte culture and db/db mice.

RESULTS

During the screening process, Physalis pruinosa calyx extract was found to inhibit production of MCP-1 in coculture strongly. 4βHWE belongs to the withanolide family of compounds, and it has the strongest MCP-1 production inhibitory effect and lowest toxicity than any other withanolides in coculture. Its anti-inflammatory effect was partially dependent on the attenuation of NF-κB signaling in adipocyte. Moreover, in vivo experiments showed that the oral administration of 4βHWE to db/db mice resulted in the inhibition of macrophage invasion and cytokine expression in adipose tissue after 2 weeks of treatment; improved the plasma adiponectin, non-esterified fatty acids and MCP-1 concentrations; and increased glucose tolerance after 3 to 4 weeks of treatment.

CONCLUSIONS

These results suggest that 4βHWE has anti-inflammatory effect via inhibition of NF-κB activation in adipocyte. Moreover, the attenuation of inflammation in adipocyte has an effect on the inhibition of macrophage accumulation in obese adipose tissue. Consequently, 4βHWE improves impaired glucose tolerance. Thus, 4βHWE is a useful natural anti-inflammatory compound to attenuate progression of diabetes and obesity.

Dexamethasone pretreatment alleviates intestinal ischemia-reperfusion injury

BACKGROUND

Activated mast cells are involved in the pathogenesis of intestinal ischemia-reperfusion (I/R)-related injury. Dexamethasone has been widely used to protect organs from I/R injury. This study was conducted to investigate the impact of treatment with dexamethasone at different stages of the II/R process on mast cell infiltration and activity and intestinal injury.

METHODS

Kunming mice were randomized and subjected to a sham surgery or the II/R induction by clamping the superior mesenteric artery for 30 min and then reperfusion. During the II/R induction, the mice were treated intravenously with dexamethasone (10 mg/kg) for 30 min before ischemia (pretreatment group), at 5 min after clamping the superior mesenteric artery (isc-treatment group), or at the beginning of perfusion (rep-treatment group), respectively. The levels of intestinal injury, mast cell infiltration and activity, tumor necrosis factor α (TNFα) and myeloperoxidase (MPO) activity in the intestines, and mouse survival rates were measured.

RESULTS

The death rates, levels of intestinal injury, mast cell infiltration and activity, and tumor necrosis factor α and myeloperoxidase activity in the intestinal tissues from the II/R group were similar to those from the isc-treatment and rep-treatment groups of mice and were significantly higher than those from the sham group. In contrast, pretreatment with dexamethasone significantly mitigated the II/R-induced mast cell infiltration and activity, inflammation, and intestinal injury and reduced the death rates in mice.

CONCLUSIONS

Pretreatment with dexamethasone inhibits II/R injury by reducing mast cell-related inflammation in mice.

Genotoxicity and antileishmanial activity evaluation of Physalis angulata concentrated ethanolic extract

Antileishmanial in vitro tests, as well as Ames and micronucleus assays were performed with a concentrated ethanolic extract of Physalis angulata (EEPA) RESULTS: EEPA did not present mutagenic effect in Salmonella typhimurium strains at concentration reaching 3000 μg/plate and did not induce mutagenic effects after two oral administrations with a 24h interval at a dose level of 2000 mg/kg. EEPA presented antileishmanial activity and presented an IC₅₀ value of 5.35 ± 2.50 μg/mL and 4.50 ± 1.17 μg/mL against Leishmania amazonensis and Leishmania braziliensis promastigotes, respectively. In the cytotoxicity test against macrophages, the EEPA had a LC₅₀ of 6.14 ± 0.59 μg/mL. Importantly, the IC₅₀ against L. amazonensis intracellular amastigotes was 1.23 ± 0.11 μg/mL.

CONCLUSION

EEPA extract is non-mutagenic and presented a promising pharmacological effect against Leishmania parasites.

Contribution of Cage-Shaped Structure of Physalins to Their Mode of Action in Inhibition of NF-κB Activation

A library of oxygenated natural steroids, including physalins, withanolides, and perulactones, coupled with the synthetic cage-shaped right-side structure of type B physalins, was constructed. SAR studies for inhibition of NF-κB activation showed the importance of both the B-ring and the oxygenated right-side partial structure. The 5β,6β-epoxy derivatives of both physalins and withanolides showed similar profiles of inhibition of NF-κB activation and appeared to act on NF-κB signaling via inhibition of phosphorylation and degradation of IκBα. In contrast, type B physalins with C5-C6 olefin functionality inhibited nuclear translocation and DNA binding of RelA/p50 protein dimer, which lie downstream of IκBα degradation, although withanolides having the same AB-ring functionality did not. These results indicated that the right-side partial structure of these steroids influences their mode of action.

Physalin B inhibits Trypanosoma cruzi infection in the gut of Rhodnius prolixus by affecting the immune system and microbiota

Physalin B is a natural secosteroidal, extracted from the Solanaceae plant, Physalis angulata, and it presents immune-modulator effects on the bloodsucking bug, Rhodnius prolixus. In this work, R. prolixus was treated with physalin B at a concentration of 1 mg/ml of blood meal (oral application), or 20 ng/insect (applied topically) or 57 ng/cm(2) of filter paper (contact treatment), and infected with Trypanosoma cruzi Dm28c clone (2×10(6) epimastigotes/insect). The three types of applications significantly decreased the number of T. cruzi Dm28c in the gut comparing with the non-treated infected insects (controls). All groups of infected insects treated with physalin B had higher numbers of bacterial microbiota in the gut than the non-treated controls infected with T. cruzi. We observed that the infected physalin B insects with topical and contact treatments had a lower antibacterial activity in the gut when compared with control infected insects. Furthermore, infected insects with the physalin B oral treatment produced higher levels of nitrite and nitrate in the gut than control infected insects. These results demonstrate that physalin B decreases the T. cruzi transmission by inhibiting the parasite development in the insect vector R. prolixus. Herein the importance of physalin B modulation on the immune system and microbiota population in terms of parasite development and transmission are discussed.

Physalins with anti-inflammatory activity are present in Physalis alkekengi var. franchetii and can function as Michael reaction acceptors

Michael reaction acceptors (MRAs) are a class of active molecules that are directly or indirectly involved in various cellular processes, including the regulation of many signaling pathways. In this study, the inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS) assay was used to demonstrate that the dichloromethane extract of Physalis alkekengi var. franchetii (DCEP) possesses anti-inflammatory activity that might be attributed to the modification of key cysteine residues in IKKβ by the MRAs in DCEP. To isolate these MRAs, glutathione (GSH) was employed, and a simple ultra-performance liquid chromatography/tandem mass spectrometry (UPLC-MS/MS) screening method was developed to investigate the GSH conjugates with potential MRAs. Five physalins, including one new compound isophysalin A (2), together with four known steroidal compounds, physalin A (1), physalin O (3), physalin L (4) and physalin G (5), were isolated to evaluate the GSH conjugating abilities, and it was indicated that compounds 1, 2 and 3, which had a common α,β-unsaturated ketone moiety, exhibited conjugating abilities with GSH and also showed significant nitric oxide (NO) production inhibiting activities. The anti-inflammatory activities of compounds 1, 2 and 3 might be attributed to their targeting multiple cysteine residues on IKKβ; therefore, the alkylation of IKKβ by compound 1 was further studied by micrOTOF-MS. The result showed that six cysteine residues (C(59), C(179), C(299), C(370), C(412), and C(618)) were alkylated, which indicated that IKKβ is a potential target for the anti-inflammatory activity of physalin A.

Differential effects of nutritional and non-nutritional therapies on intestinal barrier function in an in vitro model

BACKGROUND

Diminished intestinal epithelial barrier function contributes to the pathogenesis of Crohn's disease. Clinical and experimental studies propose that increased tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-α promotes barrier dysfunction. The aim of this study was to investigate the effects of nutritional and other therapies upon intestinal barrier function in the presence of TNF-α in an in vitro model.

METHODS

Caco-2 monolayers were grown to confluence on membrane supports and then exposed to TNF-α in the presence of polymeric formula, hydrocortisone or infliximab. Monolayer permeability was evaluated by measuring epithelial resistance, short-circuit current and horseradish peroxidase flux in an Ussing chamber. Tight junction and myosin II regulatory light-chain kinase gene expression was analysed by real-time PCR, with protein expression and localization analysed by Western blot and immunofluorescence.

RESULTS

TNF-α increased monolayer permeability and diminished tight junction integrity. However both polymeric formula and infliximab completely abrogated the effects of TNF-α. These monolayers displayed unchanged permeability and tight junction integrity compared to untreated cells (media-no-TNF-α controls). In contrast, hydrocortisone only partially abrogated the effects of TNF-α, with these monolayers having increased permeability and altered tight junction integrity compared to media-no-TNF-α controls.

CONCLUSIONS

Both polymeric formula and infliximab completely prevent epithelial barrier dysfunction in the presence of TNF-α, whereas hydrocortisone partially prevents barrier dysfunction. These results provide evidence that superior mucosal healing can be achieved with both polymeric formula and infliximab compared to hydrocortisone.

Treatment with Selemax®, a selenium-enriched yeast, ameliorates experimental arthritis in rats and mice

Rheumatoid arthritis (RA) is a chronic inflammatory disease that mainly targets the synovial membrane, cartilage and bone. It affects 1 % of the population and is associated with significant morbidity and increased mortality. Se is an essential trace element with antioxidant properties and the ability to modulate the immune responses. Selemax® is an inactive yeast (Saccharomyces cerevisiae) enriched with organic Se. The aim of the present study was to investigate the effects of Selemax® administration in models of an antigen-induced arthritis (AIA) in C57BL/6 mice, and of an adjuvant-induced arthritis (AdIA) in Holtzman rats. As control, the animals were treated with the same inactivated yeast species that was not enriched for Se. In the AIA model, treatment with different doses of Selemax® (0·01, 0·1, 1 and 10 % added to food) significantly decreased the number of inflammatory cells recruited to the knee cavity, essentially by reducing the number of neutrophils. Levels of proinflammatory cytokines, including TNF-α, IL-1β and chemokine (C-X-C motif) ligand 1/keratinocyte chemoattractant (CXCL1/KC), were also reduced in the peri-articular tissue of mice treated with Selemax® at the tested dose (1 %). In the AdIA model in rats, Selemax® treatment decreased paw oedema and hypernociception. This reduction was associated with inhibition of the influx of proinflammatory cells. Therefore, treatment with Selemax® is associated with amelioration of several inflammatory and functional parameters in models of arthritis, suggesting that this Se-enriched yeast should be evaluated further in patients with RA.

Antimalarial activity of physalins B, D, F, and G

The antimalarial activities of physalins B, D, F, and G (1-4), isolated from Physalis angulata, were investigated. In silico analysis using the similarity ensemble approach (SEA) database predicted the antimalarial activity of each of these compounds, which were shown using an in vitro assay against Plasmodium falciparum. However, treatment of P. berghei-infected mice with 3 increased parasitemia levels and mortality, whereas treatment with 2 was protective, causing a parasitemia reduction and a delay in mortality in P. berghei-infected mice. The exacerbation of in vivo infection by treatment with 3 is probably due to its potent immunosuppressive activity, which is not evident for 2.