Roles for the protein tyrosine phosphatase SHP-2 in cytoskeletal organization, cell adhesion and cell migration revealed by overexpression of a dominant negative mutant

Mechanosensor Piezo1 mediates bimodal patterns of intracellular calcium and FAK signaling

Piezo1 belongs to mechano-activatable cation channels serving as biological force sensors. However, the molecular events downstream of Piezo1 activation remain unclear. In this study, we used biosensors based on fluorescence resonance energy transfer (FRET) to investigate the dynamic modes of Piezo1-mediated signaling and revealed a bimodal pattern of Piezo1-induced intracellular calcium signaling. Laser-induced shockwaves (LIS) and its associated shear stress can mechanically activate Piezo1 to induce transient intracellular calcium (Ca_[i] ) elevation, accompanied by an increase in FAK activity. Interestingly, multiple pulses of shockwave stimulation caused a more sustained calcium increase and a decrease in FAK activity. Similarly, tuning the degree of Piezo1 activation by titrating either the dosage of Piezo1 ligand Yoda1 or the expression level of Piezo1 produced a similar bimodal pattern of FAK responses. Further investigations revealed that SHP2 serves as an intermediate regulator mediating this bimodal pattern in Piezo1 sensing and signaling. These results suggest that the degrees of Piezo1 activation induced by both mechanical LIS and chemical ligand stimulation may determine downstream signaling characteristics.

Src Homology 2 Domain Containing Protein Tyrosine Phosphatase-2 (SHP2) Combined with Dental Pulp Stem Cells Promote the Effect of Angiogenesis

Pulpitis is one of the most important dental diseases. How to improve the blood circulation in the infected and necrotic area of pulp is the current research hotspot in the treatment of pulpitis. Mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) have similar regeneration and differentiation ability to the pluripotent stem cells, and can differentiate into various tissues under certain induced conditions. Dental pulp stem cells (DPSCs) extracted from dental pulp, which have stronger proliferation ability and stability, and are more ideal seed cells for the treatment of pulpitis. Research show that Src homology 2 domain containing SHP2 can promote blood vessel growth. In this subject, we studied the angiogenesis of SHP2 combined with dental pulp stem cells (DPSCs) transplantation. SHP2 and DPSCs were co cultured with human umbilical vein endothelial cells (HUVECs). The proliferation and migration of endothelial cells were detected by Wound Healing Assays. At the same time, the effect of SHP2+DPSC on endothelial cell angiogenesis was examined by tube formation test. The expression of angiogenesis related cytokines including vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF), von willebrand factor (vWF), Angiopoietin-1 (Ang-1) and Cdc42/Rac1 signal pathway were also detected by Western blot. Our results demonstrated that SHP2 combined with DPSCs can advance endothelial cell angiogenesis. Meanwhile, SHP2+ DPSC obviously increased VEGF, Ang-1 and vWF expression. SHP2+DPSC significantly raise the Cdc42/Rac1 signal pathway in HUVECs. Our data illustrate that SHP2 combined with DPSCs can promote the effect of angiogenesis in pulpitis.

Inner retinal injury in experimental glaucoma is prevented upon AAV mediated Shp2 silencing in a caveolin dependent manner

SH2 domain containing tyrosine phosphatase 2 (Shp2; PTPN11) regulates several intracellular pathways downstream of multiple growth factor receptors. Our studies implicate that Shp2 interacts with Caveolin-1 (Cav-1) protein in retinal ganglion cells (RGCs) and negatively regulates BDNF/TrkB signaling. This study aimed to investigate the mechanisms underlying the protective effects of shp2 silencing in the RGCs in glaucomatous conditions.

Methods: Shp2 was silenced in the Cav-1 deficient mice and the age matched wildtype littermates using adeno-associated viral (AAV) constructs. Shp2 expression modulation was performed in an acute and a chronic mouse model of experimental glaucoma. AAV2 expressing Shp2 eGFP-shRNA under a strong synthetic CAG promoter was administered intravitreally in the animals' eyes. The contralateral eye received AAV-eGFP-scramble-shRNA as control. Animals with Shp2 downregulation were subjected to either microbead injections or acute ocular hypertension experimental paradigm. Changes in inner retinal function were evaluated by measuring positive scotopic threshold response (pSTR) while structural and biochemical alterations were evaluated through H&E staining, western blotting and immunohistochemical analysis of the retinal tissues.

Results: A greater loss of pSTR amplitudes was observed in the WT mice compared to Cav-1^-/- retinas in both the models. Silencing of Shp2 phosphatase imparted protection against inner retinal function loss in chronic glaucoma model in WT mice. The functional rescue also translated to structural preservation of ganglion cell layer in the chronic glaucoma condition in WT mice which was not evident in Cav-1^-/- mice retinas.

Conclusions: This study indicates that protective effects of Shp2 ablation under chronic experimental glaucoma conditions are dependent on Cav-1 in the retina, suggesting in vivo interactions between the two proteins.

Noonan Syndrome-Associated SHP2 Dephosphorylates GluN2B to Regulate NMDA Receptor Function

Hyperactivating mutations in the non-receptor tyrosine phosphatase SHP2 cause Noonan syndrome (NS). NS is associated with cognitive deficits, but how hyperactivation of SHP2 in NS changes neuron function is not well understood. We find that mice bearing an NS-associated SHP2 allele (NS mice) have selectively impaired Schaffer collateral-CA1 NMDA (N-methyl-D-aspartate) receptor (NMDAR)-mediated neurotransmission and that residual NMDAR-mediated currents decay faster in NS mice because of reduced contribution of GluN1:GluN2B diheteromers. Consistent with altered GluN2B function, we identify GluN2B Y1252 as an NS-associated SHP2 substrate both in vitro and in vivo. Mutation of Y1252 does not alter recombinant GluN1:GluN2B receptor kinetics. Instead, phospho-Y1252 binds the actin-regulatory adaptor protein Nck2, and this interaction is required for proper NMDAR function. These results establish SHP2 and Nck2 as NMDAR regulatory proteins and strongly suggest that NMDAR dysfunction contributes to NS cognitive deficits.

Cytotoxic activity of Shp2 inhibitor fumosorinone in human cancer cells

Fumosorinone (Fumos) isolated from entomogenous fungi Isaria fumosorosea exhibited selective inhibition of Src homology phosphotyrosine phosphatase 2 inhibitor (Shp2) in our previous study. The purpose of the present study was to investigate the effects of Fumos on cell cycle arrest, tumor cell migration and the in vitro antiproliferative activity of Fumos alone or in combination with the commonly used cytotoxic drugs 5-fluoracil (5-FU) and p38 inhibitor SB203580. Fumos exhibited cytotoxicity against selected human cancel lines, including HeLa, MDA-MB-231 and MDA-MB-453 cell lines. Fumos exerted selective cytotoxic effects on the human cell lines. Flow cytometric and DAPI assays showed that Fumos did not induce cell apoptosis, however it induced cell cycle arrest at the G1 phase. Fumos inhibited cell migration though reducing the phosphorylation of focal adhesion kinase (FAK) at tyrosine (Tyr)861 and marginally increasing the phosphorylation of FAK at Tyr397, however, Fumos did not affect the phosphorylation of FAK at Tyr576 or Tyr925. The present study also examined the combination effect of Fumos with other chemical agents, including 5-FU and p38 inhibitor SB203580. Fumos exhibited a marked synergistic effect with these agents, particularly with 5-FU. In conclusion, Fumos showed potential anticancer bioactivity, and the combination effect of Fumos with 5-FU or with p38 inhibitor offers a more effective anticancer strategy for carcinoma treatment.

Shp2-Mitogen-Activated Protein Kinase Signaling Drives Proliferation during Zebrafish Embryo Caudal Fin Fold Regeneration

Regeneration of the zebrafish caudal fin following amputation occurs through wound healing, followed by formation of a blastema, which produces cells to replace the lost tissue in the final phase of regenerative outgrowth. We show that ptpn11a-/- ptpn11b-/- zebrafish embryos, lacking functional Shp2, fail to regenerate their caudal fin folds. Rescue experiments indicated that Shp2a has a functional signaling role, requiring its catalytic activity and SH2 domains but not the two C-terminal tyrosine phosphorylation sites. Surprisingly, expression of Shp2a variants with increased and reduced catalytic activity, respectively, rescued caudal fin fold regeneration to similar extents. Expression of mmp9 and junbb, indicative of formation of the wound epidermis and distal blastema, respectively, suggested that these processes occurred in ptpn11a-/- ptpn11b-/- zebrafish embryos. However, cell proliferation and MAPK phosphorylation were reduced. Pharmacological inhibition of MEK1 in wild-type zebrafish embryos phenocopied loss of Shp2. Our results suggest an essential role for Shp2a-mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) signaling in promoting cell proliferation during zebrafish embryo caudal fin fold regeneration.

Protein tyrosine phosphatase Shp2 deficiency in podocytes attenuates lipopolysaccharide-induced proteinuria

Podocytes are specialized epithelial cells that play a significant role in maintaining the integrity of the glomerular filtration barrier and preventing urinary protein leakage. We investigated the contribution of protein tyrosine phosphatase Shp2 to lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-induced renal injury. We report increased Shp2 expression in murine kidneys and cultured podocytes following an LPS challenge. To determine the role of podocyte Shp2 in vivo, we generated podocyte-specific Shp2 knockout (pod-Shp2 KO) mice. Following administration of LPS, pod-Shp2 KO mice exhibited lower proteinuria and blood urea nitrogen concentrations than controls indicative of preserved filter integrity. In addition, renal mRNA and serum concentrations of inflammatory cytokines IL-1β, TNFα, INFγ and IL-12 p70 were significantly decreased in LPS-treated knockout mice compared with controls. Moreover, the protective effects of podocyte Shp2 deficiency were associated with decreased LPS-induced NF-κB and MAPK activation, nephrin phosphorylation and attenuated endoplasmic reticulum stress. These effects were recapitulated in differentiated E11 murine podocytes with lentiviral-mediated Shp2 knockdown. Furthermore, Shp2 deficient podocytes displayed reduced LPS-induced migration in a wound healing assay. These findings identify Shp2 in podocytes as a significant contributor to the signaling events following LPS challenge and suggest that inhibition of Shp2 in podocytes may present a potential therapeutic target for podocytopathies.

New and Unexpected Biological Functions for the Src-Homology 2 Domain-Containing Phosphatase SHP-2 in the Gastrointestinal Tract

SHP-2 is a tyrosine phosphatase expressed in most embryonic and adult tissues. SHP-2 regulates many cellular functions including growth, differentiation, migration, and survival. Genetic and biochemical evidence show that SHP-2 is required for rat sarcoma viral oncogene/extracellular signal-regulated kinases mitogen-activated protein kinase pathway activation by most tyrosine kinase receptors, as well as by G-protein-coupled and cytokine receptors. In addition, SHP-2 can regulate the Janus kinase/signal transducers and activators of transcription, nuclear factor-κB, phosphatidyl-inositol 3-kinase/Akt, RhoA, Hippo, and Wnt/β-catenin signaling pathways. Emerging evidence has shown that SHP-2 dysfunction represents a key factor in the pathogenesis of gastrointestinal diseases, in particular in chronic inflammation and cancer. Variations within the gene locus encoding SHP-2 have been associated with increased susceptibility to develop ulcerative colitis and gastric atrophy. Furthermore, mice with conditional deletion of SHP-2 in intestinal epithelial cells rapidly develop severe colitis. Similarly, hepatocyte-specific deletion of SHP-2 induces hepatic inflammation, resulting in regenerative hyperplasia and development of tumors in aged mice. However, the SHP-2 gene initially was suggested to be a proto-oncogene because activating mutations of this gene were found in pediatric leukemias and certain forms of liver and colon cancers. Moreover, SHP-2 expression is up-regulated in gastric and hepatocellular cancers. Notably, SHP-2 functions downstream of cytotoxin-associated antigen A (CagA), the major virulence factor of Helicobacter pylori, and is associated with increased risks of gastric cancer. Further compounding this complexity, most recent findings suggest that SHP-2 also coordinates carbohydrate, lipid, and bile acid synthesis in the liver and pancreas. This review aims to summarize current knowledge and recent data regarding the biological functions of SHP-2 in the gastrointestinal tract.

SHP-2 Mediates Cryptosporidium parvum Infectivity in Human Intestinal Epithelial Cells

The parasite, Cryptosporidium parvum, induces human gastroenteritis through infection of host epithelial cells in the small intestine. During the initial stage of infection, C. parvum is reported to engage host mechanisms at the host cell-parasite interface to form a parasitophorous vacuole. We determined that upon infection, the larger molecular weight proteins in human small intestinal epithelial host cells (FHs 74 Int) appeared to globally undergo tyrosine dephosphorylation. In parallel, expression of the cytoplasmic protein tyrosine phosphatase Src homology-2 domain-containing phosphatase 2 (SHP-2) increased in a time-dependent manner. SHP-2 co-localized with the C. parvum sporozoite and this interaction increased the rate of C. parvum infectivity through SH2-mediated SHP-2 activity. Furthermore, we show that one potential target that SHP-2 acts upon is the focal adhesion protein, paxillin, which undergoes moderate dephosphorylation following infection, with inhibition of SHP-2 rescuing paxillin phosphorylation. Importantly, treatment with an inhibitor to SHP-2 and with an inhibitor to paxillin and Src family kinases, effectively decreased the multiplicity of C. parvum infection in a dose-dependent manner. Thus, our study reveals an important role for SHP-2 in the pathogenesis of C. parvum. Furthermore, while host proteins can be recruited to participate in the development of the electron dense band at the host cell-parasite interface, our study implies for the first time that SHP-2 appears to be recruited by the C. parvum sporozoite to regulate infectivity. Taken together, these findings suggest that SHP-2 and its down-stream target paxillin could serve as targets for intervention.

SHP2 positively regulates TGFβ1-induced epithelial-mesenchymal transition modulated by its novel interacting protein Hook1

The epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT) is an essential process for embryogenesis. It also plays a critical role in the initiation of tumor metastasis. Src homology 2 (SH2)-domain containing protein-tyrosine phosphatase-2 (SHP2) is a ubiquitously expressed protein-tyrosine phosphatase and is mutated in many tumors. However, its functional role in tumor metastasis remains largely unknown. We found that TGFβ1-induced EMT in lung epithelial A549 cells was partially blocked when SHP2 was decreased by transfected siRNA. The constitutively active form (E76V) promoted EMT while the phosphatase-dead mutation (C459S) and the SHP2 inhibitor PHPS1 blocked EMT, which further demonstrated that the phosphatase activity of SHP2 was required for promoting TGFβ1-induced EMT. Using the protein-tyrosine phosphatase domain of SHP2 as bait, we identified a novel SHP2-interacting protein Hook1. Hook1 was down-regulated during EMT in A549 cells. Overexpression of Hook1 inhibited EMT while knockdown of Hook1 promoted EMT. Moreover, both the protein-tyrosine phosphatase domain and N-terminal SH2 domain of SHP2 directly interacted with Hook1. Down-regulation of Hook1 increased SHP2 activity. These results suggested that Hook1 was an endogenous negative regulator of SHP2 phosphatase activity. Our data showed that the protein-tyrosine phosphatase SHP2 was involved in the process of EMT and Hook1 repressed EMT by regulating the activation of SHP2. SHP2-Hook1 complex may play important roles in tumor metastases by regulating EMT in cancer cells.

Targeting the yin and the yang: combined inhibition of the tyrosine kinase c-Src and the tyrosine phosphatase SHP-2 disrupts pancreatic cancer signaling and biology in vitro and tumor formation in vivo

OBJECTIVES

Although c-Src (Src) has emerged as a potential pancreatic cancer target in preclinical studies, Src inhibitors have not demonstrated a significant therapeutic benefit in clinical trials. The objective of these studies was to examine the effects of combining Src inhibition with inhibition of the protein tyrosine phosphatase SHP-2 in pancreatic cancer cells in vitro and in vivo.

METHODS

SHP-2 and Src functions were inhibited by siRNA or small molecule inhibitors. The effects of dual Src/SHP-2 functional inhibition were evaluated by Western blot analysis of downstream signaling pathways; cell biology assays to examine caspase activity, viability, adhesion, migration, and invasion in vitro; and an orthotopic nude mouse model to observe pancreatic tumor formation in vivo.

RESULTS

Dual targeting of Src and SHP-2 induces an additive or supra-additive loss of phosphorylation of Akt and ERK-1/2 and corresponding increases in expression of apoptotic markers, relative to targeting either protein individually. Combinatorial inhibition of Src and SHP-2 significantly reduces viability, adhesion, migration, and invasion of pancreatic cancer cells in vitro and tumor formation in vivo, relative to individual Src/SHP-2 inhibition.

CONCLUSIONS

These data suggest that the antitumor effects of Src inhibition in pancreatic cancer may be enhanced through simultaneous inhibition of SHP-2.

The tyrosine phosphatase SHP2 regulates focal adhesion kinase to promote EGF-induced lamellipodia persistence and cell migration

The Src homology phosphotyrosyl phosphatase 2 (SHP2) is a positive effector of receptor tyrosine kinases (RTK) signaling. Furthermore, SHP2 is known to promote cell migration and invasiveness, key steps in cancer metastasis. To date, however, the mechanism by which SHP2 regulates cell movement is not fully understood. In the current report, a new role for SHP2 in regulating cell migration has been suggested. We show that SHP2 mediates lamellipodia persistence and cell polarity to promote directional cell migration in the MDA-MB231 and the MDA-MB468 basal-like and triple-negative breast cancer cell lines. We further show that SHP2 modulates the activity of focal adhesion kinase (FAK) by dephosphorylating pTyr397, the autophosphorylation site that primes FAK function. Because hyperactivation of FAK is known to counter the maturation of nascent focal complexes to focal adhesions, we propose that one of the mechanisms by which SHP2 promotes lamellipodia persistence is by downregulating FAK activity through dephosphorylation of pTyr397. The finding that inhibition of FAK activity partially restores EGF-induced lamellipodia persistence and cell migration in SHP2-silenced cells supports our proposition that SHP2 promotes growth factor-induced cell movement by acting, at least in part, on FAK. However, the effect of SHP2 inhibition in nonstimulated cells seems FAK independent as there was no significant difference between the control and the SHP2-silenced cells in pY397-FAK levels. Also, FAK inhibition did not rescue Golgi orientation defects in SHP2-silenced cells, suggesting that SHP2 acts through other mechanisms to promote cell polarity.

Heterofunctional nanosheet controlling cell adhesion properties by collagen coating

Recently, biomaterials have been widely used in a variety of medical applications. We previously reported that a poly-l-lactic acid (PLLA) nanosheet shows anti-adhesive properties and constitutes a useful biomaterial for preventing unwanted wound adhesion in surgical operations. In this article, we examine whether the PLLA nanosheet can be specifically modified with biomacromolecules on one surface only. Such an approach would endow each side of the nanosheet with discrete functions, that is anti-adhesive and pro-healing properties. We fabricated two distinct PLLA nanosheets: (i) collagen cast on the surface of a PLLA nanosheet (Col-Cast-PLLA) and (ii) collagen spin-coated on the nanosheet (Col-Spin-PLLA). In the Col-Spin-PLLA nanosheet, the collagen layer had a thickness of 5–10 nm on the PLLA surface and displayed increased hydrophilicity compared to both PLLA and Col-Cast-PLLA nanosheets. In addition, atomic force microscopy showed disorganized collagen fibril formation on the PLLA layer when covered using the spin-coating method, while apparent bundle formations of collagen were formed in the Col-Cast-PLLA nanosheet. The Col-Spin-PLLA nanosheet provided a microenvironment for cells to adhere and spread. By contrast, the Col-Cast-PLLA nanosheet displayed reduced cell adhesion compared to the Col-Spin-PLLA nanosheet. Consistent with these findings, immunocytochemical analysis clearly showed fine networks of actin filaments in cells cultured on the Col-Spin-PLLA, but not the Col-Cast-PLLA nanosheet. Therefore, the Col-Spin-PLLA nanosheet was shown to be more suitable for acting as a scaffold. In conclusion, we have succeeded in developing a heterofunctional nanosheet comprising a collagen modified side, which has the ability to rapidly adhere cells, and an unmodified side, which acts as an adhesion barrier, by using a spin-coating technique.

Enhancing Endothelial Cell Retention on ePTFE Constructs by siRNA-Mediated SHP-1 Gene Silencing

Polymeric vascular grafts hold great promise for vascular reconstruction, but the lack of endothelial cells renders these grafts susceptible to intimal hyperplasia and restenosis, precluding widespread clinical applications. The purpose of this study is to establish a stable endothelium on expanded polytetrafluoroethylene (ePTFE) membrane by small interfering RNA (siRNA)-induced suppression of the cell adhesion inhibitor SH2 domain-containing protein tyrosine phosphatase-1 (SHP-1). Human umbilical vein endothelial cells (HUVECs) were treated with scrambled siRNA as a control or SHP-1 specific siRNA. Treated cells were seeded onto fibronectin-coated ePTFE scaffolds and exposed to a physiological range of pulsatile fluid shear stresses for 1 h in a variable-width parallel plate flow chamber. Retention of cells was measured and compared between various shear stress levels and between groups treated with scrambled siRNA and SHP-1 specific siRNA. HUVECs seeded on ePTFE membrane exhibited shear stress-dependent retention. Exposure to physiological shear stress (10 dyn/cm2) induced a reduction in the retention of scrambled siRNA treated cells from 100% to 85% at 1 h. Increased shear stress (20 dyn/cm2) further reduced retention of scrambled siRNA treated cells to 55% at 1 h. SHP-1 knockdown mediated by siRNA enhanced endothelial cell retention from approximately 60% to 85% after 1 h of exposure to average shear stresses in the range of 15–30 dyn/cm2. This study demonstrates that siRNA-mediated gene silencing may be an effective strategy for improving the retention of endothelial cells within vascular grafts.

Gab2 regulates cytoskeletal organization and migration of mammary epithelial cells by modulating RhoA activation

The oncogenic signal transducer Gab2 mediates altered cytoskeletal organization and enhanced cell migration of mammary epithelial cells via down-regulation of RhoA activity. This sheds new light on the role of Gab2 in cancer cell metastasis.

The docking protein Gab2 is overexpressed in several human malignancies, including breast cancer, and is associated with increased metastatic potential. Here we report that Gab2 overexpression in MCF-10A mammary epithelial cells led to delayed cell spreading, a decrease in stress fibers and mature focal adhesions, and enhanced cell migration. Expression of a Gab2 mutant uncoupled from 14-3-3-mediated negative feedback (Gab2^2×A) led to a more mesenchymal morphology and acquisition of invasive potential. Expression of either Gab2 or Gab2^2×A led to decreased activation of RhoA, but only the latter increased levels of Rac-GTP. Expression of constitutively active RhoA in MCF-10A/Gab2 cells restored stress fibers and focal adhesions, indicating that Gab2 signals upstream of RhoA to suppress these structures. Mutation of the two Shp2-binding sites to phenylalanine (Gab2^ΔShp2) markedly reduced the effects of Gab2 on cellular phenotype and RhoA activation. Expression of Gab2 or Gab2^2×A, but not Gab2^ΔShp2, promoted Vav2 phosphorylation and plasma membrane recruitment of p190A RhoGAP. Knockdown of p190A RhoGAP reversed Gab2-mediated effects on stress fibers and focal adhesions. The identification of a novel pathway downstream of Gab2 involving negative regulation of RhoA by p190A RhoGAP sheds new light on the role of Gab2 in cancer progression.

[Expression and its clinical significance of SHP2 in non-small cell lung cancer]

背景与目的

以往研究表明, 异常的酪氨酸磷酸化与癌的发生密切相关, 本研究旨在采用组织芯片技术结合免疫组化方法来研究蛋白酪氨酸磷酸酶SHP2在非小细胞肺癌(non-small cell lung cancer, NSCLC)中的表达及意义。

方法

80例NSCLC石蜡标本制成组织芯片, 采用链菌素亲生物素-过氧化物酶法(SP)进行免疫组化检测。

结果

SHP2在NSCLC中的表达率为70.00%(56/80), 其中鳞癌为72.5%(29/40), 腺癌为67.50%(27/40);有无淋巴结转移的患者SHP2的阳性表达率分别为73.61%(53/72)和37.50%(3/8)(P < 0.05);SHP2的表达与患者性别、年龄、肿块大小、病理类型、分化程度、临床分期间无统计学差异(P < 0.05)。

结论

SHP2在NSCLC中有较高的表达率, 且与淋巴结转移密切相关, 提示肺癌的发生、发展可能与SHP2有关, SHP2可能是肺癌新的标志物及治疗靶点。

SHP-2 expression negatively regulates NK cell function

Src homology region 2-containing protein tyrosine phosphatase-2 (SHP-2) is required for full activation of Ras/ERK in many cytokine and growth factor receptor signaling pathways. In contrast, SHP-2 inhibits activation of human NK cells upon recruitment to killer cell Ig-like receptors (KIR). To determine how SHP-2 impacts NK cell activation in KIR-dependent or KIR-independent signaling pathways, we employed knockdown and overexpression strategies in NK-like cell lines and analyzed the consequences on functional responses. In response to stimulation with susceptible target cells, SHP-2-silenced NK cells had elevated cytolytic activity and IFN-gamma production, whereas cells overexpressing wild-type or gain-of-function mutants of SHP-2 exhibited dampened activities. Increased levels of SHP-2 expression over this range significantly suppressed microtubule organizing center polarization and granzyme B release in response to target cells. Interestingly, NK-target cell conjugation was only reduced by overexpressing SHP-2, but not potentiated in SHP-2-silenced cells, indicating that conjugation is not influenced by physiological levels of SHP-2 expression. KIR-dependent inhibition of cytotoxicity was unaffected by significant reductions in SHP-2 levels, presumably because KIR were still capable of recruiting the phosphatase under these limiting conditions. In contrast, the general suppressive effect of SHP-2 on cytotoxicity and cytokine release was much more sensitive to changes in cellular SHP-2 levels. In summary, our studies have identified a new, KIR-independent role for SHP-2 in dampening NK cell activation in response to tumor target cells in a concentration-dependent manner. This suppression of activation impacts microtubule organizing center-based cytoskeletal rearrangement and granule release.

Selective activation of SHP2 activity by cisplatin revealed by a novel chemical probe-based assay

Src homology-2 (SH2) domain-containing phosphatase 2 (SHP2) is known to participate in several different signaling pathways to mediate cell growth, survival, migration, and differentiation. However, due to the lack of proper analytical tools, it is unclear whether the phosphatase activity of SHP2 is activated in most studies. We have previously developed an activity-based probe LCL2 that formed covalent linkage with catalytically active protein tyrosine phosphatases (PTPs). Here, by combining LCL2 with a SHP2 specific antibody, we established an assay system that enables the direct monitoring of SHP2 activity upon cisplatin treatment of cancer cells. The protocol is advantageous over conventional colorimetric or in-gel PTP assays as it is specific and does not require the use of radioisotope reagents. Using this assay, we found SHP2 activity was selectively activated by cisplatin. Moreover, the activation of SHP2 appeared to be specific for cisplatin as other DNA damage agents failed to activate the activity. Although the role of SHP2 activation by cisplatin treatments is still unclear to us, our results provide the first direct evidence for the activation of SHP2 during cisplatin treatments. More importantly, the concept of using activity-based probe in conjunction with target-specific antibodies could be extended to other enzyme classes.

Protein tyrosine phosphatase SHP-2: a proto-oncogene product that promotes Ras activation

SHP-2 is a cytoplasmic protein tyrosine phosphatase (PTP) that contains two Src homology 2 (SH2) domains. Although PTPs are generally considered to be negative regulators on the basis of their ability to oppose the effects of protein tyrosine kinases, SHP-2 is unusual in that it promotes the activation of the Ras-MAPK signaling pathway by receptors for various growth factors and cytokines. The molecular basis for the activation of SHP-2 is also unique: In the basal state, the NH(2)-terminal SH2 domain of SHP-2 interacts with the PTP domain, resulting in autoinhibition of PTP activity; the binding of SHP-2 via its SH2 domains to tyrosine-phosphorylated growth factor receptors or docking proteins, however, results in disruption of this intramolecular interaction, leading to exposure of the PTP domain and catalytic activation. Indeed, SHP-2 proteins with artificial mutations in the NH(2)-terminal SH2 domain have been shown to act as dominant active mutants in vitro. Such activating mutations of PTPN11 (human SHP-2 gene) were subsequently identified in individuals with Noonan syndrome, a human developmental disorder that is sometimes associated with juvenile myelomonocytic leukemia. Furthermore, somatic mutations of PTPN11 were found to be associated with pediatric leukemia. SHP-2 is also thought to participate in the development of other malignant disorders, but in a manner independent of such activating mutations. Biochemical and functional studies of SHP-2 and genetic analysis of PTPN11 in human disorders have thus converged to provide new insight into the pathogenesis of cancer as well as potential new targets for cancer treatment.

Molecular mechanism for SHP2 in promoting HER2-induced signaling and transformation

The Src homology phosphotyrosyl phosphatase 2 (SHP2) plays a positive role in HER2-induced signaling and transformation, but its mechanism of action is poorly understood. Given the significance of HER2 in breast cancer, defining a mechanism for SHP2 in the HER2 signaling pathway is of paramount importance. In the current report we show that SHP2 positively modulates the Ras-extracellular signal-regulated kinase 1 and 2 and the phospoinositide-3-kinase-Akt pathways downstream of HER2 by increasing the half-life the activated form of Ras. This is accomplished by dephosphorylating an autophosphorylation site on HER2 that serves as a docking platform for the SH2 domains of the Ras GTPase-activating protein (RasGAP). The net effect is an increase in the intensity and duration of GTP-Ras levels with the overall impact of enhanced HER2 signaling and cell transformation. In conformity to these findings, the HER2 mutant that lacks the SHP2 target site exhibits an enhanced signaling and cell transformation potential. Therefore, SHP2 promotes HER2-induced signaling and transformation at least in part by dephosphorylating a negative regulatory autophosphorylation site. These results suggest that SHP2 might serve as a therapeutic target against breast cancer and other cancers characterized by HER2 overexpression.

CaMK-II promotes focal adhesion turnover and cell motility by inducing tyrosine dephosphorylation of FAK and paxillin

Transient elevations in Ca2+ have previously been shown to promote focal adhesion disassembly and cell motility through an unknown mechanism. In this study, evidence is provided to show that CaMK-II, a Ca2+/calmodulin dependent protein kinase, influences fibroblast adhesion and motility. TIRF microscopy reveals a dynamic population of CaMK-II at the cell surface in migrating cells. Inhibition of CaMK-II with two mechanistically distinct, membrane permeant inhibitors (KN-93 and myr-AIP) freezes lamellipodial dynamics, accelerates spreading on fibronectin, enlarges paxillin-containing focal adhesions and blocks cell motility. In contrast, constitutively active CaMK-II is not found at the cell surface, reduces cell attachment, eliminates paxillin from focal adhesions and decreases the phospho-tyrosine levels of both FAK and paxillin; all of these events can be reversed with myr-AIP. Thus, both CaMK-II inhibition and constitutive activation block cell motility through over-stabilization or destabilization of focal adhesions, respectively. Coupled with the existence of transient Ca2+ elevations and a dynamic CaMK-II population, these findings provide the first direct evidence that CaMK-II enables cell motility by transiently and locally stimulating tyrosine dephosphorylation of focal adhesion proteins to promote focal adhesion turnover.

Noonan syndrome/leukemia-associated gain-of-function mutations in SHP-2 phosphatase (PTPN11) enhance cell migration and angiogenesis

Mutations in SHP-2 phosphatase (PTPN11) that cause hyperactivation of its catalytic activity have been identified in Noonan syndrome and various childhood leukemias. Recent studies suggest that the gain-of-function (GOF) mutations of SHP-2 play a causal role in the pathogenesis of these diseases. However, the molecular mechanisms by which GOF mutations of SHP-2 induce these phenotypes are not fully understood. Here, we show that GOF mutations in SHP-2, such as E76K and D61G, drastically increase spreading and migration of various cell types, including hematopoietic cells, endothelial cells, and fibroblasts. More importantly, in vivo angiogenesis in SHP-2 D61G knock-in mice is also enhanced. Mechanistic studies suggest that the increased cell migration is attributed to the enhanced beta1 integrin outside-in signaling. In response to beta1 integrin cross-linking or fibronectin stimulation, activation of ERK and Akt kinases is greatly increased by SHP-2 GOF mutations. Also, integrin-induced activation of RhoA and Rac1 GTPases is elevated. Interestingly, mutant cells with the SHP-2 GOF mutation (D61G) are more sensitive than wild-type cells to the suppression of cell motility by inhibition of these pathways. Collectively, these studies reaffirm the positive role of SHP-2 phosphatase in cell motility and suggest a new mechanism by which SHP-2 GOF mutations contribute to diseases.

SHP2 is up-regulated in breast cancer cells and in infiltrating ductal carcinoma of the breast, implying its involvement in breast oncogenesis

AIMS

To determine whether Src homology phosphotyrosyl phosphatase 2 (SHP2) is up-regulated in breast cancer and, if so, to determine whether its up-regulation has any relationship with clinical variables of breast cancer.

METHODS AND RESULTS

Immunoblotting, immunohistochemistry and immunofluorescence microscopy were used to assess the state of SHP2 expression in breast cancer cells and in infiltrating ductal carcinoma (IDC) of breast. The possible role of SHP2 in breast cancer cell transformation was determined by dominant-negative expression and anchorage-independent growth assays. All of the breast cancer cell lines tested and 72% of IDC breast tumours analysed had increased amounts of the SHP2 protein. In support of its positive role, dominant-negative SHP2 blocked anchorage-independent growth of breast cancer cells. Furthermore, overexpression of SHP2 seemed to have a positive relationship to HER2 overexpression, nuclear accumulation of hormone receptors, higher tumour grade and lymph node metastasis, but not to age of breast cancer patients.

CONCLUSION

SHP2 is a widely overexpressed signalling protein in IDC breast tumours. Given SHP2's positive role in cell growth, transformation and stem cell survival, the positive relationship of its overexpression to lymph node metastasis, nuclear accumulation of hormone receptors and higher tumour grade suggests that SHP2 promotes breast oncogenesis.

Regulation of RhoA-dependent ROCKII activation by Shp2

Contractile forces mediated by RhoA and Rho kinase (ROCK) are required for a variety of cellular processes, including cell adhesion. In this study, we show that RhoA-dependent ROCKII activation is negatively regulated by phosphorylation at a conserved tyrosine residue (Y722) in the coiled-coil domain of ROCKII. Tyrosine phosphorylation of ROCKII is increased with cell adhesion, and loss of Y722 phosphorylation delays adhesion and spreading on fibronectin, suggesting that this modification is critical for restricting ROCKII-mediated contractility during these processes. Further, we provide evidence that Shp2 mediates dephosphorylation of ROCKII and, therefore, regulates RhoA-induced cell rounding, indicating that Shp2 couples with RhoA signaling to control ROCKII activation during deadhesion. Thus, reversible tyrosine phosphorylation confers an additional layer of control to fine-tune RhoA-dependent activation of ROCKII.

Potential molecular mechanism for c-Src kinase-mediated regulation of intestinal cell migration

The ubiquitously expressed Src tyrosine kinases (c-Src, c-Yes, and c-Fyn) regulate intestinal cell growth and differentiation. Src activity is also elevated in the majority of malignant and premalignant tumors of the colon. The development of fibroblasts with the three ubiquitously expressed kinases deleted (SYF cells) has identified the role of Src proteins in the regulation of actin dynamics associated with increased cell migration and invasion. Despite this, unexpectedly nothing is known about the role of the individual Src kinases on intestinal cell cytoskeleton and/or cell migration. We have previously reported that villin, an epithelial cell-specific actin-modifying protein that regulates actin reorganization, cell morphology, cell migration, cell invasion, and apoptosis, is tyrosine-phosphorylated. In this report using the SYF cells reconstituted individually with c-Src, c-Yes, c-Fyn, and wild type or phosphorylation site mutants of villin, we demonstrate for the first time the absolute requirement for c-Src in villin-induced regulation of cell migration. The other major finding of our study is that contrary to previous reports, the nonreceptor tyrosine kinase, Jak3 (Janus kinase 3), does not regulate phosphorylation of villin or villin-induced cell migration and is, in fact, not expressed in intestinal epithelial cells. Further, we identify SHP-2 and PTP-PEST (protein-tyrosine phosphatase proline-, glutamate-, serine-, and threonine-rich sequence) as negative regulators of c-Src kinase and demonstrate a new function for these phosphatases in intestinal cell migration. Together, these data suggest that in colorectal carcinogenesis, elevation of c-Src or down-regulation of SHP-2 and/or PTP-PEST may promote cancer metastases and invasion by regulating villin-induced cell migration and cell invasion.

Nuclear localization of the ERK MAP kinase mediated by Drosophila alphaPS2betaPS integrin and importin-7

The control of gene expression by the mitogen-activated protein (MAP) kinase extracellular signal-regulated kinase (ERK) requires its translocation into the nucleus. In Drosophila S2 cells nuclear accumulation of diphospho-ERK (dpERK) is greatly reduced by interfering double-stranded RNA against Drosophila importin-7 (DIM-7) or by the expression of integrin mutants, either during active cell spreading or after stimulation by insulin. In both cases, total ERK phosphorylation (on Westerns) is not significantly affected, and ERK accumulates in a perinuclear ring. Tyrosine phosphorylation of DIM-7 is reduced in cells expressing integrin mutants, indicating a mechanistic link between these components. DIM-7 and integrins localize to the same actin-containing peripheral regions in spreading cells, but DIM-7 is not concentrated in paxillin-positive focal contacts or stable focal adhesions. The Corkscrew (SHP-2) tyrosine phosphatase binds DIM-7, and Corkscrew is required for the cortical localization of DIM-7. These data suggest a model in which ERK phosphorylation must be spatially coupled to integrin-mediated DIM-7 activation to make a complex that can be imported efficiently. Moreover, dpERK nuclear import can be restored in DIM-7-deficient cells by Xenopus Importin-7, demonstrating that ERK import is an evolutionarily conserved function of this protein.

Regulation by Src Homology 2 Domain-Containing Protein Tyrosine Phosphatase Substrate-1 of α-Galactosylceramide-Induced Antimetastatic Activity and Th1 and Th2 Responses of NKT Cells

Interaction of alpha-galactosylceramide (alpha-GalCer) presented by CD1d on dendritic cells (DCs) with the invariant TCR of NKT cells activates NKT cells. We have now investigated the role of Src homology 2 domain-containing protein tyrosine phosphatase substrate-1 (SHPS-1), a transmembrane protein abundantly expressed on DCs, in regulation of NKT cells with the use of mice that express a mutant form of SHPS-1. The suppression by alpha-GalCer of experimental lung metastasis was markedly attenuated in SHPS-1 mutant mice compared with that apparent in wild-type (WT) mice. The antimetastatic effect induced by adoptive transfer of alpha-GalCer-pulsed DCs from SHPS-1 mutant mice was also reduced compared with that apparent with WT DCs. Both the production of IFN-gamma and IL-4 as well as cell proliferation in response to alpha-GalCer in vitro were greatly attenuated in splenocytes or hepatic mononuclear cells from SHPS-1 mutant mice compared with the responses of WT cells. Moreover, CD4+ mononuclear cells incubated with alpha-GalCer and CD11c+ DCs from SHPS-1 mutant mice produced markedly smaller amounts of IFN-gamma and IL-4 than did those incubated with alpha-GalCer and CD11c+ DCs from WT mice. SHPS-1 on DCs thus appears to be essential for alpha-GalCer-induced antimetastatic activity and Th1 and Th2 responses of NKT cells. Moreover, our recent findings suggest that SHPS-1 on DCs is also essential for the priming of CD4+ T cells by DCs.

The tyrosine phosphatase Shp2 interacts with NPM-ALK and regulates anaplastic lymphoma cell growth and migration

Anaplastic large cell lymphomas (ALCL) are mainly characterized by the reciprocal translocation t(2;5)(p23;q35) that involves the anaplastic lymphoma kinase (ALK) gene and generates the fusion protein NPM-ALK with intrinsic tyrosine kinase activity. NPM-ALK triggers several signaling cascades, leading to increased cell growth, resistance to apoptosis, and changes in morphology and migration of transformed cells. To search for new NPM-ALK interacting molecules, we developed a mass spectrometry-based proteomic approach in HEK293 cells expressing an inducible NPM-ALK and identified the tyrosine phosphatase Shp2 as a candidate substrate. We found that NPM-ALK was able to bind Shp2 in coprecipitation experiments and to induce its phosphorylation in the tyrosine residues Y542 and Y580 both in HEK293 cells and ALCL cell lines. In primary lymphomas, antibodies against the phosphorylated tyrosine Y542 of Shp2 mainly stained ALK-positive cells. In ALCL cell lines, Shp2-constitutive phosphorylation was dependent on NPM-ALK, as it significantly decreased after short hairpin RNA (shRNA)-mediated NPM-ALK knock down. In addition, only the constitutively active NPM-ALK, but not the kinase dead NPM-ALK(K210R), formed a complex with Shp2, Gab2, and growth factor receptor binding protein 2 (Grb2), where Grb2 bound to the phosphorylated Shp2 through its SH2 domain. Shp2 knock down by specific shRNA decreased the phosphorylation of extracellular signal-regulated kinase 1/2 and of the tyrosine residue Y416 in the activation loop of Src, resulting in impaired ALCL cell proliferation and growth disadvantage. Finally, migration of ALCL cells was reduced by Shp2 shRNA. These findings show a direct involvement of Shp2 in NPM-ALK lymphomagenesis, highlighting its critical role in lymphoma cell proliferation and migration.

Phospholipase C-gamma1 potentiates integrin-dependent cell spreading and migration through Pyk2/paxillin activation

Phospholipase C-gamma1 (PLC-gamma1), which generates two second messengers, namely, inositol-1, 4, 5-trisphosphate and diacylglycerol, is implicated in growth factor-mediated chemotaxis. However, the exact role of PLC-gamma1 in integrin-mediated cell adhesion and migration remains poorly understood. In this study, we demonstrate that PLC-gamma1 is required for actin cytoskeletal organization and cell motility through the regulation of Pyk2 and paxillin activation. After fibronectin stimulation, PLC-gamma1 directly interacted with the cytoplasmic tail of integrin beta1. In PLC-gamma1-silenced cells, integrin-induced Pyk2 and paxillin phosphorylation were significantly reduced and PLC-gamma1 potentiated the integrin-induced Pyk2/paxillin activation in its enzymatic activity-dependent manner. In addition, specific knock-down of PLC-gamma1 resulted in a failure to form focal adhesions dependent on fibronectin stimulation, which appeared to be caused by the suppression of Pyk2 and paxillin phosphorylation. Interestingly, PLC-gamma1 potentiated the activations of Rac, thus integrin-induced lamellipodia formation was up-regulated. Consequently, the strength of cell-substratum interaction and cell motility were profoundly up-regulated by PLC-gamma1. Taken together, these results suggest that PLC-gamma1 is a key player in integrin-mediated cell spreading and motility achieved by the activation of Pyk2/paxillin/Rac signaling.

Integrin-mediated cell adhesion and spreading engage different sources of reactive oxygen species

The tightly regulated production of intracellular reactive oxygen species (ROS) participates in several biologic processes such as cellular growth, programmed cell death, senescence, and adhesion. It is increasingly evident that the same enzymatic processes that were originally linked to ROS generation during host defence or apoptosis execution are also involved in redox-mediated signal transduction. We investigated in murine NIH3T3 fibroblasts the contribution of a variety of redox-dependent events during signal transduction initiated by integrin engagement due to fibronectin stimulation and report that a mitochondrial ROS release occurs, strictly confined to the early phase of extracellular matrix (ECM) contact (10 min). Besides, 5-lipoxygenase (5-LOX) is engaged by integrin receptor ligation as another ROS source, contributing to the more-intense, second ROS burst (45 min), possibly orchestrating the spreading of cells in response to ECM contact. To define a potential mechanism for ROS signaling, we demonstrate that on integrin recruitment, the Src homology-2 domain-containing phosphatase 2 (SHP-2) undergoes a reversible oxidization/inactivation to which mitochondrial and 5-lipoxygenase ROS contribute differentially. In keeping with a key role of oxidants during integrin signaling, the inactivation of SHP-2 prevents the dephosphorylation and inactivation of SHP-2 substrates (p125FAK and SHPS-1), thus enabling the continued propagation of the signal arising by integrin engagement.

p56lck, LFA-1 and PI3K but not SHP-2 interact with GM1- or GM3-enriched microdomains in a CD4-p56lck association-dependent manner

We previously showed that the association of CD4 and G(M3) ganglioside induced by CD4 ligand binding was required for the down-regulation of adhesion and that aggregation of ganglioside-enriched domains was accompanied by transient co-localization of LFA-1 (lymphocyte function-associated antigen-1), PI3K (phosphoinositide 3-kinase) and CD4. We also showed that these proteins co-localized with the G(M1) ganglioside that partially co-localized with G(M3) in these domains. In the present study, we show that CD4-p56(lck) association in CD4 signalling is required for the redistribution of p56(lck), PI3K and LFA-1 in ganglioside-enriched domains, since ganglioside aggregation and recruitment of these proteins were not observed in a T-cell line (A201) expressing the mutant form of CD4 that does not bind p56(lck). In addition, we show that although these proteins associated in different ways with G(M1) and G(M3), all of the associations were dependent on CD4-p56(lck) association. Gangliosides could associate with these proteins that differ in affinity binding and could be modified following CD4 signalling. Our results suggest that through these associations, gangliosides transiently sequestrate these proteins and consequently inhibit LFA-1-dependent adhesion. Furthermore, while structural diversity of gangliosides may allow association with distinct proteins, we show that the tyrosine phosphatase SHP-2 (Src homology 2 domain-containing protein tyrosine phosphatase 2), also required for the down-regulation of LFA-1-dependent adhesion, transiently and partially co-localized with PI3K and p56(lck) in detergent-insoluble membranes without association with G(M1) or G(M3). We propose that CD4 ligation and binding with p56(lck) and their interaction with G(M3) and/or G(M1) gangliosides induce recruitment of distinct proteins important for CD4 signalling to form a multimolecular signalling complex.

The scaffolding adapter Gab1 mediates vascular endothelial growth factor signaling and is required for endothelial cell migration and capillary formation

Vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) is involved in the promotion of endothelial cell proliferation, migration, and capillary formation. These activities are mainly mediated by the VEGFR2 receptor tyrosine kinase that upon stimulation, promotes the activation of numerous proteins including phospholipase Cgamma (PLCgamma), phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase (PI3K), Akt, Src, and ERK1/2. However, the VEGFR2-proximal signaling events leading to the activation of these targets remain ill defined. We have identified the Gab1 adapter as a novel tyrosine-phosphorylated protein in VEGF-stimulated cells. In bovine aortic endothelial cells, Gab1 associates with VEGFR2, Grb2, PI3K, SHP2, Shc, and PLCgamma, and its overexpression enhances VEGF-dependent cell migration. Importantly, silencing of Gab1 using small interfering RNAs leads to the impaired activation of PLCgamma, ERK1/2, Src, and Akt; blocks VEGF-induced endothelial cell migration; and perturbs actin reorganization and capillary formation. In addition, co-expression of VEGFR2 with Gab1 mutants unable to bind SHP2 or PI3K in human embryonic kidney 293 cells and bovine aortic endothelial cells mimics the defects observed in Gab1-depleted cells. Our work thus identifies Gab1 as a novel critical regulatory component of endothelial cell migration and capillary formation and reveals its key role in the activation of VEGF-evoked signaling pathways required for angiogenesis.

Phosphorylation of SHP-2 Regulates Interactions between the Endoplasmic Reticulum and Focal Adhesions to Restrict Interleukin-1-induced Ca2+ Signaling

Interleukin-1 (IL-1)-induced Ca2+ signaling in fibroblasts is constrained by focal adhesions. This process involves the proteintyrosine phosphatase SHP-2, which is critical for IL-1-induced phosphorylation of phospholipase Cgamma1, thereby enhancing IL-1-induced Ca2+ release and ERK activation. Currently, the mechanisms by which SHP-2 modulates Ca2+ release from the endoplasmic reticulum are not defined. We used immunoprecipitation and fluorescence protein-tagged SHP-2 or endoplasmic reticulum (ER)-protein expression vectors, and an ER-specific calcium indicator, to examine the functional relationships between SHP-2, focal adhesions, and IL-1-induced Ca2+ release from the ER. By total internal reflection fluorescence microscopy to image subplasma membrane compartments, SHP-2 co-localized with the ER-associated proteins calnexin and calreticulin at sites of focal adhesion formation in fibroblasts. IL-1beta promoted time-dependent recruitment of SHP-2 and ER proteins to focal adhesions; this process was blocked in cells treated with small interfering RNA for SHP-2 and in cells expressing a Y542F SHP-2 mutant. IL-1 stimulated inositol 1,4,5-trisphosphate receptor-mediated Ca2+ release from the ER subjacent to the plasma membrane that was tightly localized around fibronectin-coated beads and was reduced 4-fold in cells expressing Tyr-542 SHP-2 mutant. In subcellular fractions enriched for ER proteins, immunoprecipitation demonstrated that IL-1-enhanced association of SHP-2 with the type 1 inositol 1,4,5-trisphosphate receptor was dependent on Tyr-542 of SHP-2. We conclude that Tyr-542 of SHP-2 modulates IL-1-induced Ca2+ signals and association of the ER with focal adhesions.

Tyrosine phosphatase SHP-2 regulates IL-1 signaling in fibroblasts through focal adhesions

Interleukin-1beta (IL-1beta) mediates destruction of matrix collagens in diverse inflammatory diseases including arthritis, periodontitis, and pulmonary fibrosis by activating fibroblasts, cells that interact with matrix proteins through integrin-based adhesions. In vitro, IL-1beta signaling is modulated by focal adhesions, supramolecular protein complexes that are enriched with tyrosine kinases and phosphatases. We assessed the importance of tyrosine phosphatases in regulating cell-matrix interactions and IL-1beta signaling. In human gingival fibroblasts plated on fibronectin, IL-1beta enhanced the maturation of focal adhesions as defined by morphology and enrichment with paxillin and alpha-actinin. IL-1beta also induced activation of ERK and recruitment of phospho-ERK to focal complexes/adhesions. Treatment with the potent tyrosine phosphatase inhibitor pervanadate, in the absence of IL-1beta, recapitulated many of these responses indicating the importance of tyrosine phosphatases. Immunoblotting of collagen bead-associated complexes revealed that the tyrosine phosphatase, SHP-2, was also enriched in focal complexes/adhesions. Depletion of SHP-2 by siRNA or by homologous recombination markedly altered IL-1beta-induced ERK activation and maturation of focal adhesions. IL-1beta-induced tyrosine phosphorylation of SHP-2 on residue Y542 promoted focal adhesion maturation. Association of Gab1 with SHP-2 in focal adhesions correlated temporally with activation of ERK and was abrogated in cells expressing mutant (Y542F) SHP-2. We conclude that IL-1beta mediated maturation of focal adhesions is dependent on tyrosine phosphorylation of SHP-2 at Y542, leading to recruitment of Gab1, a process that may influence the downstream activation of ERK.

Regulation of Cell Adhesion by Protein-tyrosine Phosphatases

Protein-tyrosine phosphatases are key regulators of protein tyrosine phosphorylation. More than merely terminating the pathways initiated by protein-tyrosine kinases, phosphatases are active participants in many signaling pathways. Signals involving tyrosine phosphorylation are frequently generated in response to cell-matrix adhesion. In addition, high levels of protein tyrosine phosphorylation generally promote disassembly or turnover of adhesions. In this brief review, we will discuss the role of protein-tyrosine phosphatases in cell-matrix adhesions.

Phospholipase D1 regulates cell migration in a lipase activity-independent manner

Cell migration, a complex biological process, requires dynamic cytoskeletal remodeling. Phospholipase D (PLD) generates phosphatidic acid, a lipid second messenger. Although PLD activity has been proposed to play a role in cytoskeletal rearrangement, the manner in which PLD participates in the rearrangement process remains obscure. In this study, by silencing endogenous PLD isozymes using small interfering RNA in HeLa cells, we demonstrate that endogenous PLD1 is required for the normal organization of the actin cytoskeleton, and, more importantly, for cell motility. PLD1 silencing in HeLa cells resulted in dramatic changes in cellular morphology, including the accumulation of stress fibers, as well as cell elongation and flattening, which appeared to be caused by an increased number of focal adhesions, which ultimately culminated in enhanced cell-substratum interactions. Accordingly, serum-induced cell migration was profoundly inhibited by PLD1-silencing. Moreover, the augmented cell substratum interaction and retarded cell migration induced by PLD1-silencing could be restored by the adding back not only of wild type, but also of lipase-inactive PLD1 into knockdown cells. Taken together, our results strongly suggest that endogenous PLD1 is a critical factor in the organization of the actin-based cytoskeleton, with regard to cell adhesion and migration. These effects of PLD1 appear to operate in a lipase activity-independent manner. We also discuss the regulation of Src family kinases by PLD1, as related to the modulation of Pyk2 and cell migration.

Pinpointing phosphotyrosine-dependent interactions downstream of the collagen receptor DDR1

Activation of the receptor tyrosine kinase DDR1 by collagen results in robust and sustained phosphorylation, however little is known about its downstream mediators. Using phosphopeptide mapping and site-directed mutagenesis, we here identified multiple tyrosine phosphorylation sites within DDR1. We found that Nck2 and Shp-2, two SH2 domain-containing proteins, bind to DDR1 in a collagen-dependent manner. The binding site of Shp-2 was mapped to tyrosine-740 of DDR1 within an ITIM-consensus sequence. Lastly, ablation of DDR1 in the mouse mammary gland resulted in delocalized expression of Nck2, suggesting that defects observed during alveologenesis are caused by the lack of the DDR1-Nck2 interaction.

SHIP2 interaction with the cytoskeletal protein Vinexin

The src homology 2 (SH2) domain-containing inositol 5-phosphatase 2 (SHIP2) catalyses the dephosphorylation of phosphatidylinositol 3,4,5-trisphosphate [PtdIns(3,4,5)P3] to phosphatidylinositol 3,4-bisphosphate [PtdIns(3,4)P2]. We report the identification of the cytoskeletal protein Vinexin as a protein interacting with SHIP2. This was achieved by yeast two-hybrid screening using the C-terminal region of SHIP2 as bait. Vinexin has previously been identified as a vinculin-binding protein that plays a key role in cell spreading and cytoskeletal organization. The interaction between SHIP2 and Vinexin was confirmed in lysates of both COS-7 cells and mouse embryonic fibroblasts (MEF). The C-terminus was involved in the interaction, as shown by the transfection of a truncated C-terminus mutant of SHIP2. In addition, we showed the colocalization between Vinexin alpha and SHIP2 at the periphery of transfected COS-7 cells. When added in vitro to SHIP2, Vinexin did not affect the PtdIns(3,4,5)P3 5-phosphatase activity of SHIP2. Enhanced cell adhesion to collagen-I-coated dishes was shown upon transfection of either SHIP2 or Vinexin to COS-7 cells. This effect was no longer observed with either a catalytic mutant or the C-terminus mutant of SHIP2. It also appears SHIP2 specific; this was not seen with SHIP1. Adhesion to the same matrix was decreased in SHIP2-/- MEF cells compared with MEF+/+ cells. Our data suggest that SHIP2 interaction with Vinexin promotes the localization of SHIP2 at the periphery of the cells leaving its catalytic site intact. The complex formation between Vinexin and SHIP2 may increase cellular adhesion. The data reinforce the concept that SHIP2 is active both as a PtdIns(3,4,5)P3 5-phosphatase and as a modulator of focal contact formation.

Integrin activates receptor-like protein tyrosine phosphatase alpha, Src, and Rho to increase prolactin gene expression through a final phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase/cytoskeletal pathway that is additive with insulin

We previously showed that receptor-like protein tyrosine phosphatase (RPTP)-alpha inhibited insulin-increased prolactin gene transcription. Others suggested that RPTPalpha was a key intermediary between integrins and activation of Src. We present evidence that inhibition of insulin-increased prolactin gene transcription was secondary to RPTPalpha activation of Src, reflecting its role as mediator of integrin responses. Src kinase activity was increased in GH4 cells transiently or stably expressing RPTPalpha and cells plated on the integrin-alpha5beta1 ligand fibronectin. C-terminal Src kinase inactivated Src and blocked RPTPalpha inhibition of insulin-increased prolactin gene transcription. Expression of dominant-negative Src also prevented the RPTPalpha-mediated inhibition of insulin-increased prolactin gene expression. Low levels of a constitutively active Src mutant (SrcY/F) stimulated whereas higher expression levels of Src Y/F inhibited prolactin gene expression. Src-increased prolactin gene transcription was inhibited by expression of a blocking Rho-mutant (RhoN19), suggesting that Src acted through or required active Rho. Experiments with an activated Rho-mutant (RhoL63) demonstrated a biphasic activation/repression of prolactin gene transcription that was similar to the effect of Src. The effects of both Src and Rho were phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase dependent. Expression of SrcY/F or RhoL63 altered the actin cytoskeleton and morphology of GH4 cells. Taken together, these data suggest a physiological pathway from the cell matrix to increased prolactin gene transcription mediated by RPTPalpha/Src/Rho/phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase and cytoskeletal change that is additive with effects of insulin. Over activation of this pathway, however, caused extreme alteration of the cytoskeleton that blocked activation of the prolactin gene.

Anchorage-dependent cell growth: tyrosine kinases and phosphatases meet redox regulation

Recent data have provided new insight concerning the regulation of nontransformed cell proliferation in response to both soluble growth factors and adhesive cues. Nontransformed cells are anchorage-dependent for the execution of the complete mitotic program and cannot avoid the concomitant signals starting from mitogenic molecules, as growth factors, and adhesive agents belonging to the extracellular matrix. Protein tyrosine kinases (PTKs) and phosphotyrosine phosphatases (PTPs) together with soluble small molecules have been included among intracellular signal transducers of growth factor and extracellular matrix receptors. Reactive oxygen species retain a key role during both growth factor and integrin receptor signaling, and these second messengers are recognized to be a synergistic point of confluence for anchorage-dependent growth signaling. Redox-regulated proteins include PTPs and PTKs, although with opposite regulation of enzymatic activity. Transient oxidation of PTPs leads to their inactivation, through the formation of an intramolecular S-S bridge. Conversely, oxidation of PTKs leads to their activation, either by direct SH modification or, indirectly, by concomitant inhibition of PTPs that leads to sustained activation of PTKs. This review will focus on the redox regulation of PTPs and PTKs during anchorage-dependent cell growth and its implications for tumor biology.

SHP-2 promoting migration and metastasis of MCF-7 with loss of E-cadherin, dephosphorylation of FAK and secretion of MMP-9 induced by IL-1beta in vivo and in vitro

Shp-2, an src homology (SH) two-containing phosphotyrosine phosphatase, appears to be involved in cytoplasmic signaling downstream of a variety of cell surface receptors. It also plays an important role in the control of cell spreading, migration, and cytoskeletal architecture. In our study, abrogation of SHP-2 catalytic activity with a'dominant-negative mutant (SHP-2C > S) displayed an increased number of focal adhesion, high expression of E-cadhenrin and phosphorylation of the focal adhesion kinase (FAK). Interestingly, the cells expressing SHP-2C > S showed reduced IL-1beta-stimulated chemotaxis compared with either mock- or SHP-2 wild type-transfected cells. We also found that SHP-2-GFP-transfected cell lines did not express E-cadherin nearly and produced high level of the matrix metalloproteinase MMP-9 in the supernatants. The loss of E-cadherin-mediated adhesion and the increase of MMP-9-induced migration had been shown to play an important role in the transition of epithelial tumors from a benign to an invasive state. These findings have raised the possibility that SHP-2 can promote the cancer cell to invasion the distant tissues. To determine whether SHP-2 promotes invasion and metastasis, we transfected MCF-7 breast cancer cell lines with SHP-2-GFP, SHP-2C > S-GFP and analyzed the effects of the SHP-2 on cell migration, invasion, and metastasis. In vitro, SHP-2-GFP-transfected cells migrated more efficiently, showed an increased invasion of Matrigel, and adhered less efficiently to monolayers of fibroblast cells. When injected into the abdominal cavity of nude mice, SHP-2-GFP-transfected cells metastasized widely to the lung, kidney, but MCF-7 with SHP-2C > S-GFP was not observed in the these organs. These results demonstrate that SHP-2 promotes invasion and metastasis of MCF-7 with the loss of E-cadherin, the dephosphorylation of FAK and the secretion of MMP-9 induced by IL-1beta.

Cytoskeletal remodeling in vascular smooth muscle cells in response to angiotensin II-induced activation of the SHP-2 tyrosine phosphatase

Angiotensin II is an octapeptide that regulates diverse cellular responses including the actin cytoskeletal organization. In this study, stable cell lines overexpressing wild-type or catalytically inactive SHP-2 were employed to elucidate the signaling pathway utilized by the SHP-2 tyrosine phosphatase that mediates an angiotensin II-induced reorganization of the actin cytoskeleton in vascular smooth muscle cells (VSMC). The expression of wild-type SHP-2 prevented an angiotensin II dependent increase in stress fiber formation. In contrast, the catalytically inactive mutant SHP-2 increased stress fiber formation. Additional observations further established that SHP-2 regulates the reorganization of the actin cytoskeleton through RhoA- and Vav2-dependent signaling pathways. The expression of wild-type SHP-2 caused a dephosphorylation of several focal adhesion associated proteins including paxillin, p130Cas, and tensin in VSMC. This dephosphorylation of focal adhesion associated proteins was accompanied by significantly decreased numbers of focal adhesions within cells. These results demonstrate a unique role for SHP-2 in the regulation of the cellular architecture of VSMC, suggesting the possibility that this phosphatase might be instrumental in vascular remodeling.

Negative regulation of hepatocellular carcinoma cell growth by signal regulatory protein alpha1

Signal regulatory protein (SIRP) alpha1 is a member of the SIRP family that undergoes tyrosine phosphorylation and binds SHP-2 tyrosine phosphatase in response to various mitogens. The expression levels of SIRPalpha1 were decreased in HCC tissues, compared with the matched normal tissues. Exogenous expression of wild type SIRPalpha1, but not of a mutant SIRPalpha1 lacking the tyrosine phosphorylation sites, in SIRPalpha1-negative Huh7 human HCC cells resulted in suppression of tumor cell growth both in vitro and in vivo. Treatment of Huh7 transfectants with EGF or HGF induced tyrosine phosphorylation of SIRPalpha1 and its association with SHP-2, which were accompanied by reduced ERK1 activation. Expression of SIRPalpha1 significantly suppressed activation of NF-kappaB and also sensitized Huh7 cells to TNFalpha or cisplatin-induced cell death. In addition, SIRPalpha1-transfected Huh7 cells displayed reduced cell migration and cell spreading in a fashion that was dependent on SIRPalpha1/SHP-2 complex formation. In conclusion, a negative regulatory effect of SIRPalpha1 on hepatocarcinogenesis is exerted, at least in part, through inhibition of ERK and NF-kappaB pathways.

Ligand stimulation of CD155alpha inhibits cell adhesion and enhances cell migration in fibroblasts

CD155 (poliovirus receptor) localizes in cell-matrix adhesions and cell-cell junctions, but its role in the regulation of cell adhesion and cell motility has not been investigated. We identified a conserved immunoreceptor tyrosine-based inhibitory motif (ITIM) in the cytoplasmic domain of human CD155alpha. The ITIM was tyrosine-phosphorylated upon binding of anti-CD155 monoclonal antibody D171, poliovirus, and DNAM-1 (CD226) to human CD155alpha, and recruited SH2-domain-containing tyrosine phosphatase-2 (SHP-2). After CD155alpha stimulation with its ligands, cell adhesion was inhibited and cell motility was enhanced, effects that were associated with the phosphorylation of ITIM by Src kinases and accompanied by dephosphorylation of focal adhesion kinase and paxillin. These effects were abolished by introducing a point-mutation in Y398F into the ITIM of CD155alpha and by coexpression of a dominant negative SHP-2 mutant with CD155alpha. These results suggest that CD155alpha plays a role in the regulation of cell adhesion and cell motility.