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Pylkkänen R, Maaheimo H, Liljeström V, Mohammadi P, Penttilä M. Glycoside Phosphorylase Catalyzed Cellulose and β-1,3-Glucan Synthesis Using Chromophoric Glycosyl Acceptors. Biomacromolecules 2024; 25:5048-5057. [PMID: 39025475 PMCID: PMC11322998 DOI: 10.1021/acs.biomac.4c00455] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/03/2024] [Revised: 07/04/2024] [Accepted: 07/05/2024] [Indexed: 07/20/2024]
Abstract
Glycoside phosphorylases are enzymes that are frequently used for polysaccharide synthesis. Some of these enzymes have broad substrate specificity, enabling the synthesis of reducing-end-functionalized glucan chains. Here, we explore the potential of glycoside phosphorylases in synthesizing chromophore-conjugated polysaccharides using commercially available chromophoric model compounds as glycosyl acceptors. Specifically, we report cellulose and β-1,3-glucan synthesis using 2-nitrophenyl β-d-glucopyranoside, 4-nitrophenyl β-d-glucopyranoside, and 2-methoxy-4-(2-nitrovinyl)phenyl β-d-glucopyranoside with Clostridium thermocellum cellodextrin phosphorylase and Thermosipho africanus β-1,3-glucan phosphorylase as catalysts. We demonstrate activity for both enzymes with all assayed chromophoric acceptors and report the crystallization-driven precipitation and detailed structural characterization of the synthesized polysaccharides, i.e., their molar mass distributions and various structural parameters, such as morphology, fibril diameter, lamellar thickness, and crystal form. Our results provide insights for the studies of chromophore-conjugated low molecular weight polysaccharides, glycoside phosphorylases, and the hierarchical assembly of crystalline cellulose and β-1,3-glucan.
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Affiliation(s)
- Robert Pylkkänen
- VTT
Technical Research Centre of Finland Ltd., FI-02044 VTT, Finland
- Department
of Bioproducts and Biosystems, School of Chemical Engineering, Aalto University, FI-00076 AALTO, Finland
| | - Hannu Maaheimo
- VTT
Technical Research Centre of Finland Ltd., FI-02044 VTT, Finland
| | - Ville Liljeström
- Nanomicroscopy
Center, OtaNano, Aalto University, FI-00076 AALTO, Finland
| | - Pezhman Mohammadi
- VTT
Technical Research Centre of Finland Ltd., FI-02044 VTT, Finland
| | - Merja Penttilä
- VTT
Technical Research Centre of Finland Ltd., FI-02044 VTT, Finland
- Department
of Bioproducts and Biosystems, School of Chemical Engineering, Aalto University, FI-00076 AALTO, Finland
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2
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Bou Daher F, Serra L, Carter R, Jönsson H, Robinson S, Meyerowitz EM, Gray WM. Xyloglucan deficiency leads to a reduction in turgor pressure and changes in cell wall properties, affecting early seedling establishment. Curr Biol 2024; 34:2094-2106.e6. [PMID: 38677280 PMCID: PMC11111339 DOI: 10.1016/j.cub.2024.04.016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/10/2024] [Revised: 03/17/2024] [Accepted: 04/08/2024] [Indexed: 04/29/2024]
Abstract
Xyloglucan is believed to play a significant role in cell wall mechanics of dicot plants. Surprisingly, Arabidopsis plants defective in xyloglucan biosynthesis exhibit nearly normal growth and development. We investigated a mutant line, cslc-Δ5, lacking activity in all five Arabidopsis cellulose synthase like-C (CSLC) genes responsible for xyloglucan backbone biosynthesis. We observed that this xyloglucan-deficient line exhibited reduced cellulose crystallinity and increased pectin levels, suggesting the existence of feedback mechanisms that regulate wall composition to compensate for the absence of xyloglucan. These alterations in cell wall composition in the xyloglucan-absent plants were further linked to a decrease in cell wall elastic modulus and rupture stress, as observed through atomic force microscopy (AFM) and extensometer-based techniques. This raised questions about how plants with such modified cell wall properties can maintain normal growth. Our investigation revealed two key factors contributing to this phenomenon. First, measurements of turgor pressure, a primary driver of plant growth, revealed that cslc-Δ5 plants have reduced turgor, preventing the compromised walls from bursting while still allowing growth to occur. Second, we discovered the conservation of elastic asymmetry (ratio of axial to transverse wall elasticity) in the mutant, suggesting an additional mechanism contributing to the maintenance of normal growth. This novel feedback mechanism between cell wall composition and mechanical properties, coupled with turgor pressure regulation, plays a central role in the control of plant growth and is critical for seedling establishment in a mechanically challenging environment by affecting shoot emergence and root penetration.
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Affiliation(s)
- Firas Bou Daher
- Department of Plant and Microbial Biology, University of Minnesota, St. Paul, MN 55108, USA; Sainsbury Laboratory, University of Cambridge, Bateman Street, Cambridge CB2 1LR, UK.
| | - Leo Serra
- Sainsbury Laboratory, University of Cambridge, Bateman Street, Cambridge CB2 1LR, UK
| | - Ross Carter
- Sainsbury Laboratory, University of Cambridge, Bateman Street, Cambridge CB2 1LR, UK
| | - Henrik Jönsson
- Sainsbury Laboratory, University of Cambridge, Bateman Street, Cambridge CB2 1LR, UK
| | - Sarah Robinson
- Sainsbury Laboratory, University of Cambridge, Bateman Street, Cambridge CB2 1LR, UK
| | - Elliot M Meyerowitz
- Sainsbury Laboratory, University of Cambridge, Bateman Street, Cambridge CB2 1LR, UK; Howard Hughes Medical Institute and Division of Biology and Biological Engineering, California Institute of Technology, 1200 East California Boulevard, Pasadena, CA 91125, USA
| | - William M Gray
- Department of Plant and Microbial Biology, University of Minnesota, St. Paul, MN 55108, USA
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3
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Stratilová B, Šesták S, Stratilová E, Vadinová K, Kozmon S, Hrmova M. Engineering of substrate specificity in a plant cell-wall modifying enzyme through alterations of carboxyl-terminal amino acid residues. THE PLANT JOURNAL : FOR CELL AND MOLECULAR BIOLOGY 2023; 116:1529-1544. [PMID: 37658783 DOI: 10.1111/tpj.16435] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/17/2023] [Revised: 08/07/2023] [Accepted: 08/12/2023] [Indexed: 09/05/2023]
Abstract
Structural determinants of substrate recognition remain inadequately defined in broad specific cell-wall modifying enzymes, termed xyloglucan xyloglucosyl transferases (XETs). Here, we investigate the Tropaeolum majus seed TmXET6.3 isoform, a member of the GH16_20 subfamily of the GH16 network. This enzyme recognises xyloglucan (XG)-derived donors and acceptors, and a wide spectrum of other chiefly saccharide substrates, although it lacks the activity with homogalacturonan (pectin) fragments. We focus on defining the functionality of carboxyl-terminal residues in TmXET6.3, which extend acceptor binding regions in the GH16_20 subfamily but are absent in the related GH16_21 subfamily. Site-directed mutagenesis using double to quintuple mutants in the carboxyl-terminal region - substitutions emulated on barley XETs recognising the XG/penta-galacturonide acceptor substrate pair - demonstrated that this activity could be gained in TmXET6.3. We demonstrate the roles of semi-conserved Arg238 and Lys237 residues, introducing a net positive charge in the carboxyl-terminal region (which complements a negative charge of the acidic penta-galacturonide) for the transfer of xyloglucan fragments. Experimental data, supported by molecular modelling of TmXET6.3 with the XG oligosaccharide donor and penta-galacturonide acceptor substrates, indicated that they could be accommodated in the active site. Our findings support the conclusion on the significance of positively charged residues at the carboxyl terminus of TmXET6.3 and suggest that a broad specificity could be engineered via modifications of an acceptor binding site. The definition of substrate specificity in XETs should prove invaluable for defining the structure, dynamics, and function of plant cell walls, and their metabolism; these data could be applicable in various biotechnologies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Barbora Stratilová
- Institute of Chemistry, Slovak Academy of Sciences, SK-84538, Bratislava, Slovakia
| | - Sergej Šesták
- Institute of Chemistry, Slovak Academy of Sciences, SK-84538, Bratislava, Slovakia
| | - Eva Stratilová
- Institute of Chemistry, Slovak Academy of Sciences, SK-84538, Bratislava, Slovakia
| | - Kristína Vadinová
- Institute of Chemistry, Slovak Academy of Sciences, SK-84538, Bratislava, Slovakia
| | - Stanislav Kozmon
- Institute of Chemistry, Slovak Academy of Sciences, SK-84538, Bratislava, Slovakia
| | - Maria Hrmova
- School of Agriculture, Food and Wine & Waite Research Institute, University of Adelaide, Waite Research Precinct, Glen Osmond, South Australia, 5064, Australia
- Jiangsu Collaborative Innovation Centre for Regional Modern Agriculture and Environmental Protection, School of Life Science, Huaiyin Normal University, Huai'an, 223300, China
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Ishii Y, Ishii H, Kuroha T, Yokoyama R, Deguchi R, Nishitani K, Minagawa J, Kawata M, Takahashi S, Maruyama S. Environmental pH signals the release of monosaccharides from cell wall in coral symbiotic alga. eLife 2023; 12:e80628. [PMID: 37594171 PMCID: PMC10438907 DOI: 10.7554/elife.80628] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/27/2022] [Accepted: 06/20/2023] [Indexed: 08/19/2023] Open
Abstract
Reef-building corals thrive in oligotrophic environments due to their possession of endosymbiotic algae. Confined to the low pH interior of the symbiosome within the cell, the algal symbiont provides the coral host with photosynthetically fixed carbon. However, it remains unknown how carbon is released from the algal symbiont for uptake by the host. Here we show, using cultured symbiotic dinoflagellate, Breviolum sp., that decreases in pH directly accelerates the release of monosaccharides, that is, glucose and galactose, into the ambient environment. Under low pH conditions, the cell surface structures were deformed and genes related to cellulase were significantly upregulated in Breviolum. Importantly, the release of monosaccharides was suppressed by the cellulase inhibitor, glucopyranoside, linking the release of carbon to degradation of the agal cell wall. Our results suggest that the low pH signals the cellulase-mediated release of monosaccharides from the algal cell wall as an environmental response in coral reef ecosystems.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yuu Ishii
- Department of Ecological Developmental Adaptability Life Sciences, Graduate School of Life Sciences, Tohoku UniversitySendaiJapan
- Department of Biology, Miyagi University of EducationSendaiJapan
| | - Hironori Ishii
- Department of Ecological Developmental Adaptability Life Sciences, Graduate School of Life Sciences, Tohoku UniversitySendaiJapan
| | - Takeshi Kuroha
- Department of Ecological Developmental Adaptability Life Sciences, Graduate School of Life Sciences, Tohoku UniversitySendaiJapan
| | - Ryusuke Yokoyama
- Department of Ecological Developmental Adaptability Life Sciences, Graduate School of Life Sciences, Tohoku UniversitySendaiJapan
| | - Ryusaku Deguchi
- Department of Biology, Miyagi University of EducationSendaiJapan
| | - Kazuhiko Nishitani
- Department of Biological Sciences, Faculty of Science, Kanagawa UniversityYokohamaJapan
| | - Jun Minagawa
- Department of Basic Biology, School of Life Science, SOKENDAI (The Graduate University for Advanced Studies)OkazakiJapan
- Division of Environmental Photobiology, National Institute for Basic BiologyOkazakiJapan
| | - Masakado Kawata
- Department of Ecological Developmental Adaptability Life Sciences, Graduate School of Life Sciences, Tohoku UniversitySendaiJapan
| | - Shunichi Takahashi
- Tropical Biosphere Research Center, University of the RyukyusOkinawaJapan
| | - Shinichiro Maruyama
- Department of Ecological Developmental Adaptability Life Sciences, Graduate School of Life Sciences, Tohoku UniversitySendaiJapan
- Graduate School of Humanities and Sciences, Ochanomizu UniversityTokyoJapan
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5
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Zhang N, Julian JD, Yap CE, Swaminathan S, Zabotina OA. The Arabidopsis xylosyltransferases, XXT3, XXT4, and XXT5, are essential to complete the fully xylosylated glucan backbone XXXG-type structure of xyloglucans. THE NEW PHYTOLOGIST 2023; 238:1986-1999. [PMID: 36856333 DOI: 10.1111/nph.18851] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/08/2022] [Accepted: 02/18/2023] [Indexed: 05/04/2023]
Abstract
Although most xyloglucans (XyGs) biosynthesis enzymes have been identified, the molecular mechanism that defines XyG branching patterns is unclear. Four out of five XyG xylosyltransferases (XXT1, XXT2, XXT4, and XXT5) are known to add the xylosyl residue from UDP-xylose onto a glucan backbone chain; however, the function of XXT3 has yet to be demonstrated. Single xxt3 and triple xxt3xxt4xxt5 mutant Arabidopsis (Arabidopsis thaliana) plants were generated using CRISPR-Cas9 technology to determine the specific function of XXT3. Combined biochemical, bioinformatic, and morphological data conclusively established for the first time that XXT3, together with XXT4 and XXT5, adds xylosyl residue specifically at the third glucose in the glucan chain to synthesize XXXG-type XyGs. We propose that the specificity of XXT3, XXT4, and XXT5 is directed toward the prior synthesis of the acceptor substrate by the other two enzymes, XXT1 and XXT2. We also conclude that XXT5 plays a dominant role in the synthesis of XXXG-type XyGs, while XXT3 and XXT4 complementarily contribute their activities in a tissue-specific manner. The newly generated xxt3xxt4xxt5 mutant produces only XXGG-type XyGs, which further helps to understand the impact of structurally deficient polysaccharides on plant cell wall organization, growth, and development.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ning Zhang
- Roy J Carver Department of Biochemistry, Biophysics and Molecular Biology, Iowa State University, Ames, IA, 50011, USA
| | - Jordan D Julian
- Roy J Carver Department of Biochemistry, Biophysics and Molecular Biology, Iowa State University, Ames, IA, 50011, USA
| | - Cheng Ern Yap
- Roy J Carver Department of Biochemistry, Biophysics and Molecular Biology, Iowa State University, Ames, IA, 50011, USA
| | - Sivakumar Swaminathan
- Roy J Carver Department of Biochemistry, Biophysics and Molecular Biology, Iowa State University, Ames, IA, 50011, USA
| | - Olga A Zabotina
- Roy J Carver Department of Biochemistry, Biophysics and Molecular Biology, Iowa State University, Ames, IA, 50011, USA
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6
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Wu L, Zheng Y, Jiao F, Wang M, Zhang J, Zhang Z, Huang Y, Jia X, Zhu L, Zhao Y, Guo J, Chen J. Identification of quantitative trait loci for related traits of stalk lodging resistance using genome-wide association studies in maize (Zea mays L.). BMC Genom Data 2022; 23:76. [PMID: 36319954 PMCID: PMC9623923 DOI: 10.1186/s12863-022-01091-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/23/2021] [Accepted: 10/10/2022] [Indexed: 11/26/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Stalk lodging is one of the main factors affecting maize (Zea mays L.) yield and limiting mechanized harvesting. Developing maize varieties with high stalk lodging resistance requires exploring the genetic basis of lodging resistance-associated agronomic traits. Stalk strength is an important indicator to evaluate maize lodging and can be evaluated by measuring stalk rind penetrometer resistance (RPR) and stalk buckling strength (SBS). Along with morphological traits of the stalk for the third internodes length (TIL), fourth internode length (FIL), third internode diameter (TID), and the fourth internode diameter (FID) traits are associated with stalk lodging resistance. RESULTS In this study, a natural population containing 248 diverse maize inbred lines genotyped with 83,057 single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) markers was used for genome-wide association study (GWAS) for six stalk lodging resistance-related traits. The heritability of all traits ranged from 0.59 to 0.72 in the association mapping panel. A total of 85 significant SNPs were identified for the association mapping panel using best linear unbiased prediction (BLUP) values of all traits. Additionally, five candidate genes were associated with stalk strength traits, which were either directly or indirectly associated with cell wall components. CONCLUSIONS These findings contribute to our understanding of the genetic basis of maize stalk lodging and provide valuable theoretical guidance for lodging resistance in maize breeding in the future.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lifen Wu
- State Key Laboratory of North China Crop Improvement and Regulation, Hebei Sub-Center for National Maize Improvement Center, College of Agronomy, Hebei Agricultural University, Hebei, Baoding 071001 China
| | - Yunxiao Zheng
- State Key Laboratory of North China Crop Improvement and Regulation, Hebei Sub-Center for National Maize Improvement Center, College of Agronomy, Hebei Agricultural University, Hebei, Baoding 071001 China
| | - Fuchao Jiao
- grid.412608.90000 0000 9526 6338College of Agronomy, Qingdao Agricultural University, Shandong, Qingdao 266109 China
| | - Ming Wang
- grid.412608.90000 0000 9526 6338College of Agronomy, Qingdao Agricultural University, Shandong, Qingdao 266109 China
| | - Jing Zhang
- State Key Laboratory of North China Crop Improvement and Regulation, Hebei Sub-Center for National Maize Improvement Center, College of Agronomy, Hebei Agricultural University, Hebei, Baoding 071001 China
| | - Zhongqin Zhang
- State Key Laboratory of North China Crop Improvement and Regulation, Hebei Sub-Center for National Maize Improvement Center, College of Agronomy, Hebei Agricultural University, Hebei, Baoding 071001 China
| | - Yaqun Huang
- State Key Laboratory of North China Crop Improvement and Regulation, Hebei Sub-Center for National Maize Improvement Center, College of Agronomy, Hebei Agricultural University, Hebei, Baoding 071001 China
| | - Xiaoyan Jia
- State Key Laboratory of North China Crop Improvement and Regulation, Hebei Sub-Center for National Maize Improvement Center, College of Agronomy, Hebei Agricultural University, Hebei, Baoding 071001 China
| | - Liying Zhu
- State Key Laboratory of North China Crop Improvement and Regulation, Hebei Sub-Center for National Maize Improvement Center, College of Agronomy, Hebei Agricultural University, Hebei, Baoding 071001 China
| | - Yongfeng Zhao
- State Key Laboratory of North China Crop Improvement and Regulation, Hebei Sub-Center for National Maize Improvement Center, College of Agronomy, Hebei Agricultural University, Hebei, Baoding 071001 China
| | - Jinjie Guo
- State Key Laboratory of North China Crop Improvement and Regulation, Hebei Sub-Center for National Maize Improvement Center, College of Agronomy, Hebei Agricultural University, Hebei, Baoding 071001 China
| | - Jingtang Chen
- State Key Laboratory of North China Crop Improvement and Regulation, Hebei Sub-Center for National Maize Improvement Center, College of Agronomy, Hebei Agricultural University, Hebei, Baoding 071001 China ,grid.412608.90000 0000 9526 6338College of Agronomy, Qingdao Agricultural University, Shandong, Qingdao 266109 China
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7
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Stratilová B, Stratilová E, Hrmova M, Kozmon S. Definition of the Acceptor Substrate Binding Specificity in Plant Xyloglucan Endotransglycosylases Using Computational Chemistry. Int J Mol Sci 2022; 23:ijms231911838. [PMID: 36233140 PMCID: PMC9569819 DOI: 10.3390/ijms231911838] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/17/2022] [Revised: 09/27/2022] [Accepted: 09/28/2022] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Xyloglucan endotransglycosylases (XETs) play key roles in the remodelling and reconstruction of plant cell walls. These enzymes catalyse homo-transglycosylation reactions with xyloglucan-derived donor and acceptor substrates and hetero-transglycosylation reactions with a variety of structurally diverse polysaccharides. In this work, we describe the basis of acceptor substrate binding specificity in non-specific Tropaeolum majus (TmXET6.3) and specific Populus tremula x tremuloides (PttXET16A) XETs, using molecular docking and molecular dynamics (MD) simulations combined with binding free energy calculations. The data indicate that the enzyme-donor (xyloglucan heptaoligosaccharide or XG-OS7)/acceptor complexes with the linear acceptors, where a backbone consisted of glucose (Glc) moieties linked via (1,4)- or (1,3)-β-glycosidic linkages, were bound stably in the active sites of TmXET6.3 and PttXET16A. Conversely, the acceptors with the (1,6)-β-linked Glc moieties were bound stably in TmXET6.3 but not in PttXET16A. When in the (1,4)-β-linked Glc containing acceptors, the saccharide moieties were replaced with mannose or xylose, they bound stably in TmXET6.3 but lacked stability in PttXET16A. MD simulations of the XET-donor/acceptor complexes with acceptors derived from (1,4;1,3)-β-glucans highlighted the importance of (1,3)-β-glycosidic linkages and side chain positions in the acceptor substrates. Our findings explain the differences in acceptor binding specificity between non-specific and specific XETs and associate theoretical to experimental data.
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Affiliation(s)
- Barbora Stratilová
- Institute of Chemistry, Slovak Academy of Sciences, SK-84538 Bratislava, Slovakia
| | - Eva Stratilová
- Institute of Chemistry, Slovak Academy of Sciences, SK-84538 Bratislava, Slovakia
| | - Maria Hrmova
- Jiangsu Collaborative Innovation Centre for Regional Modern Agriculture and Environmental Protection, School of Life Science, Huaiyin Normal University, Huai’an 223300, China
- School of Agriculture, Food and Wine & Waite Research Institute, University of Adelaide, Glen Osmond, SA 5064, Australia
- Correspondence: (M.H.); (S.K.)
| | - Stanislav Kozmon
- Institute of Chemistry, Slovak Academy of Sciences, SK-84538 Bratislava, Slovakia
- Medical Vision o.z., SK-82108 Bratislava, Slovakia
- Correspondence: (M.H.); (S.K.)
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8
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Zhang QP, Wei X. Transcriptome analysis of flower bud identified genes associated with pistil abortions between long branches and spur twigs in apricots (Prunus armeniaca L.). PLoS One 2022; 17:e0273109. [PMID: 36018857 PMCID: PMC9417009 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0273109] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/13/2022] [Accepted: 08/03/2022] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Pistil abortions of flower buds occur frequently in many apricot cultivars, especially in long branches. However, the molecular mechanism underlying pistil abortion in apricots remains unclear. To better understand the molecular mechanism of pistil abortions between long branches and spur twigs, paraffin sections and high-throughput sequencing technology were employed to analyze the expression patterns of genes associated with pistil abortions during later flower bud development stage in ‘Shajinhong’ apricot. The result of stage III (separation of bud scales) was the critical stage of pistil abortion in apricots. A total of 163 differentially expressed genes were identified as candidate genes related to pistil abortion in long branches. These genes are implicated in programmed cell death, hormone signaling, cell wall degeneration, and the carbohydrate metabolism pathway. The results showed that the up-regulation of gene expression of Xyloglucan endotransglucosylase/hydrolase and β-glucosidase in flower buds might be the direct cause of cell wall breakdown and pistil necrosis in long branches. We hypothesize that there is a molecular relationship between pistil abortion before blooming and cellulose degradation, and then carbohydrate transport in the case of carbon deficiency in long branches. Our work provides new insights into cellulose degradation in abortion pistils and valuable information on flower development in apricots, and also provides a useful reference for cultivation regulation in apricot or other fruit crops.
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Affiliation(s)
- Qiu-ping Zhang
- Liaoning Institute of Pomolgy, Yingkou, Liaoning, China
- * E-mail:
| | - Xiao Wei
- Liaoning Institute of Pomolgy, Yingkou, Liaoning, China
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9
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Cosgrove DJ. Building an extensible cell wall. PLANT PHYSIOLOGY 2022; 189:1246-1277. [PMID: 35460252 PMCID: PMC9237729 DOI: 10.1093/plphys/kiac184] [Citation(s) in RCA: 80] [Impact Index Per Article: 40.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/19/2022] [Accepted: 03/21/2022] [Indexed: 05/15/2023]
Abstract
This article recounts, from my perspective of four decades in this field, evolving paradigms of primary cell wall structure and the mechanism of surface enlargement of growing cell walls. Updates of the structures, physical interactions, and roles of cellulose, xyloglucan, and pectins are presented. This leads to an example of how a conceptual depiction of wall structure can be translated into an explicit quantitative model based on molecular dynamics methods. Comparison of the model's mechanical behavior with experimental results provides insights into the molecular basis of complex mechanical behaviors of primary cell wall and uncovers the dominant role of cellulose-cellulose interactions in forming a strong yet extensible network.
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Affiliation(s)
- Daniel J Cosgrove
- Department of Biology, Penn State University, Pennsylvania 16802, USA
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10
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San Clemente H, Kolkas H, Canut H, Jamet E. Plant Cell Wall Proteomes: The Core of Conserved Protein Families and the Case of Non-Canonical Proteins. Int J Mol Sci 2022; 23:4273. [PMID: 35457091 PMCID: PMC9029284 DOI: 10.3390/ijms23084273] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/21/2022] [Revised: 04/06/2022] [Accepted: 04/10/2022] [Indexed: 12/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Plant cell wall proteins (CWPs) play critical roles during plant development and in response to stresses. Proteomics has revealed their great diversity. With nearly 1000 identified CWPs, the Arabidopsis thaliana cell wall proteome is the best described to date and it covers the main plant organs and cell suspension cultures. Other monocot and dicot plants have been studied as well as bryophytes, such as Physcomitrella patens and Marchantia polymorpha. Although these proteomes were obtained using various flowcharts, they can be searched for the presence of members of a given protein family. Thereby, a core cell wall proteome which does not pretend to be exhaustive, yet could be defined. It comprises: (i) glycoside hydrolases and pectin methyl esterases, (ii) class III peroxidases, (iii) Asp, Ser and Cys proteases, (iv) non-specific lipid transfer proteins, (v) fasciclin arabinogalactan proteins, (vi) purple acid phosphatases and (vii) thaumatins. All the conserved CWP families could represent a set of house-keeping CWPs critical for either the maintenance of the basic cell wall functions, allowing immediate response to environmental stresses or both. Besides, the presence of non-canonical proteins devoid of a predicted signal peptide in cell wall proteomes is discussed in relation to the possible existence of alternative secretion pathways.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | - Elisabeth Jamet
- Laboratoire de Recherche en Sciences Végétales, Université de Toulouse, CNRS, UPS, Toulouse INP, 31320 Auzeville-Tolosane, France; (H.S.C.); (H.K.); (H.C.)
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11
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Ishida K, Yokoyama R. Reconsidering the function of the xyloglucan endotransglucosylase/hydrolase family. JOURNAL OF PLANT RESEARCH 2022; 135:145-156. [PMID: 35000024 DOI: 10.1007/s10265-021-01361-w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 15.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/17/2021] [Accepted: 11/21/2021] [Indexed: 05/21/2023]
Abstract
Plants possess an outer cell layer called the cell wall. This matrix comprises various molecules, such as polysaccharides and proteins, and serves a wide array of physiologically important functions. This structure is not static but rather flexible in response to the environment. One of the factors responsible for this plasticity is the xyloglucan endotransglucosylase/hydrolase (XTH) family, which cleaves and reconnects xyloglucan molecules. Since xyloglucan molecules have been hypothesised to tether cellulose microfibrils forming the main load-bearing network in the primary cell wall, XTHs have been thought to play a central role in cell wall loosening for plant cell expansion. However, multiple lines of recent evidence have questioned this classic model. Nevertheless, reverse genetic analyses have proven the biological importance of XTHs; therefore, a major challenge at present is to reconsider the role of XTHs in planta. Recent advances in analytical techniques have allowed for gathering rich information on the structure of the primary cell wall. Thus, the integration of accumulated knowledge in current XTH studies may offer a turning point for unveiling the precise functions of XTHs. In the present review, we redefine the biological function of the XTH family based on the recent architectural model of the cell wall. We highlight three key findings regarding this enzyme family: (1) XTHs are not strictly required for cell wall loosening during plant cell expansion but play vital roles in response to specific biotic or abiotic stresses; (2) in addition to their transglycosylase activity, the hydrolase activity of XTHs is involved in physiological benefits; and (3) XTHs can recognise a wide range of polysaccharides other than xyloglucans.
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Affiliation(s)
- Konan Ishida
- Department of Biochemistry, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, CB2 1QE, UK
| | - Ryusuke Yokoyama
- Graduate School of Life Sciences, Tohoku University, Sendai, 980-8578, Japan.
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12
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Behar H, Samuels AL, Brumer H. Physcomitrium (Physcomitrella) patens endo-glucanase 16 is involved in the cell wall development of young tissue. PHYSIOLOGIA PLANTARUM 2022; 174:e13683. [PMID: 35396710 DOI: 10.1111/ppl.13683] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/15/2022] [Revised: 03/22/2022] [Accepted: 04/04/2022] [Indexed: 06/14/2023]
Abstract
Plants maintain large repertoires of carbohydrate-active enzymes (CAZymes)-comprising between 3% and 10% of their genomes-to synthesize, modify, and degrade the polysaccharide components of the cell wall. We recently identified a unique group of plant endo-glucanases from Glycoside Hydrolase Family 16, viz. EG16 orthologs, which constitute a sister clade to the well-known XYLOGLUCAN ENDO-TRANSGLYCOSYLASE/HYDROLASE (XTH) gene products. Biochemical analysis of EG16 orthologs from poplar (Populus trichocarpa), grapevine (Vitis vinifera), and spreading earthmoss (Physcomitrium patens) has demonstrated that these endo-glucanases are distinctly active on cell wall matrix glycans, mixed-linkage β(1,3);β(1,4)-glucan and xyloglucan (XyG), and that enzyme structure and specificity is highly conserved across diverse plant lineages. However, the physiological role of EG16 orthologs in any species is presently unknown. To shed light on EG16 function in vivo, here we performed reverse genetics and protein localization analyses of the single EG16 ortholog in the model moss P. patens, where this gene is highly expressed in young, expanding tissues, particularly in protonema. Surprisingly, deletion of the PpEG16 gene by homologous recombination led to an increase in growth, as well as accelerated senescence. Notably, the PpEG16 protein was shown to co-localize with XyG in the cell wall of protonema tissue, specifically at cell tips, despite lacking a secretion signal peptide. Although the precise biological role of EG16 orthologs remains elusive, our results implicate these highly conserved glycoside hydrolases in cell wall polysaccharide remodeling and recycling. We anticipate that these foundational results will inform future studies on EG16 function across plant lineages.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hila Behar
- Michael Smith Laboratories, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Life Sciences Centre, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada
| | - Anne Lacey Samuels
- Department of Botany, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada
| | - Harry Brumer
- Michael Smith Laboratories, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Life Sciences Centre, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada
- Department of Botany, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada
- Department of Chemistry, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada
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13
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Hrmova M, Stratilová B, Stratilová E. Broad Specific Xyloglucan:Xyloglucosyl Transferases Are Formidable Players in the Re-Modelling of Plant Cell Wall Structures. Int J Mol Sci 2022; 23:ijms23031656. [PMID: 35163576 PMCID: PMC8836008 DOI: 10.3390/ijms23031656] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/13/2022] [Revised: 01/25/2022] [Accepted: 01/26/2022] [Indexed: 01/27/2023] Open
Abstract
Plant xyloglucan:xyloglucosyl transferases, known as xyloglucan endo-transglycosylases (XETs) are the key players that underlie plant cell wall dynamics and mechanics. These fundamental roles are central for the assembly and modifications of cell walls during embryogenesis, vegetative and reproductive growth, and adaptations to living environments under biotic and abiotic (environmental) stresses. XET enzymes (EC 2.4.1.207) have the β-sandwich architecture and the β-jelly-roll topology, and are classified in the glycoside hydrolase family 16 based on their evolutionary history. XET enzymes catalyse transglycosylation reactions with xyloglucan (XG)-derived and other than XG-derived donors and acceptors, and this poly-specificity originates from the structural plasticity and evolutionary diversification that has evolved through expansion and duplication. In phyletic groups, XETs form the gene families that are differentially expressed in organs and tissues in time- and space-dependent manners, and in response to environmental conditions. Here, we examine higher plant XET enzymes and dissect how their exclusively carbohydrate-linked transglycosylation catalytic function inter-connects complex plant cell wall components. Further, we discuss progress in technologies that advance the knowledge of plant cell walls and how this knowledge defines the roles of XETs. We construe that the broad specificity of the plant XETs underscores their roles in continuous cell wall restructuring and re-modelling.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maria Hrmova
- Jiangsu Collaborative Innovation Centre for Regional Modern Agriculture and Environmental Protection, School of Life Science, Huaiyin Normal University, Huai’an 223300, China
- School of Agriculture, Food and Wine & Waite Research Institute, University of Adelaide, Glen Osmond, SA 5064, Australia
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +61-8-8313-0775
| | - Barbora Stratilová
- Institute of Chemistry, Centre for Glycomics, Slovak Academy of Sciences, SK-84538 Bratislava, Slovakia; (B.S.); (E.S.)
- Faculty of Natural Sciences, Department of Physical and Theoretical Chemistry, Comenius University, SK-84215 Bratislava, Slovakia
| | - Eva Stratilová
- Institute of Chemistry, Centre for Glycomics, Slovak Academy of Sciences, SK-84538 Bratislava, Slovakia; (B.S.); (E.S.)
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The Xyloglucan Endotransglucosylase/Hydrolase Gene XTH22/TCH4 Regulates Plant Growth by Disrupting the Cell Wall Homeostasis in Arabidopsis under Boron Deficiency. Int J Mol Sci 2022; 23:ijms23031250. [PMID: 35163179 PMCID: PMC8836128 DOI: 10.3390/ijms23031250] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/23/2021] [Revised: 01/15/2022] [Accepted: 01/21/2022] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
TCH4 is a xyloglucan endotransglucosylase/hydrolase (XTH) family member. Extensive studies have shown that XTHs are very important in cell wall homeostasis for plant growth and development. Boron (B), as an essential micronutrient for plants, plays an essential role in the cross-linking of cell wall pectin. However, the effect of B on cell wall organization is unclear. This study aimed to explore the mechanism of plant adaption to B stress by investigating the role of TCH4 in cell wall homeostasis. We conducted both plate and hydroponic cultures of wild-type Col-0 and overexpression and gene knockout lines of XTH22/TCH4 to analyze the phenotype, components, and characteristics of the cell wall using immunofluorescence, atomic force microscopy (AFM), and transmission electron microscopy (TEM). B deficiency induces the expression of TCH4. The overexpression lines of TCH4 presented more sensitivity to B deficiency than the wild-type Col-0, while the knockout lines of TCH4 were more resistant to low B stress. Up-regulation of TCH4 influenced the ratio of chelator-soluble pectin to alkali-soluble pectin and decreased the degree of methylesterification of pectin under B-deficient conditions. Moreover, we found that B deficiency disturbed the arrangement of cellulose, enlarged the gap between cellulose microfibrils, and decreased the mechanical strength of the cell wall, leading to the formation of a thickened and deformed triangular region of the cell wall. These symptoms were more profound in the TCH4 overexpression lines. Consistently, compared with Col-0, the O2- and MDA contents in the TCH4 overexpression lines increased under B-deficient conditions. This study identified the B-deficiency-induced TCH4 gene, which regulates cell wall homeostasis to influence plant growth under B-deficient conditions.
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15
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Codjoe JM, Miller K, Haswell ES. Plant cell mechanobiology: Greater than the sum of its parts. THE PLANT CELL 2022; 34:129-145. [PMID: 34524447 PMCID: PMC8773992 DOI: 10.1093/plcell/koab230] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/12/2021] [Accepted: 09/09/2021] [Indexed: 05/04/2023]
Abstract
The ability to sense and respond to physical forces is critical for the proper function of cells, tissues, and organisms across the evolutionary tree. Plants sense gravity, osmotic conditions, pathogen invasion, wind, and the presence of barriers in the soil, and dynamically integrate internal and external stimuli during every stage of growth and development. While the field of plant mechanobiology is growing, much is still poorly understood-including the interplay between mechanical and biochemical information at the single-cell level. In this review, we provide an overview of the mechanical properties of three main components of the plant cell and the mechanoperceptive pathways that link them, with an emphasis on areas of complexity and interaction. We discuss the concept of mechanical homeostasis, or "mechanostasis," and examine the ways in which cellular structures and pathways serve to maintain it. We argue that viewing mechanics and mechanotransduction as emergent properties of the plant cell can be a useful conceptual framework for synthesizing current knowledge and driving future research.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jennette M Codjoe
- Department of Biology and Center for Engineering Mechanobiology, Washington University in St Louis, St Louis, Missouri, 63130, USA
| | - Kari Miller
- Department of Biology and Center for Engineering Mechanobiology, Washington University in St Louis, St Louis, Missouri, 63130, USA
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16
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Shinohara N, Nishitani K. Cryogenian Origin and Subsequent Diversification of the Plant Cell-Wall Enzyme XTH Family. PLANT & CELL PHYSIOLOGY 2021; 62:1874-1889. [PMID: 34197607 PMCID: PMC8711696 DOI: 10.1093/pcp/pcab093] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/08/2021] [Revised: 05/24/2021] [Accepted: 07/01/2021] [Indexed: 05/22/2023]
Abstract
All land plants encode large multigene families of xyloglucan endotransglucosylase/hydrolases (XTHs), plant-specific enzymes that cleave and reconnect plant cell-wall polysaccharides. Despite the ubiquity of these enzymes, considerable uncertainty remains regarding the evolutionary history of the XTH family. Phylogenomic and comparative analyses in this study traced the non-plant origins of the XTH family to Alphaproteobacteria ExoKs, bacterial enzymes involved in loosening biofilms, rather than Firmicutes licheninases, plant biomass digesting enzymes, as previously supposed. The relevant horizontal gene transfer (HGT) event was mapped to the divergence of non-swimming charophycean algae in the Cryogenian geological period. This HGT event was the likely origin of charophycean EG16-2s, which are putative intermediates between ExoKs and XTHs. Another HGT event in the Cryogenian may have led from EG16-2s or ExoKs to fungal Congo Red Hypersensitive proteins (CRHs) to fungal CRHs, enzymes that cleave and reconnect chitin and glucans in fungal cell walls. This successive transfer of enzyme-encoding genes may have supported the adaptation of plants and fungi to the ancient icy environment by facilitating their sessile lifestyles. Furthermore, several protein evolutionary steps, including coevolution of substrate-interacting residues and putative intra-family gene fusion, occurred in the land plant lineage and drove diversification of the XTH family. At least some of those events correlated with the evolutionary gain of broader substrate specificities, which may have underpinned the expansion of the XTH family by enhancing duplicated gene survival. Together, this study highlights the Precambrian evolution of life and the mode of multigene family expansion in the evolutionary history of the XTH family.
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Affiliation(s)
- Naoki Shinohara
- *Corresponding authors: Naoki Shinohara, E-mail, ; Kazuhiko Nishitani, E-mail,
| | - Kazuhiko Nishitani
- *Corresponding authors: Naoki Shinohara, E-mail, ; Kazuhiko Nishitani, E-mail,
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17
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Somssich M, Vandenbussche F, Ivakov A, Funke N, Ruprecht C, Vissenberg K, VanDer Straeten D, Persson S, Suslov D. Brassinosteroids Influence Arabidopsis Hypocotyl Graviresponses through Changes in Mannans and Cellulose. PLANT & CELL PHYSIOLOGY 2021; 62:678-692. [PMID: 33570567 DOI: 10.1093/pcp/pcab024] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/30/2020] [Accepted: 02/07/2021] [Indexed: 06/12/2023]
Abstract
The force of gravity is a constant environmental factor. Plant shoots respond to gravity through negative gravitropism and gravity resistance. These responses are essential for plants to direct the growth of aerial organs away from the soil surface after germination and to keep an upright posture above ground. We took advantage of the effect of brassinosteroids (BRs) on the two types of graviresponses in Arabidopsis thaliana hypocotyls to disentangle functions of cell wall polymers during etiolated shoot growth. The ability of etiolated Arabidopsis seedlings to grow upward was suppressed in the presence of 24-epibrassinolide (EBL) but enhanced in the presence of brassinazole (BRZ), an inhibitor of BR biosynthesis. These effects were accompanied by changes in cell wall mechanics and composition. Cell wall biochemical analyses, confocal microscopy of the cellulose-specific pontamine S4B dye and cellular growth analyses revealed that the EBL and BRZ treatments correlated with changes in cellulose fibre organization, cell expansion at the hypocotyl base and mannan content. Indeed, a longitudinal reorientation of cellulose fibres and growth inhibition at the base of hypocotyls supported their upright posture whereas the presence of mannans reduced gravitropic bending. The negative effect of mannans on gravitropism is a new function for this class of hemicelluloses. We also found that EBL interferes with upright growth of hypocotyls through their uneven thickening at the base.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marc Somssich
- School of Biosciences, University of Melbourne, Parkville, Melbourne, VIC, Australia
| | - Filip Vandenbussche
- Laboratory of Functional Plant Biology, Department of Biology, Ghent University, K.L. Ledeganckstraat 35, Gent 9000, Belgium
| | - Alexander Ivakov
- Max-Planck Institute of Molecular Plant Physiology, Am Muehlenberg 1, Potsdam 14476, Germany
| | - Norma Funke
- Max-Planck Institute of Molecular Plant Physiology, Am Muehlenberg 1, Potsdam 14476, Germany
- Targenomix GmbH, Am Muehlenberg 11, Potsdam 14476, Germany
| | - Colin Ruprecht
- Max-Planck Institute of Molecular Plant Physiology, Am Muehlenberg 1, Potsdam 14476, Germany
- Max-Planck Institute of Colloids and Interfaces, Am Muehlenberg 1, Potsdam 14476, Germany
| | - Kris Vissenberg
- Biology Department, Integrated Molecular Plant Physiology Research, University of Antwerp, Groenenborgerlaan 171, Antwerpen 2020, Belgium
- Plant Biochemistry and Biotechnology Lab, Department of Agriculture, Hellenic Mediterranean University, Stavromenos, Heraklion, Crete 71410, Greece
| | - Dominique VanDer Straeten
- Laboratory of Functional Plant Biology, Department of Biology, Ghent University, K.L. Ledeganckstraat 35, Gent 9000, Belgium
| | - Staffan Persson
- School of Biosciences, University of Melbourne, Parkville, Melbourne, VIC, Australia
- Joint International Research Laboratory of Metabolic & Developmental Sciences, State Key Laboratory of Hybrid Rice, SJTU-University of Adelaide Joint Centre for Agriculture and Health, School of Life Sciences and Biotechnology, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai, China
- Department of Plant & Environmental Sciences, University of Copenhagen, Frederiksberg C 1871, Denmark
- Copenhagen Plant Science Center, University of Copenhagen, Frederiksberg C 1871, Denmark
| | - Dmitry Suslov
- Department of Plant Physiology and Biochemistry, Faculty of Biology, Saint Petersburg State University, Universitetskaya emb. 7/9, Saint Petersburg 199034, Russia
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18
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De Caroli M, Manno E, Piro G, Lenucci MS. Ride to cell wall: Arabidopsis XTH11, XTH29 and XTH33 exhibit different secretion pathways and responses to heat and drought stress. THE PLANT JOURNAL : FOR CELL AND MOLECULAR BIOLOGY 2021; 107:448-466. [PMID: 33932060 PMCID: PMC8453972 DOI: 10.1111/tpj.15301] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/06/2020] [Revised: 04/16/2021] [Accepted: 04/23/2021] [Indexed: 05/09/2023]
Abstract
The xyloglucan endotransglucosylase/hydrolases (XTHs) are enzymes involved in cell wall assembly and growth regulation, cleaving and re-joining hemicellulose chains in the xyloglucan-cellulose network. Here, in a homologous system, we compare the secretion patterns of XTH11, XTH33 and XTH29, three members of the Arabidopsis thaliana XTH family, selected for the presence (XTH11 and XTH33) or absence (XTH29) of a signal peptide, and the presence of a transmembrane domain (XTH33). We show that XTH11 and XTH33 reached, respectively, the cell wall and plasma membrane through a conventional protein secretion (CPS) pathway, whereas XTH29 moves towards the apoplast following an unconventional protein secretion (UPS) mediated by exocyst-positive organelles (EXPOs). All XTHs share a common C-terminal functional domain (XET-C) that, for XTH29 and a restricted number of other XTHs (27, 28 and 30), continues with an extraterminal region (ETR) of 45 amino acids. We suggest that this region is necessary for the correct cell wall targeting of XTH29, as the ETR-truncated protein never reaches its final destination and is not recruited by EXPOs. Furthermore, quantitative real-time polymerase chain reaction analyses performed on 4-week-old Arabidopsis seedlings exposed to drought and heat stress suggest a different involvement of the three XTHs in cell wall remodeling under abiotic stress, evidencing stress-, organ- and time-dependent variations in the expression levels. Significantly, XTH29, codifying the only XTH that follows a UPS pathway, is highly upregulated with respect to XTH11 and XTH33, which code for CPS-secreted proteins.
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Affiliation(s)
- Monica De Caroli
- Dipartimento di Scienze e Tecnologie Biologiche e AmbientaliUniversità del SalentoLecce73100Italy
| | - Elisa Manno
- Dipartimento di Scienze e Tecnologie Biologiche e AmbientaliUniversità del SalentoLecce73100Italy
| | - Gabriella Piro
- Dipartimento di Scienze e Tecnologie Biologiche e AmbientaliUniversità del SalentoLecce73100Italy
| | - Marcello S. Lenucci
- Dipartimento di Scienze e Tecnologie Biologiche e AmbientaliUniversità del SalentoLecce73100Italy
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19
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Reaction network and kinetics for the one-pot hydrogenolysis of cellulose to ethylene glycol over NiOx-WOy-Cu/MgAl2O4. REACTION KINETICS MECHANISMS AND CATALYSIS 2021. [DOI: 10.1007/s11144-021-01975-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/21/2022]
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20
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Seven M, Derman ÜC, Harvey AJ. Enzymatic characterization of ancestral/group-IV clade xyloglucan endotransglycosylase/hydrolase enzymes reveals broad substrate specificities. THE PLANT JOURNAL : FOR CELL AND MOLECULAR BIOLOGY 2021; 106:1660-1673. [PMID: 33825243 DOI: 10.1111/tpj.15262] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/11/2019] [Revised: 03/24/2021] [Accepted: 03/26/2021] [Indexed: 05/14/2023]
Abstract
Xyloglucan endotransglycosylase/hydrolase (XTH) enzymes play important roles in cell wall remodelling. Although previous studies have shown a pathway of evolution for XTH genes from bacterial licheninases, through plant endoglucanases (EG16), the order of development within the phylogenetic clades of true XTHs is yet to be elucidated. In addition, recent studies have revealed interesting and potentially useful patterns of transglycosylation beyond the standard xyloglucan-xyloglucan donor/acceptor substrate activities. To study evolutionary relationships and to search for enzymes with useful broad substrate specificities, genes from the 'ancestral' XTH clade of two monocots, Brachypodium distachyon and Triticum aestivum, and two eudicots, Arabidopsis thaliana and Populus tremula, were investigated. Specific activities of the heterologously produced enzymes showed remarkably broad substrate specificities. All the enzymes studied had high activity with the cellulose analogue HEC (hydroxyethyl cellulose) as well as with mixed-link β-glucan as donor substrates, when compared with the standard xyloglucan. Even more surprising was the wide range of acceptor substrates that these enzymes were able to catalyse reactions with, opening a broad range of possible roles for these enzymes, both within plants and in industrial, pharmaceutical and medical fields. Genome screening and expression analyses unexpectedly revealed that genes from this clade were found only in angiosperm genomes and were predominantly or solely expressed in reproductive tissues. We therefore posit that this phylogenetic group is significantly different and should be renamed as the group-IV clade.
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Affiliation(s)
- Merve Seven
- Department of Genetics and Bioengineering, Yeditepe University, Istanbul, 34755, Turkey
| | - Ü Cem Derman
- Department of Genetics and Bioengineering, Yeditepe University, Istanbul, 34755, Turkey
| | - Andrew J Harvey
- Department of Genetics and Bioengineering, Yeditepe University, Istanbul, 34755, Turkey
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21
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Fangel JU, Jones CY, Ulvskov P, Harholt J, Willats WGT. Analytical implications of different methods for preparing plant cell wall material. Carbohydr Polym 2021; 261:117866. [PMID: 33766354 DOI: 10.1016/j.carbpol.2021.117866] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/15/2020] [Revised: 02/18/2021] [Accepted: 02/23/2021] [Indexed: 10/22/2022]
Abstract
Almost all plant cells are surrounded by a wall constructed of co-extensive networks of polysaccharides and proteoglycans. The capability to analyse cell wall components is essential for both understanding their complex biology and to fully exploit their numerous practical applications. Several biochemical and immunological techniques are used to analyse cell walls and in almost all cases the first step is the preparation of an alcohol insoluble residue (AIR). There is significant variation in the protocols used for AIR preparation, which can have a notable impact on the downstream extractability and detection of cell wall components. To explore these effects, we have formally compared ten AIR preparation methods and analysed polysaccharides subsequently extracted using high-performance anion exchange chromatography (HPAEC-PAD) and Micro Array Polymer Profiling (MAPP). Our results reveal the impact that AIR preparation has on downstream detection of cell wall components and the need for optimisation and consistency when preparing AIR.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jonatan U Fangel
- Carlsberg Research Laboratory, J.C. Jacobsens Gade 4, 1799, Copenhagen V, Denmark.
| | - Catherine Y Jones
- School of Natural and Environmental Sciences, Devonshire Building, Newcastle University, Newcastle-Upon-Tyne, NE1 7RU, UK.
| | - Peter Ulvskov
- University of Copenhagen, Thorvaldsensvej 40, 1871, Frederiksberg C, Denmark.
| | - Jesper Harholt
- Carlsberg Research Laboratory, J.C. Jacobsens Gade 4, 1799, Copenhagen V, Denmark.
| | - William G T Willats
- School of Natural and Environmental Sciences, Devonshire Building, Newcastle University, Newcastle-Upon-Tyne, NE1 7RU, UK.
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22
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Yu J, Liang J, Chen X, Wang L, Wei X, Li Y, Qin Y. Synergistic Effect of Ni/W/Cu on MgAl 2O 4 for One-Pot Hydrogenolysis of Cellulose to Ethylene Glycol at a Low H 2 Pressure. ACS OMEGA 2021; 6:11650-11659. [PMID: 34056320 PMCID: PMC8153994 DOI: 10.1021/acsomega.1c00979] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/23/2021] [Accepted: 04/08/2021] [Indexed: 06/12/2023]
Abstract
Nickel and tungsten, combined with copper, were incorporated into a magnesium aluminum spinel to form a multifunctional catalyst (Ni-W-Cu/MgAl2O4). Characterization results suggested that the adjacent Cu not only facilitated the reduction of W6+ to W5+ with substantial oxygen vacancies but also promoted the reducibility of the Ni species. Besides, the incorporation of Ni, W, and Cu into the support enhanced the catalytic acidity, as well as the L acid sites. The catalyst exhibited a strong synergistic effect between the three metals and the support, resulting in higher catalytic activity for the one-pot hydrogenolysis of cellulose to ethylene glycol. High cellulose conversion (100%) and ethylene glycol yield (52.8%) were obtained, even under a low H2 pressure of 3 MPa.
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23
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Medina-Puche L, Martínez-Rivas FJ, Molina-Hidalgo FJ, García-Gago JA, Mercado JA, Caballero JL, Muñoz-Blanco J, Blanco-Portales R. Ectopic expression of the atypical HLH FaPRE1 gene determines changes in cell size and morphology. PLANT SCIENCE : AN INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF EXPERIMENTAL PLANT BIOLOGY 2021; 305:110830. [PMID: 33691964 DOI: 10.1016/j.plantsci.2021.110830] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/31/2020] [Revised: 01/13/2021] [Accepted: 01/16/2021] [Indexed: 05/22/2023]
Abstract
PACLOBUTRAZOL RESISTANCE (PRE) genes code atypical HLH transcriptional regulators characterized by the absence of a DNA-binding domain but present an HLH dimerization domain. In vegetative tissues, the function of these HLH proteins has been related with cell elongation processes. In strawberry, three FaPRE genes are expressed, two of them (FaPRE2 and FaPRE3) in vegetative tissues while FaPRE1 is fruit receptacle-specific. Ubiquitous FaPRE1 accumulation produced elongated flower receptacles and plants due to the elongation of the main aerial vegetative organs, with the exception of leaves. Histological analysis clearly demonstrated that the observed phenotype was due to significant changes in the parenchymal cell's morphology. In addition, transcriptomic studies of the transgenic elongated flower receptacles allowed to identify a small group of differentially expressed genes that encode cell wall-modifying enzymes. Together, the data seem to indicate that, in the strawberry plant vegetative organs, FaPRE proteins could modulate the expression of genes related with the determination of the size and shape of the parenchymal cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- L Medina-Puche
- Departamento de Bioquímica y Biología Molecular, Edificio Severo Ochoa C-6, Campus Universitario de Rabanales y Campus de Excelencia Internacional Agroalimentario CEIA3, Universidad de Córdoba, Córdoba, Spain.
| | - F J Martínez-Rivas
- Departamento de Bioquímica y Biología Molecular, Edificio Severo Ochoa C-6, Campus Universitario de Rabanales y Campus de Excelencia Internacional Agroalimentario CEIA3, Universidad de Córdoba, Córdoba, Spain.
| | - F J Molina-Hidalgo
- Departamento de Bioquímica y Biología Molecular, Edificio Severo Ochoa C-6, Campus Universitario de Rabanales y Campus de Excelencia Internacional Agroalimentario CEIA3, Universidad de Córdoba, Córdoba, Spain.
| | - J A García-Gago
- Instituto de Hortofruticultura Subtropical y Mediterránea La Mayora (IHSM-UMA-CSIC), Departamento de Biología Vegetal, Universidad de Málaga, Málaga, Spain.
| | - J A Mercado
- Instituto de Hortofruticultura Subtropical y Mediterránea La Mayora (IHSM-UMA-CSIC), Departamento de Biología Vegetal, Universidad de Málaga, Málaga, Spain.
| | - J L Caballero
- Departamento de Bioquímica y Biología Molecular, Edificio Severo Ochoa C-6, Campus Universitario de Rabanales y Campus de Excelencia Internacional Agroalimentario CEIA3, Universidad de Córdoba, Córdoba, Spain.
| | - J Muñoz-Blanco
- Departamento de Bioquímica y Biología Molecular, Edificio Severo Ochoa C-6, Campus Universitario de Rabanales y Campus de Excelencia Internacional Agroalimentario CEIA3, Universidad de Córdoba, Córdoba, Spain.
| | - R Blanco-Portales
- Departamento de Bioquímica y Biología Molecular, Edificio Severo Ochoa C-6, Campus Universitario de Rabanales y Campus de Excelencia Internacional Agroalimentario CEIA3, Universidad de Córdoba, Córdoba, Spain.
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Herburger K, Franková L, Pičmanová M, Xin A, Meulewaeter F, Hudson A, Fry SC. Defining natural factors that stimulate and inhibit cellulose:xyloglucan hetero-transglucosylation. THE PLANT JOURNAL : FOR CELL AND MOLECULAR BIOLOGY 2021; 105:1549-1565. [PMID: 33314395 PMCID: PMC8611796 DOI: 10.1111/tpj.15131] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/09/2020] [Revised: 11/24/2020] [Accepted: 12/08/2020] [Indexed: 06/12/2023]
Abstract
Certain transglucanases can covalently graft cellulose and mixed-linkage β-glucan (MLG) as donor substrates onto xyloglucan as acceptor substrate and thus exhibit cellulose:xyloglucan endotransglucosylase (CXE) and MLG:xyloglucan endotransglucosylase (MXE) activities in vivo and in vitro. However, missing information on factors that stimulate or inhibit these hetero-transglucosylation reactions limits our insight into their biological functions. To explore factors that influence hetero-transglucosylation, we studied Equisetum fluviatile hetero-trans-β-glucanase (EfHTG), which exhibits both CXE and MXE activity, exceeding its xyloglucan:xyloglucan homo-transglucosylation (XET) activity. Enzyme assays employed radiolabelled and fluorescently labelled oligomeric acceptor substrates, and were conducted in vitro and in cell walls (in situ). With whole denatured Equisetum cell walls as donor substrate, exogenous EfHTG (extracted from Equisetum or produced in Pichia) exhibited all three activities (CXE, MXE, XET) in competition with each other. Acting on pure cellulose as donor substrate, the CXE action of Pichia-produced EfHTG was up to approximately 300% increased by addition of methanol-boiled Equisetum extracts; there was no similar effect when the same enzyme acted on soluble donors (MLG or xyloglucan). The methanol-stable factor is proposed to be expansin-like, a suggestion supported by observations of pH dependence. Screening numerous low-molecular-weight compounds for hetero-transglucanase inhibition showed that cellobiose was highly effective, inhibiting the abundant endogenous CXE and MXE (but not XET) action in Equisetum internodes. Furthermore, cellobiose retarded Equisetum stem elongation, potentially owing to its effect on hetero-transglucosylation reactions. This work provides insight and tools to further study the role of cellulose hetero-transglucosylation in planta by identifying factors that govern this reaction.
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Affiliation(s)
- Klaus Herburger
- The Edinburgh Cell Wall GroupInstitute of Molecular Plant SciencesSchool of Biological SciencesThe University of EdinburghEdinburghEH9 3BFUK
- Present address:
Section for Plant GlycobiologyDepartment of Plant and Environmental SciencesUniversity of CopenhagenFrederiksberg1871Denmark
| | - Lenka Franková
- The Edinburgh Cell Wall GroupInstitute of Molecular Plant SciencesSchool of Biological SciencesThe University of EdinburghEdinburghEH9 3BFUK
| | - Martina Pičmanová
- The Edinburgh Cell Wall GroupInstitute of Molecular Plant SciencesSchool of Biological SciencesThe University of EdinburghEdinburghEH9 3BFUK
| | - Anzhou Xin
- The Edinburgh Cell Wall GroupInstitute of Molecular Plant SciencesSchool of Biological SciencesThe University of EdinburghEdinburghEH9 3BFUK
| | - Frank Meulewaeter
- BBCC Innovation Center Gent – Trait ResearchBASFGent (Zwijnaarde)9052Belgium
| | - Andrew Hudson
- The Edinburgh Cell Wall GroupInstitute of Molecular Plant SciencesSchool of Biological SciencesThe University of EdinburghEdinburghEH9 3BFUK
| | - Stephen C. Fry
- The Edinburgh Cell Wall GroupInstitute of Molecular Plant SciencesSchool of Biological SciencesThe University of EdinburghEdinburghEH9 3BFUK
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25
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Stratilová B, Kozmon S, Stratilová E, Hrmova M. Plant Xyloglucan Xyloglucosyl Transferases and the Cell Wall Structure: Subtle but Significant. Molecules 2020; 25:E5619. [PMID: 33260399 PMCID: PMC7729885 DOI: 10.3390/molecules25235619] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/25/2020] [Revised: 11/25/2020] [Accepted: 11/26/2020] [Indexed: 12/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Plant xyloglucan xyloglucosyl transferases or xyloglucan endo-transglycosylases (XET; EC 2.4.1.207) catalogued in the glycoside hydrolase family 16 constitute cell wall-modifying enzymes that play a fundamental role in the cell wall expansion and re-modelling. Over the past thirty years, it has been established that XET enzymes catalyse homo-transglycosylation reactions with xyloglucan (XG)-derived substrates and hetero-transglycosylation reactions with neutral and charged donor and acceptor substrates other than XG-derived. This broad specificity in XET isoforms is credited to a high degree of structural and catalytic plasticity that has evolved ubiquitously in algal, moss, fern, basic Angiosperm, monocot, and eudicot enzymes. These XET isoforms constitute gene families that are differentially expressed in tissues in time- and space-dependent manners during plant growth and development, and in response to biotic and abiotic stresses. Here, we discuss the current state of knowledge of broad specific plant XET enzymes and how their inherently carbohydrate-based transglycosylation reactions tightly link with structural diversity that underlies the complexity of plant cell walls and their mechanics. Based on this knowledge, we conclude that multi- or poly-specific XET enzymes are widespread in plants to allow for modifications of the cell wall structure in muro, a feature that implements the multifaceted roles in plant cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Barbora Stratilová
- Institute of Chemistry, Centre for Glycomics, Slovak Academy of Sciences, Dúbravská cesta 9, SK-84538 Bratislava, Slovakia; (B.S.); (S.K.); (E.S.)
- Faculty of Natural Sciences, Department of Physical and Theoretical Chemistry, Comenius University, Mlynská Dolina, SK-84215 Bratislava, Slovakia
| | - Stanislav Kozmon
- Institute of Chemistry, Centre for Glycomics, Slovak Academy of Sciences, Dúbravská cesta 9, SK-84538 Bratislava, Slovakia; (B.S.); (S.K.); (E.S.)
| | - Eva Stratilová
- Institute of Chemistry, Centre for Glycomics, Slovak Academy of Sciences, Dúbravská cesta 9, SK-84538 Bratislava, Slovakia; (B.S.); (S.K.); (E.S.)
| | - Maria Hrmova
- School of Life Science, Huaiyin Normal University, Huai’an 223300, China
- School of Agriculture, Food and Wine, University of Adelaide, Glen Osmond, SA 5064, Australia
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26
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Stratilová B, Šesták S, Mravec J, Garajová S, Pakanová Z, Vadinová K, Kučerová D, Kozmon S, Schwerdt JG, Shirley N, Stratilová E, Hrmova M. Another building block in the plant cell wall: Barley xyloglucan xyloglucosyl transferases link covalently xyloglucan and anionic oligosaccharides derived from pectin. THE PLANT JOURNAL : FOR CELL AND MOLECULAR BIOLOGY 2020; 104:752-767. [PMID: 32799357 DOI: 10.1111/tpj.14964] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/05/2020] [Revised: 07/17/2020] [Accepted: 07/29/2020] [Indexed: 05/27/2023]
Abstract
We report on the homo- and hetero-transglycosylation activities of the HvXET3 and HvXET4 xyloglucan xyloglucosyl transferases (XET; EC 2.4.1.207) from barley (Hordeum vulgare L.), and the visualisation of these activities in young barley roots using Alexa Fluor 488-labelled oligosaccharides. We discover that these isozymes catalyse the transglycosylation reactions with the chemically defined donor and acceptor substrates, specifically with the xyloglucan donor and the penta-galacturonide [α(1-4)GalAp]5 acceptor - the homogalacturonan (pectin) fragment. This activity is supported by 3D molecular models of HvXET3 and HvXET4 with the docked XXXG donor and [α(1-4)GalAp]5 acceptor substrates at the -4 to +5 subsites in the active sites. Comparative sequence analyses of barley isoforms and seed-localised TmXET6.3 from nasturtium (Tropaeolum majus L.) permitted the engineering of mutants of TmXET6.3 that could catalyse the hetero-transglycosylation reaction with the xyloglucan/[α(1-4)GalAp]5 substrate pair, while wild-type TmXET6.3 lacked this activity. Expression data obtained by real-time quantitative polymerase chain reaction of HvXET transcripts and a clustered heatmap of expression profiles of the gene family revealed that HvXET3 and HvXET6 co-expressed but did not share the monophyletic origin. Conversely, HvXET3 and HvXET4 shared this relationship, when we examined the evolutionary history of 419 glycoside hydrolase 16 family members, spanning monocots, eudicots and a basal Angiosperm. The discovered hetero-transglycosylation activity in HvXET3 and HvXET4 with the xyloglucan/[α(1-4)GalAp]5 substrate pair is discussed against the background of roles of xyloglucan-pectin heteropolymers and how they may participate in spatial patterns of cell wall formation and re-modelling, and affect the structural features of walls.
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Affiliation(s)
- Barbora Stratilová
- Institute of Chemistry, Centre for Glycomics, Slovak Academy of Sciences, Dúbravská cesta 9, Bratislava, SK-84538, Slovakia
- Faculty of Natural Sciences, Department of Physical and Theoretical Chemistry, Comenius University, Mlynská dolina, Bratislava, SK-842 15, Slovakia
| | - Sergej Šesták
- Institute of Chemistry, Centre for Glycomics, Slovak Academy of Sciences, Dúbravská cesta 9, Bratislava, SK-84538, Slovakia
| | - Jozef Mravec
- Department of Plant and Environmental Sciences, University of Copenhagen, Thorvaldsensvej 40, Frederiksberg-C, 1871, Denmark
| | - Soňa Garajová
- Institute of Chemistry, Centre for Glycomics, Slovak Academy of Sciences, Dúbravská cesta 9, Bratislava, SK-84538, Slovakia
- School of Agriculture, Food and Wine, University of Adelaide, Glen Osmond, SA, 5064, Australia
| | - Zuzana Pakanová
- Institute of Chemistry, Centre for Glycomics, Slovak Academy of Sciences, Dúbravská cesta 9, Bratislava, SK-84538, Slovakia
| | - Kristína Vadinová
- Institute of Chemistry, Centre for Glycomics, Slovak Academy of Sciences, Dúbravská cesta 9, Bratislava, SK-84538, Slovakia
| | - Danica Kučerová
- Institute of Chemistry, Centre for Glycomics, Slovak Academy of Sciences, Dúbravská cesta 9, Bratislava, SK-84538, Slovakia
| | - Stanislav Kozmon
- Institute of Chemistry, Centre for Glycomics, Slovak Academy of Sciences, Dúbravská cesta 9, Bratislava, SK-84538, Slovakia
| | - Julian G Schwerdt
- School of Agriculture, Food and Wine, University of Adelaide, Glen Osmond, SA, 5064, Australia
| | - Neil Shirley
- School of Agriculture, Food and Wine, University of Adelaide, Glen Osmond, SA, 5064, Australia
| | - Eva Stratilová
- Institute of Chemistry, Centre for Glycomics, Slovak Academy of Sciences, Dúbravská cesta 9, Bratislava, SK-84538, Slovakia
| | - Maria Hrmova
- School of Agriculture, Food and Wine, University of Adelaide, Glen Osmond, SA, 5064, Australia
- School of Life Sciences, Huaiyin Normal University, Huai'an, 223300, China
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27
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Computational identification of maize miRNA and their gene targets involved in biotic and abiotic stresses. J Biosci 2020. [DOI: 10.1007/s12038-020-00106-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
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28
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Yokoyama R. A Genomic Perspective on the Evolutionary Diversity of the Plant Cell Wall. PLANTS (BASEL, SWITZERLAND) 2020; 9:E1195. [PMID: 32932717 PMCID: PMC7570368 DOI: 10.3390/plants9091195] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/12/2020] [Revised: 09/02/2020] [Accepted: 09/11/2020] [Indexed: 01/02/2023]
Abstract
The plant cell wall is a complex and dynamic structure composed of numerous different molecules that play multiple roles in all aspects of plant life. Currently, a new frontier in biotechnology is opening up, which is providing new insights into the structural and functional diversity of cell walls, and is thus serving to re-emphasize the significance of cell wall divergence in the evolutionary history of plant species. The ever-increasing availability of plant genome datasets will thus provide an invaluable basis for enhancing our knowledge regarding the diversity of cell walls among different plant species. In this review, as an example of a comparative genomics approach, I examine the diverse patterns of cell wall gene families among 100 species of green plants, and illustrate the evident benefits of using genome databases for studying cell wall divergence. Given that the growth and development of all types of plant cells are intimately associated with cell wall dynamics, gaining a further understanding of the functional diversity of cell walls in relation to diverse biological events will make significant contributions to a broad range of plant sciences.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ryusuke Yokoyama
- Graduate School of Life Sciences, Tohoku University, Sendai 980-8578, Japan
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29
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Herburger K, Franková L, Sanhueza D, Roig-Sanchez S, Meulewaeter F, Hudson A, Thomson A, Laromaine A, Budtova T, Fry SC. Enzymically attaching oligosaccharide-linked 'cargoes' to cellulose and other commercial polysaccharides via stable covalent bonds. Int J Biol Macromol 2020; 164:4359-4369. [PMID: 32918959 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijbiomac.2020.09.039] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/31/2020] [Revised: 08/25/2020] [Accepted: 09/03/2020] [Indexed: 10/23/2022]
Abstract
The Equisetum enzyme hetero-trans-β-glucanase (HTG) covalently grafts native plant cellulose (donor-substrate) to xyloglucan (acceptor-substrate), potentially offering a novel 'green' method of cellulose functionalisation. However, the range of cellulosic and non-cellulosic donor substrates that can be utilised by HTG is unknown, limiting our insight into its biotechnological potential. Here we show that HTG binds all celluloses tested (papers, tissues, hydrogels, bacterial cellulose) to radioactively- or fluorescently-labelled xyloglucan-heptasaccharide (XXXGol; acceptor-substrate). Glycol-chitin, glycol-chitosan and chitosan also acted as donor substrates but less effectively than cellulose. Cellulose-XXXGol conjugates were formed throughout the volume of a block of hydrogel, demonstrating penetration. Plant-derived celluloses (cellulose Iβ) became more effective donor-substrates after 'mercerisation' in ≥3 M NaOH; the opposite was true for bacterial cellulose Iα. Cellulose-XXXGol bonds resisted boiling 6 M NaOH, demonstrating strong glycosidic bonding. In conclusion, HTG stably grafts native and processed celluloses to xyloglucan-oligosaccharides, which may carry valuable 'cargoes', exemplified by sulphorhodamine. We thus demonstrate HTG's biotechnological potential to modify various cellulose-based substrates such as textiles, pulps, papers, packaging, sanitary products and hydrogels.
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Affiliation(s)
- Klaus Herburger
- The Edinburgh Cell Wall Group, Institute of Molecular Plant Sciences, School of Biological Sciences, The University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh EH9 3BF, United Kingdom.
| | - Lenka Franková
- The Edinburgh Cell Wall Group, Institute of Molecular Plant Sciences, School of Biological Sciences, The University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh EH9 3BF, United Kingdom
| | - Dayan Sanhueza
- The Edinburgh Cell Wall Group, Institute of Molecular Plant Sciences, School of Biological Sciences, The University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh EH9 3BF, United Kingdom
| | - Soledad Roig-Sanchez
- Institut de Ciència de Materials de Barcelona (ICMAB), Campus UAB, Bellaterra, Catalonia E-08193, Spain
| | - Frank Meulewaeter
- BASF, BBCC Innovation Center Gent - Trait Research, 9052 Gent (Zwijnaarde), Belgium
| | - Andrew Hudson
- The Edinburgh Cell Wall Group, Institute of Molecular Plant Sciences, School of Biological Sciences, The University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh EH9 3BF, United Kingdom
| | - Axel Thomson
- Edinburgh Innovations, The University of Edinburgh, Murchison House, King's Buildings, Edinburgh EH9 3BF, United Kingdom
| | - Anna Laromaine
- Institut de Ciència de Materials de Barcelona (ICMAB), Campus UAB, Bellaterra, Catalonia E-08193, Spain
| | - Tatiana Budtova
- MINES ParisTech, PSL Research University, CEMEF - Center for Materials Forming, UMR CNRS 7635, CS 10207, 06904 Sophia Antipolis, France
| | - Stephen C Fry
- The Edinburgh Cell Wall Group, Institute of Molecular Plant Sciences, School of Biological Sciences, The University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh EH9 3BF, United Kingdom
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30
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Sampathkumar A. Mechanical feedback-loop regulation of morphogenesis in plants. Development 2020; 147:147/16/dev177964. [PMID: 32817056 DOI: 10.1242/dev.177964] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Abstract
Morphogenesis is a highly controlled biological process that is crucial for organisms to develop cells and organs of a particular shape. Plants have the remarkable ability to adapt to changing environmental conditions, despite being sessile organisms with their cells affixed to each other by their cell wall. It is therefore evident that morphogenesis in plants requires the existence of robust sensing machineries at different scales. In this Review, I provide an overview on how mechanical forces are generated, sensed and transduced in plant cells. I then focus on how such forces regulate growth and form of plant cells and tissues.
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Affiliation(s)
- Arun Sampathkumar
- Max Planck Institute of Molecular Plant Physiology, Am Mühlenberg 1, 14476 Potsdam-Golm, Germany
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31
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Holland C, Simmons TJ, Meulewaeter F, Hudson A, Fry SC. Three highly acidic Equisetum XTHs differ from hetero-trans-β-glucanase in donor substrate specificity and are predominantly xyloglucan homo-transglucosylases. JOURNAL OF PLANT PHYSIOLOGY 2020; 251:153210. [PMID: 32544741 DOI: 10.1016/j.jplph.2020.153210] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/13/2019] [Revised: 05/20/2020] [Accepted: 05/24/2020] [Indexed: 05/27/2023]
Abstract
Transglycanases are enzymes that remodel the primary cell wall in plants, potentially loosening and/or strengthening it. Xyloglucan endotransglucosylase (XET; EC 2.4.1.207), ubiquitous in land plants, is a homo-transglucanase activity (donor, xyloglucan; acceptor, xyloglucan) exhibited by XTH (xyloglucan endotransglucosylase/hydrolase) proteins. By contrast, hetero-trans-β-glucanase (HTG) is the only known enzyme that is preferentially a hetero-transglucanase. Its two main hetero-transglucanase activities are MLG : xyloglucan endotransglucosylase (MXE) and cellulose : xyloglucan endotransglucosylase (CXE). HTG is highly acidic and found only in the evolutionarily isolated genus of fern-allies, Equisetum. We now report genes for three new highly acidic HTG-related XTHs in E. fluviatile (EfXTH-A, EfXTH-H and EfXTH-I). We expressed them heterologously in Pichia and tested the encoded proteins' enzymic activities to determine whether their acidity and/or their Equisetum-specific sequences might confer high hetero-transglucanase activity. Untransformed Pichia was found to secrete MLG-degrading enzyme(s), which had to be removed for reliable MXE assays. All three acidic EfXTHs exhibited very predominantly XET activity, although low but measurable hetero-transglucanase activities (MXE and CXE) were also detected in EfXTH-H and EfXTH-I. We conclude that the extremely high hetero-transglucanase activities of Equisetum HTG are not emulated by similarly acidic Equisetum XTHs that share up to 55.5% sequence identity with HTG.
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Affiliation(s)
- Claire Holland
- The Edinburgh Cell Wall Group, Institute of Molecular Plant Sciences, The University of Edinburgh, Daniel Rutherford Building, The King's Buildings, Max Born Crescent, Edinburgh EH9 3BF, UK
| | - Thomas J Simmons
- The Edinburgh Cell Wall Group, Institute of Molecular Plant Sciences, The University of Edinburgh, Daniel Rutherford Building, The King's Buildings, Max Born Crescent, Edinburgh EH9 3BF, UK
| | - Frank Meulewaeter
- BASF Innovation Center Gent- Trait Research, Technologiepark-Zwijnaarde, 9052 Gent, Belgium
| | - Andrew Hudson
- Institute of Molecular Plant Sciences, The University of Edinburgh, Daniel Rutherford Building, The King's Buildings, Max Born Crescent, Edinburgh EH9 3BF, UK
| | - Stephen C Fry
- The Edinburgh Cell Wall Group, Institute of Molecular Plant Sciences, The University of Edinburgh, Daniel Rutherford Building, The King's Buildings, Max Born Crescent, Edinburgh EH9 3BF, UK.
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32
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Herburger K, Franková L, Pičmanová M, Loh JW, Valenzuela-Ortega M, Meulewaeter F, Hudson AD, French CE, Fry SC. Hetero-trans-β-Glucanase Produces Cellulose-Xyloglucan Covalent Bonds in the Cell Walls of Structural Plant Tissues and Is Stimulated by Expansin. MOLECULAR PLANT 2020; 13:1047-1062. [PMID: 32376294 PMCID: PMC7339142 DOI: 10.1016/j.molp.2020.04.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/21/2020] [Revised: 04/17/2020] [Accepted: 04/28/2020] [Indexed: 05/19/2023]
Abstract
Current cell-wall models assume no covalent bonding between cellulose and hemicelluloses such as xyloglucan or mixed-linkage β-d-glucan (MLG). However, Equisetum hetero-trans-β-glucanase (HTG) grafts cellulose onto xyloglucan oligosaccharides (XGOs) - and, we now show, xyloglucan polysaccharide - in vitro, thus exhibiting CXE (cellulose:xyloglucan endotransglucosylase) activity. In addition, HTG also catalyzes MLG-to-XGO bonding (MXE activity). In this study, we explored the CXE action of HTG in native plant cell walls and tested whether expansin exposes cellulose to HTG by disrupting hydrogen bonds. To quantify and visualize CXE and MXE action, we assayed the sequential release of HTG products from cell walls pre-labeled with substrate mimics. We demonstrated covalent cellulose-xyloglucan bonding in plant cell walls and showed that CXE and MXE action was up to 15% and 60% of total transglucanase action, respectively, and peaked in aging, strengthening tissues: CXE in xylem and cells bordering intercellular canals and MXE in sclerenchyma. Recombinant bacterial expansin (EXLX1) strongly augmented CXE activity in vitro. CXE and MXE action in living Equisetum structural tissues potentially strengthens stems, while expansin might augment the HTG-catalyzed CXE reaction, thereby allowing efficient CXE action in muro. Our methods will enable surveys for comparable reactions throughout the plant kingdom. Furthermore, engineering similar hetero-polymer formation into angiosperm crop plants may improve certain agronomic traits such as lodging tolerance.
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Affiliation(s)
- Klaus Herburger
- The Edinburgh Cell Wall Group, Institute of Molecular Plant Sciences, School of Biological Sciences, The University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh EH9 3BF, United Kingdom.
| | - Lenka Franková
- The Edinburgh Cell Wall Group, Institute of Molecular Plant Sciences, School of Biological Sciences, The University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh EH9 3BF, United Kingdom
| | - Martina Pičmanová
- The Edinburgh Cell Wall Group, Institute of Molecular Plant Sciences, School of Biological Sciences, The University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh EH9 3BF, United Kingdom
| | - Jia Wooi Loh
- The Edinburgh Cell Wall Group, Institute of Molecular Plant Sciences, School of Biological Sciences, The University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh EH9 3BF, United Kingdom
| | - Marcos Valenzuela-Ortega
- Institute of Quantitative Biology, Biochemistry and Biotechnology, School of Biological Sciences, The University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh EH9 3BF, United Kingdom
| | - Frank Meulewaeter
- BASF, BBCC Innovation Center Gent - Trait Research, 9052 Gent (Zwijnaarde), Belgium
| | - Andrew D Hudson
- The Edinburgh Cell Wall Group, Institute of Molecular Plant Sciences, School of Biological Sciences, The University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh EH9 3BF, United Kingdom
| | - Christopher E French
- Institute of Quantitative Biology, Biochemistry and Biotechnology, School of Biological Sciences, The University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh EH9 3BF, United Kingdom; Zhejiang University-University of Edinburgh Joint Research Centre for Engineering Biology, Zhejiang University, Haining, Zhejiang 314400, China
| | - Stephen C Fry
- The Edinburgh Cell Wall Group, Institute of Molecular Plant Sciences, School of Biological Sciences, The University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh EH9 3BF, United Kingdom
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33
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Morales-Quintana L, Beltrán D, Mendez-Yañez Á, Valenzuela-Riffo F, Herrera R, Moya-León MA. Characterization of FcXTH2, a Novel Xyloglucan Endotransglycosylase/Hydrolase Enzyme of Chilean Strawberry with Hydrolase Activity. Int J Mol Sci 2020; 21:E3380. [PMID: 32403246 PMCID: PMC7247008 DOI: 10.3390/ijms21093380] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/03/2020] [Revised: 05/01/2020] [Accepted: 05/07/2020] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Xyloglucan endotransglycosylase/hydrolases (XTHs) are cell wall enzymes with hydrolase (XEH) and/or endotransglycosylase (XET) activities. As they are involved in the modification of the xyloglucans, a type of hemicellulose present in the cell wall, they are believed to be very important in different processes, including growth, development, and fruit ripening. Previous studies suggest that XTHs might play a key role in development and ripening of Fragaria chiloensis fruit, and its characterization is pending. Therefore, in order to provide a biochemical characterization of the FcXTH2 enzyme to explain its possible role in strawberry development, the molecular cloning and the heterologous expression of FcXTH2 were performed. The recombinant FcXTH2 was active and displayed mainly XEH activity. The optimal pH and temperature are 5.5 and 37 °C, respectively. A KM value of 0.029 mg mL-1 was determined. Additionally, its protein structural model was built through comparative modeling methodology. The model showed a typically β-jelly-roll type folding in which the catalytic motif was oriented towards the FcXTH2 central cavity. Using molecular docking, protein-ligand interactions were explored, finding better interaction with xyloglucan than with cellulose. The data provided groundwork for understanding, at a molecular level, the enzymatic mechanism of FcXTH2, an important enzyme acting during the development of the Chilean strawberry.
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Affiliation(s)
- Luis Morales-Quintana
- Multidisciplinary Agroindustry Research Laboratory, Instituto de Ciencias Biomédicas, Universidad Autónoma de Chile, 3460000 Talca, Chile
| | - Dina Beltrán
- Functional Genomics, Biochemistry and Plant Physiology group, Instituto de Ciencias Biológicas, Universidad de Talca, 3460000 Talca, Chile; (D.B.); (R.H.)
| | - Ángela Mendez-Yañez
- Functional Genomics, Biochemistry and Plant Physiology group, Instituto de Ciencias Biológicas, Universidad de Talca, 3460000 Talca, Chile; (D.B.); (R.H.)
- Programa de Doctorado en Ciencias Mención Ingeniería Genética Vegetal, Instituto de Ciencias Biológicas, Universidad de Talca, 3460000 Talca, Chile;
| | - Felipe Valenzuela-Riffo
- Programa de Doctorado en Ciencias Mención Ingeniería Genética Vegetal, Instituto de Ciencias Biológicas, Universidad de Talca, 3460000 Talca, Chile;
| | - Raúl Herrera
- Functional Genomics, Biochemistry and Plant Physiology group, Instituto de Ciencias Biológicas, Universidad de Talca, 3460000 Talca, Chile; (D.B.); (R.H.)
| | - María Alejandra Moya-León
- Functional Genomics, Biochemistry and Plant Physiology group, Instituto de Ciencias Biológicas, Universidad de Talca, 3460000 Talca, Chile; (D.B.); (R.H.)
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34
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Anderson CT, Kieber JJ. Dynamic Construction, Perception, and Remodeling of Plant Cell Walls. ANNUAL REVIEW OF PLANT BIOLOGY 2020; 71:39-69. [PMID: 32084323 DOI: 10.1146/annurev-arplant-081519-035846] [Citation(s) in RCA: 119] [Impact Index Per Article: 29.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/21/2023]
Abstract
Plant cell walls are dynamic structures that are synthesized by plants to provide durable coverings for the delicate cells they encase. They are made of polysaccharides, proteins, and other biomolecules and have evolved to withstand large amounts of physical force and to resist external attack by herbivores and pathogens but can in many cases expand, contract, and undergo controlled degradation and reconstruction to facilitate developmental transitions and regulate plant physiology and reproduction. Recent advances in genetics, microscopy, biochemistry, structural biology, and physical characterization methods have revealed a diverse set of mechanisms by which plant cells dynamically monitor and regulate the composition and architecture of their cell walls, but much remains to be discovered about how the nanoscale assembly of these remarkable structures underpins the majestic forms and vital ecological functions achieved by plants.
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Affiliation(s)
- Charles T Anderson
- Department of Biology, The Pennsylvania State University, University Park, Pennsylvania 16802, USA;
| | - Joseph J Kieber
- Department of Biology, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, North Carolina 27599, USA;
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Kushwah S, Banasiak A, Nishikubo N, Derba-Maceluch M, Majda M, Endo S, Kumar V, Gomez L, Gorzsas A, McQueen-Mason S, Braam J, Sundberg B, Mellerowicz EJ. Arabidopsis XTH4 and XTH9 Contribute to Wood Cell Expansion and Secondary Wall Formation. PLANT PHYSIOLOGY 2020; 182:1946-1965. [PMID: 32005783 PMCID: PMC7140944 DOI: 10.1104/pp.19.01529] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/16/2019] [Accepted: 01/21/2020] [Indexed: 05/05/2023]
Abstract
Xyloglucan is the major hemicellulose of dicotyledon primary cell walls, affecting the load-bearing framework with the participation of xyloglucan endo-transglycosylase/hydrolases (XTHs). We used loss- and gain-of function approaches to study functions of XTH4 and XTH9 abundantly expressed in cambial regions during secondary growth of Arabidopsis (Arabidopsis thaliana). In secondarily thickened hypocotyls, these enzymes had positive effects on vessel element expansion and fiber intrusive growth. They also stimulated secondary wall thickening but reduced secondary xylem production. Cell wall analyses of inflorescence stems revealed changes in lignin, cellulose, and matrix sugar composition indicating an overall increase in secondary versus primary walls in mutants, indicative of higher xylem production compared with the wild type (since secondary walls were thinner). Intriguingly, the number of secondary cell wall layers compared with the wild type was increased in xth9 and reduced in xth4, whereas the double mutant xth4x9 displayed an intermediate number of layers. These changes correlated with specific Raman signals from the walls, indicating changes in lignin and cellulose. Secondary walls were affected also in the interfascicular fibers, where neither XTH4 nor XTH9 was expressed, indicating that these effects were indirect. Transcripts involved in secondary wall biosynthesis and cell wall integrity sensing, including THESEUS1 and WALL ASSOCIATED KINASE2, were highly induced in the mutants, indicating that deficiency in XTH4 and XTH9 triggers cell wall integrity signaling, which, we propose, stimulates xylem cell production and modulates secondary wall thickening. Prominent effects of XTH4 and XTH9 on secondary xylem support the hypothesis that altered xyloglucan affects wood properties both directly and via cell wall integrity sensing.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sunita Kushwah
- Department of Forest Genetics and Plant Physiology, Umeå Plant Science Center, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, S901-83 Umea, Sweden
| | - Alicja Banasiak
- Department of Forest Genetics and Plant Physiology, Umeå Plant Science Center, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, S901-83 Umea, Sweden
| | - Nobuyuki Nishikubo
- Department of Forest Genetics and Plant Physiology, Umeå Plant Science Center, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, S901-83 Umea, Sweden
| | - Marta Derba-Maceluch
- Department of Forest Genetics and Plant Physiology, Umeå Plant Science Center, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, S901-83 Umea, Sweden
| | - Mateusz Majda
- Department of Forest Genetics and Plant Physiology, Umeå Plant Science Center, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, S901-83 Umea, Sweden
| | - Satoshi Endo
- Department of Forest Genetics and Plant Physiology, Umeå Plant Science Center, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, S901-83 Umea, Sweden
| | - Vikash Kumar
- Department of Forest Genetics and Plant Physiology, Umeå Plant Science Center, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, S901-83 Umea, Sweden
| | - Leonardo Gomez
- Center for Novel Agricultural Products, Department of Biology, University of York, York YO10 5DD, United Kingdom
| | - Andras Gorzsas
- Department of Chemistry, Umeå University, SE-90187 Umea, Sweden
| | - Simon McQueen-Mason
- Center for Novel Agricultural Products, Department of Biology, University of York, York YO10 5DD, United Kingdom
| | - Janet Braam
- Department of Bioscience, Rice University, Houston, Texas 77005-1827
| | - Björn Sundberg
- Department of Forest Genetics and Plant Physiology, Umeå Plant Science Center, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, S901-83 Umea, Sweden
| | - Ewa J Mellerowicz
- Department of Forest Genetics and Plant Physiology, Umeå Plant Science Center, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, S901-83 Umea, Sweden
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36
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Grones P, Raggi S, Robert S. FORCE-ing the shape. CURRENT OPINION IN PLANT BIOLOGY 2019; 52:1-6. [PMID: 31234034 DOI: 10.1016/j.pbi.2019.05.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/04/2019] [Revised: 05/10/2019] [Accepted: 05/22/2019] [Indexed: 05/27/2023]
Abstract
The plant cell wall is a dynamic structure that mediates cell and organ morphogenesis and provides structural support to the whole plant body. The primary load bearing components of the cell wall are a cellulose-xyloglucan network embedded in a pectin matrix. Plant morphogenesis is regulated by a constant adjustment of the chemical structure and thus mechanical properties of the cell wall components. These modifications are modulated by a variety of different remodeling agents that precisely control cell wall mechanical properties. Here, we briefly review the major recent updates on cell wall mechanics during growth and development.
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Affiliation(s)
- Peter Grones
- Umeå Plant Science Centre (UPSC), Department of Forest Genetics and Plant Physiology, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences (SLU), 90183 Umeå, Sweden
| | - Sara Raggi
- Umeå Plant Science Centre (UPSC), Department of Forest Genetics and Plant Physiology, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences (SLU), 90183 Umeå, Sweden
| | - Stéphanie Robert
- Umeå Plant Science Centre (UPSC), Department of Forest Genetics and Plant Physiology, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences (SLU), 90183 Umeå, Sweden.
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Witasari LD, Huang F, Hoffmann T, Rozhon W, Fry SC, Schwab W. Higher expression of the strawberry xyloglucan endotransglucosylase/hydrolase genes FvXTH9 and FvXTH6 accelerates fruit ripening. THE PLANT JOURNAL : FOR CELL AND MOLECULAR BIOLOGY 2019; 100:1237-1253. [PMID: 31454115 PMCID: PMC8653885 DOI: 10.1111/tpj.14512] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/23/2019] [Revised: 08/09/2019] [Accepted: 08/19/2019] [Indexed: 05/04/2023]
Abstract
Fruit softening in Fragaria (strawberry) is proposed to be associated with the modification of cell wall components such as xyloglucan by the action of cell wall-modifying enzymes. This study focuses on the in vitro and in vivo characterization of two recombinant xyloglucan endotransglucosylase/hydrolases (XTHs) from Fragaria vesca, FvXTH9 and FvXTH6. Mining of the publicly available F. vesca genome sequence yielded 28 putative XTH genes. FvXTH9 showed the highest expression level of all FvXTHs in a fruit transcriptome data set and was selected with the closely related FvXTH6 for further analysis. To investigate their role in fruit ripening in more detail, the coding sequences of FvXTH9 and FvXTH6 were cloned into the vector pYES2 and expressed in Saccharomyces cerevisiae. FvXTH9 and FvXTH6 displayed xyloglucan endotransglucosylase (XET) activity towards various acceptor substrates using xyloglucan as the donor substrate. Interestingly, FvXTH9 showed activity of mixed-linkage glucan:xyloglucan endotransglucosylase (MXE) and cellulose:xyloglucan endotransglucosylase (CXE). The optimum pH of both FvXTH9 and FvXTH6 was 6.5. The prediction of subcellular localization suggested localization to the secretory pathway, which was confirmed by localization studies in Nicotiana tabacum. Overexpression showed that Fragaria × ananassa fruits infiltrated with FvXTH9 and FvXTH6 ripened faster and showed decreased firmness compared with the empty vector control pBI121. Thus FvXTH9 and also FvXTH6 might promote strawberry fruit ripening by the modification of cell wall components.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lucia D. Witasari
- Biotechnology of Natural ProductsTechnische Universität MünchenLiesel‐Beckmann‐Str. 185354FreisingGermany
- Department of Food and Agricultural Product TechnologyFaculty of Agricultural TechnologyUniversitas Gadjah MadaJl. Flora No. 1 – BulaksumurYogyakartaIndonesia
| | - Fong‐Chin Huang
- Biotechnology of Natural ProductsTechnische Universität MünchenLiesel‐Beckmann‐Str. 185354FreisingGermany
| | - Thomas Hoffmann
- Biotechnology of Natural ProductsTechnische Universität MünchenLiesel‐Beckmann‐Str. 185354FreisingGermany
| | - Wilfried Rozhon
- Biotechnology of Horticultural CropsTUM School of Life Sciences WeihenstephanTechnische Universität MünchenLiesel‐Beckmann‐Str. 185354FreisingGermany
| | - Stephen C. Fry
- Edinburgh Cell Wall GroupInstitute of Molecular Plant SciencesThe University of EdinburghDaniel Rutherford BuildingThe King's BuildingsEdinburghEH9 3BFUK
| | - Wilfried Schwab
- Biotechnology of Natural ProductsTechnische Universität MünchenLiesel‐Beckmann‐Str. 185354FreisingGermany
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38
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Jiang Y, Li Y, Lu C, Tang Y, Jiang X, Gai Y. Isolation and characterization of Populus xyloglucan endotransglycosylase/hydrolase (XTH) involved in osmotic stress responses. Int J Biol Macromol 2019; 155:1277-1287. [PMID: 31730960 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijbiomac.2019.11.099] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/12/2019] [Revised: 11/08/2019] [Accepted: 11/11/2019] [Indexed: 01/22/2023]
Abstract
Xyloglucan endotransglycosylase/hydrolase (XTH) belongs to the GH16 subfamily of the glycoside hydrolases of carbohydrate active enzymes and plays an important role in the structure and function of plant cell walls. In this study, 11 members of the XTH gene family were cloned from Populus tomentosa. A bioinformatics analysis revealed that 11 PtoXTHs could be classified into three groups, where PtoXTH27 and PtoXTH34 were most likely to exhibit XTH activity. Biochemical analyses of purified PtoXTHs demonstrated that PtoXTH27 and PtoXTH34 had detectable xyloglucan endotransglucosylase (XET) activity, while the others did not exhibit XET or XEH activity. Moreover, enzymatic assays revealed that the optimum reaction temperature of both PtoXTH27 and PtoXTH34 was 37 °C, while their optimum pH values differed, such that PtoXTH27 was 6.0 and PtoXTH34 was 5.0. Enzyme kinetic parameters indicated that PtoXTH34 had higher affinity for the receptor substrate, XXXG, implying that PtoXTH34 and PtoXTH27 in plants have different substrate structure specificity. Finally, heterologous expression of XTH significantly increased intracellular total sugar content and osmotolerance of yeast cells, indicating that PtoXTH27 and PtoXTH34 are potentially involved in osmotic stress responses. These results clearly demonstrate the enzymatic characteristics and putative role of XTH in osmotic stress responses.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yan Jiang
- College of Biological Sciences and Biotechnology, Beijing Forestry University, Beijing 100083, P.R. China
| | - Yuhua Li
- College of Biological Sciences and Biotechnology, Beijing Forestry University, Beijing 100083, P.R. China
| | - Chen Lu
- College of Biological Sciences and Biotechnology, Beijing Forestry University, Beijing 100083, P.R. China
| | - Yanni Tang
- College of Biological Sciences and Biotechnology, Beijing Forestry University, Beijing 100083, P.R. China
| | - Xiangning Jiang
- College of Biological Sciences and Biotechnology, Beijing Forestry University, Beijing 100083, P.R. China; The Tree and Ornamental Plant Breeding and Biotechnology Laboratory of National Forestry and Grassland Administration, National Engineering Laboratory for Tree Breeding, Beijing 100083, P.R. China
| | - Ying Gai
- College of Biological Sciences and Biotechnology, Beijing Forestry University, Beijing 100083, P.R. China; The Tree and Ornamental Plant Breeding and Biotechnology Laboratory of National Forestry and Grassland Administration, National Engineering Laboratory for Tree Breeding, Beijing 100083, P.R. China.
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39
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Visser EA, Wegrzyn JL, Steenkamp ET, Myburg AA, Naidoo S. Dual RNA-Seq Analysis of the Pine- Fusarium circinatum Interaction in Resistant ( Pinus tecunumanii) and Susceptible ( Pinus patula) Hosts. Microorganisms 2019; 7:E315. [PMID: 31487786 PMCID: PMC6780516 DOI: 10.3390/microorganisms7090315] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/03/2019] [Revised: 08/15/2019] [Accepted: 08/20/2019] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
Fusarium circinatum poses a serious threat to many pine species in both commercial and natural pine forests. Knowledge regarding the molecular basis of pine-F. circinatum host-pathogen interactions could assist efforts to produce more resistant planting stock. This study aimed to identify molecular responses underlying resistance against F. circinatum. A dual RNA-seq approach was used to investigate host and pathogen expression in F. circinatum challenged Pinus tecunumanii (resistant) and Pinus patula (susceptible), at three- and seven-days post inoculation. RNA-seq reads were mapped to combined host-pathogen references for both pine species to identify differentially expressed genes (DEGs). F. circinatum genes expressed during infection showed decreased ergosterol biosynthesis in P. tecunumanii relative to P. patula. For P. tecunumanii, enriched gene ontologies and DEGs indicated roles for auxin-, ethylene-, jasmonate- and salicylate-mediated phytohormone signalling. Correspondingly, key phytohormone signaling components were down-regulated in P. patula. Key F. circinatum ergosterol biosynthesis genes were expressed at lower levels during infection of the resistant relative to the susceptible host. This study further suggests that coordination of phytohormone signaling is required for F. circinatum resistance in P. tecunumanii, while a comparatively delayed response and impaired phytohormone signaling contributes to susceptibility in P. patula.
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Affiliation(s)
- Erik A Visser
- Department of Biochemistry, Genetics and Microbiology, Forestry and Agricultural Biotechnology Institute (FABI), Centre for Bioinformatics and Computational Biology, University of Pretoria, Private Bag X20, Pretoria 0028, South Africa
| | - Jill L Wegrzyn
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, University of Connecticut, Storrs, CT 06269, USA
| | - Emma T Steenkamp
- Department of Biochemistry, Genetics and Microbiology, Forestry and Agricultural Biotechnology Institute (FABI), Centre for Bioinformatics and Computational Biology, University of Pretoria, Private Bag X20, Pretoria 0028, South Africa
| | - Alexander A Myburg
- Department of Biochemistry, Genetics and Microbiology, Forestry and Agricultural Biotechnology Institute (FABI), Centre for Bioinformatics and Computational Biology, University of Pretoria, Private Bag X20, Pretoria 0028, South Africa
| | - Sanushka Naidoo
- Department of Biochemistry, Genetics and Microbiology, Forestry and Agricultural Biotechnology Institute (FABI), Centre for Bioinformatics and Computational Biology, University of Pretoria, Private Bag X20, Pretoria 0028, South Africa.
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40
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Rubianes D, Valdivia ER, Revilla G, Zarra I, Sampedro J. Xyloglucan exoglycosidases in the monocot model Brachypodium distachyon and the conservation of xyloglucan disassembly in angiosperms. PLANT MOLECULAR BIOLOGY 2019; 100:495-509. [PMID: 31028613 DOI: 10.1007/s11103-019-00875-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/17/2019] [Accepted: 04/15/2019] [Indexed: 06/09/2023]
Abstract
Brachypodium distachyon has a full set of exoglycosidases active on xyloglucan, including α-xylosidase, β-galactosidase, soluble and membrane-bound β-glucosidases and two α-fucosidases. However, unlike in Arabidopsis, both fucosidases are likely cytosolic. Xyloglucan is present in primary walls of all angiosperms. While in most groups it regulates cell wall extension, in Poaceae its role is still unclear. Five exoglycosidases participate in xyloglucan hydrolysis in Arabidopsis: α-xylosidase, β-galactosidase, α-fucosidase, soluble β-glucosidase and GPI-anchored β-glucosidase. Mutants in the corresponding genes show alterations in xyloglucan composition. In this work putative orthologs in the model grass Brachypodium distachyon were tested for their ability to complement Arabidopsis mutants. Xylosidase and galactosidase mutants were complemented, respectively, by BdXYL1 (Bd2g02070) and BdBGAL1 (Bd2g56607). BdBGAL1, unlike other xyloglucan β-galactosidases, is able to remove both galactoses from XLLG oligosaccharides. In addition, soluble β-glucosidase BdBGLC1 (Bd1g08550) complemented a glucosidase mutant. Closely related BdBGLC2 (Bd2g51280), which has a putative GPI-anchor sequence, was found associated with the plasma membrane and only a truncated version without GPI-anchor complemented the mutant, proving that Brachypodium also has soluble and membrane-bound xyloglucan glucosidases. Both BdXFUC1 (Bd3g25226) and BdXFUC2 (Bd1g28366) can hydrolyze fucose from xyloglucan oligosaccharides but were unable to complement a fucosidase mutant. Fluorescent protein fusions of BdXFUC1 localized to the cytosol and both proteins lack a signal peptide. Signal peptides appear to have evolved only in some eudicot lineages of this family, like the one leading to Arabidopsis. These results could be explained if cytosolic xyloglucan α-fucosidases are the ancestral state in angiosperms, with fucosylated oligosaccharides transported across the plasma membrane.
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Affiliation(s)
- Diego Rubianes
- Dpto. Biología Funcional, Facultad de Biología, Universidade de Santiago, 15782, Santiago de Compostela, Spain
| | - Elene R Valdivia
- Dpto. Biología Funcional, Facultad de Biología, Universidade de Santiago, 15782, Santiago de Compostela, Spain
| | - Gloria Revilla
- Dpto. Biología Funcional, Facultad de Biología, Universidade de Santiago, 15782, Santiago de Compostela, Spain
| | - Ignacio Zarra
- Dpto. Biología Funcional, Facultad de Biología, Universidade de Santiago, 15782, Santiago de Compostela, Spain
| | - Javier Sampedro
- Dpto. Biología Funcional, Facultad de Biología, Universidade de Santiago, 15782, Santiago de Compostela, Spain.
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41
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Stratilová B, Firáková Z, Klaudiny J, Šesták S, Kozmon S, Strouhalová D, Garajová S, Ait-Mohand F, Horváthová Á, Farkaš V, Stratilová E, Hrmova M. Engineering the acceptor substrate specificity in the xyloglucan endotransglycosylase TmXET6.3 from nasturtium seeds (Tropaeolum majus L.). PLANT MOLECULAR BIOLOGY 2019; 100:181-197. [PMID: 30868545 DOI: 10.1007/s11103-019-00852-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/14/2018] [Accepted: 02/28/2019] [Indexed: 06/09/2023]
Abstract
The knowledge of substrate specificity of XET enzymes is important for the general understanding of metabolic pathways to challenge the established notion that these enzymes operate uniquely on cellulose-xyloglucan networks. Xyloglucan xyloglucosyl transferases (XETs) (EC 2.4.1.207) play a central role in loosening and re-arranging the cellulose-xyloglucan network, which is assumed to be the primary load-bearing structural component of plant cell walls. The sequence of mature TmXET6.3 from Tropaeolum majus (280 residues) was deduced by the nucleotide sequence analysis of complete cDNA by Rapid Amplification of cDNA Ends, based on tryptic and chymotryptic peptide sequences. Partly purified TmXET6.3, expressed in Pichia occurred in N-glycosylated and unglycosylated forms. The quantification of hetero-transglycosylation activities of TmXET6.3 revealed that (1,3;1,4)-, (1,6)- and (1,4)-β-D-glucooligosaccharides were the preferred acceptor substrates, while (1,4)-β-D-xylooligosaccharides, and arabinoxylo- and glucomanno-oligosaccharides were less preferred. The 3D model of TmXET6.3, and bioinformatics analyses of identified and putative plant xyloglucan endotransglycosylases (XETs)/hydrolases (XEHs) of the GH16 family revealed that H94, A104, Q108, K234 and K237 were the key residues that underpinned the acceptor substrate specificity of TmXET6.3. Compared to the wild-type enzyme, the single Q108R and K237T, and double-K234T/K237T and triple-H94Q/A104D/Q108R variants exhibited enhanced hetero-transglycosylation activities with xyloglucan and (1,4)-β-D-glucooligosaccharides, while those with (1,3;1,4)- and (1,6)-β-D-glucooligosaccharides were suppressed; the incorporation of xyloglucan to (1,4)-β-D-glucooligosaccharides by the H94Q variant was influenced most extensively. Structural and biochemical data of non-specific TmXET6.3 presented here extend the classic XET reaction mechanism by which these enzymes operate in plant cell walls. The evaluations of TmXET6.3 transglycosylation activities and the incidence of investigated residues in other members of the GH16 family suggest that a broad acceptor substrate specificity in plant XET enzymes could be more widespread than previously anticipated.
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Affiliation(s)
- Barbora Stratilová
- Centre for Glycomics, Institute of Chemistry, Slovak Academy of Sciences, Dúbravská cesta 9, 84538, Bratislava, Slovakia
- Department of Physical and Theoretical Chemistry, Faculty of Natural Sciences, Comenius University, Mlynská dolina, 842 15, Bratislava, Slovakia
| | - Zuzana Firáková
- Centre for Glycomics, Institute of Chemistry, Slovak Academy of Sciences, Dúbravská cesta 9, 84538, Bratislava, Slovakia
| | - Jaroslav Klaudiny
- Centre for Glycomics, Institute of Chemistry, Slovak Academy of Sciences, Dúbravská cesta 9, 84538, Bratislava, Slovakia
| | - Sergej Šesták
- Centre for Glycomics, Institute of Chemistry, Slovak Academy of Sciences, Dúbravská cesta 9, 84538, Bratislava, Slovakia
| | - Stanislav Kozmon
- Centre for Glycomics, Institute of Chemistry, Slovak Academy of Sciences, Dúbravská cesta 9, 84538, Bratislava, Slovakia
| | - Dana Strouhalová
- Institute of Analytical Chemistry, Czech Academy of Sciences, v.v.i. Veveří, 60200, Brno, Czech Republic
| | - Soňa Garajová
- Centre for Glycomics, Institute of Chemistry, Slovak Academy of Sciences, Dúbravská cesta 9, 84538, Bratislava, Slovakia
| | - Fairouz Ait-Mohand
- Centre for Glycomics, Institute of Chemistry, Slovak Academy of Sciences, Dúbravská cesta 9, 84538, Bratislava, Slovakia
| | - Ágnes Horváthová
- Centre for Glycomics, Institute of Chemistry, Slovak Academy of Sciences, Dúbravská cesta 9, 84538, Bratislava, Slovakia
| | - Vladimír Farkaš
- Centre for Glycomics, Institute of Chemistry, Slovak Academy of Sciences, Dúbravská cesta 9, 84538, Bratislava, Slovakia
| | - Eva Stratilová
- Centre for Glycomics, Institute of Chemistry, Slovak Academy of Sciences, Dúbravská cesta 9, 84538, Bratislava, Slovakia
| | - Maria Hrmova
- School of Life Sciences, Huaiyin Normal University, Huai'an, 223300, China.
- School of Agriculture, Food and Wine, and Waite Research Institute, Waite Research Precinct, University of Adelaide, Glen Osmond, SA, 5064, Australia.
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Takahashi D, Gorka M, Erban A, Graf A, Kopka J, Zuther E, Hincha DK. Both cold and sub-zero acclimation induce cell wall modification and changes in the extracellular proteome in Arabidopsis thaliana. Sci Rep 2019; 9:2289. [PMID: 30783145 PMCID: PMC6381082 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-019-38688-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/02/2018] [Accepted: 12/31/2018] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Cold acclimation (CA) leads to increased plant freezing tolerance during exposure to low, non-freezing temperatures as a result of many physiological, biochemical and molecular changes that have been extensively investigated. In addition, many plant species, such as Arabidopsis thaliana, respond to a subsequent exposure to mild, non-damaging freezing temperatures with an additional increase in freezing tolerance referred to as sub-zero acclimation (SZA). There is comparatively little information available about the molecular basis of SZA. However, previous transcriptomic studies indicated that cell wall modification may play an important role during SZA. Here we show that CA and SZA are accompanied by extensive changes in cell wall amount, composition and structure. While CA leads to a significant increase in cell wall amount, the relative proportions of pectin, hemicellulose and cellulose remained unaltered during both CA and SZA. However, both treatments resulted in more subtle changes in structure as determined by infrared spectroscopy and monosaccharide composition as determined by gas chromatography-mass spectrometry. These differences could be related through a proteomic approach to the accumulation of cell wall modifying enzymes such as pectin methylesterases, pectin methylesterase inhibitors and xyloglucan endotransglucosylases/hydrolases in the extracellular matrix.
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Affiliation(s)
- Daisuke Takahashi
- Max-Planck-Institut für Molekulare Pflanzenphysiologie, Am Mühlenberg 1, D-14476, Potsdam, Germany
| | - Michal Gorka
- Max-Planck-Institut für Molekulare Pflanzenphysiologie, Am Mühlenberg 1, D-14476, Potsdam, Germany
| | - Alexander Erban
- Max-Planck-Institut für Molekulare Pflanzenphysiologie, Am Mühlenberg 1, D-14476, Potsdam, Germany
| | - Alexander Graf
- Max-Planck-Institut für Molekulare Pflanzenphysiologie, Am Mühlenberg 1, D-14476, Potsdam, Germany
| | - Joachim Kopka
- Max-Planck-Institut für Molekulare Pflanzenphysiologie, Am Mühlenberg 1, D-14476, Potsdam, Germany
| | - Ellen Zuther
- Max-Planck-Institut für Molekulare Pflanzenphysiologie, Am Mühlenberg 1, D-14476, Potsdam, Germany
| | - Dirk K Hincha
- Max-Planck-Institut für Molekulare Pflanzenphysiologie, Am Mühlenberg 1, D-14476, Potsdam, Germany.
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Fan M, Herburger K, Jensen JK, Zemelis-Durfee S, Brandizzi F, Fry SC, Wilkerson CG. A Trihelix Family Transcription Factor Is Associated with Key Genes in Mixed-Linkage Glucan Accumulation. PLANT PHYSIOLOGY 2018; 178:1207-1221. [PMID: 30224432 PMCID: PMC6236600 DOI: 10.1104/pp.18.00978] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/07/2018] [Accepted: 09/06/2018] [Indexed: 05/17/2023]
Abstract
Mixed-linkage glucan (MLG) is a polysaccharide that is highly abundant in grass endosperm cell walls and present at lower amounts in other tissues. Cellulose synthase-like F (CSLF) and cellulose synthase-like H genes synthesize MLG, but it is unknown if other genes participate in the production and restructuring of MLG. Using Brachypodium distachyon transcriptional profiling data, we identified a B distachyon trihelix family transcription factor (BdTHX1) that is highly coexpressed with the B distachyon CSLF6 gene (BdCSLF6), which suggests that BdTHX1 is involved in the regulation of MLG biosynthesis. To determine the genes regulated by this transcription factor, we conducted chromatin immunoprecipitation sequencing (ChIP-seq) experiments using immature B distachyon seeds and an anti-BdTHX1 polyclonal antibody. The ChIP-seq experiment identified the second intron of BdCSLF6 as one of the most enriched sequences. The binding of BdTHX1 to the BdCSLF6 intron sequence was confirmed using electrophoretic mobility shift assays (EMSA). ChIP-seq also showed that a gene encoding a grass-specific glycoside hydrolase family 16 endotransglucosylase/hydrolase (BdXTH8) is bound by BdTHX1, and the binding was confirmed by EMSA. Radiochemical transglucanase assays showed that BdXTH8 exhibits predominantly MLG:xyloglucan endotransglucosylase activity, a hetero-transglycosylation reaction, and can thus produce MLG-xyloglucan covalent bonds; it also has a lower xyloglucan:xyloglucan endotransglucosylase activity. B distachyon shoots regenerated from transformed calli overexpressing BdTHX1 showed an abnormal arrangement of vascular tissue and seedling-lethal phenotypes. These results indicate that the transcription factor BdTHX1 likely plays an important role in MLG biosynthesis and restructuring by regulating the expression of BdCSLF6 and BdXTH8.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mingzhu Fan
- Department of Plant Biology, Michigan State University, East Lansing, Michigan 48824
- Great Lakes Bioenergy Research Center, Michigan State University, East Lansing, Michigan 48824
| | - Klaus Herburger
- The Edinburgh Cell Wall Group, Institute of Molecular Plant Sciences, The University of Edinburgh, The King's Buildings, Edinburgh EH9 3BF, United Kingdom
| | - Jacob K Jensen
- Department of Plant Biology, Michigan State University, East Lansing, Michigan 48824
- Great Lakes Bioenergy Research Center, Michigan State University, East Lansing, Michigan 48824
- Øster Søgade 36, 1357 Copenhagen, Denmark
| | - Starla Zemelis-Durfee
- Great Lakes Bioenergy Research Center, Michigan State University, East Lansing, Michigan 48824
- MSU-DOE Plant Research Lab, Michigan State University, East Lansing, Michigan 48824
| | - Federica Brandizzi
- Great Lakes Bioenergy Research Center, Michigan State University, East Lansing, Michigan 48824
- MSU-DOE Plant Research Lab, Michigan State University, East Lansing, Michigan 48824
| | - Stephen C Fry
- The Edinburgh Cell Wall Group, Institute of Molecular Plant Sciences, The University of Edinburgh, The King's Buildings, Edinburgh EH9 3BF, United Kingdom
| | - Curtis G Wilkerson
- Department of Plant Biology, Michigan State University, East Lansing, Michigan 48824
- Great Lakes Bioenergy Research Center, Michigan State University, East Lansing, Michigan 48824
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Michigan State University, East Lansing, Michigan 48824
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Marjamaa K, Kruus K. Enzyme biotechnology in degradation and modification of plant cell wall polymers. PHYSIOLOGIA PLANTARUM 2018; 164:106-118. [PMID: 29987848 DOI: 10.1111/ppl.12800] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/14/2017] [Revised: 07/02/2018] [Accepted: 07/05/2018] [Indexed: 05/28/2023]
Abstract
Lignocelluloses are abundant raw materials for production of fuels, chemicals and materials. The purpose of this paper is to review the enzyme-types and enzyme-technologies studied and applied in the processing of the lignocelluloses into different products. The enzymes here are mostly glycoside hydrolases, esterases and different redox enzymes. Enzymatic hydrolysis of lignocellulosic polysaccharides to platform sugars has been widely studied leading to development of advanced commercial products for this purpose. Restricted hydrolysis or oxidation of cellulosic fibers have been applied in processing of pulps to paper products, nanocelluloses and textile fibers. Oxidation, transglycosylation and derivatization have been utilized in functionalization of fibers, cellulosic surfaces and polysaccharides. Enzymatic polymerization, depolymerization and grafting methods are being developed for lignin valorization.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kaisa Marjamaa
- VTT Technical Research Centre of Finland Ltd, PO Box 1000, Espoo, 02044, Finland
| | - Kristiina Kruus
- VTT Technical Research Centre of Finland Ltd, PO Box 1000, Espoo, 02044, Finland
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45
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Sheng H, Ma J, Pu J, Wang L. Cell wall-bound silicon optimizes ammonium uptake and metabolism in rice cells. ANNALS OF BOTANY 2018; 122:303-313. [PMID: 29788158 PMCID: PMC6070024 DOI: 10.1093/aob/mcy068] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/07/2018] [Accepted: 04/18/2018] [Indexed: 05/09/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND AND AIMS Turgor-driven plant cell growth depends on cell wall structure and mechanics. Strengthening of cell walls on the basis of an association and interaction with silicon (Si) could lead to improved nutrient uptake and optimized growth and metabolism in rice (Oryza sativa). However, the structural basis and physiological mechanisms of nutrient uptake and metabolism optimization under Si assistance remain obscure. METHODS Single-cell level biophysical measurements, including in situ non-invasive micro-testing (NMT) of NH4+ ion fluxes, atomic force microscopy (AFM) of cell walls, and electrolyte leakage and membrane potential, as well as whole-cell proteomics using isobaric tags for relative and absolute quantification (iTRAQ), were performed. KEY RESULTS The altered cell wall structure increases the uptake rate of the main nutrient NH4+ in Si-accumulating cells, whereas the rate is only half in Si-deprived counterparts. CONCLUSIONS Rigid cell walls enhanced by a wall-bound form of Si as the structural basis stabilize cell membranes. This, in turn, optimizes nutrient uptake of the cells in the same growth phase without any requirement for up-regulation of transmembrane ammonium transporters. Optimization of cellular nutrient acquisition strategies can substantially improve performance in terms of growth, metabolism and stress resistance.
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Affiliation(s)
- Huachun Sheng
- College of Resources and Environment, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan, China
| | - Jie Ma
- College of Resources and Environment, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan, China
| | - Junbao Pu
- College of Resources and Environment, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan, China
| | - Lijun Wang
- College of Resources and Environment, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan, China
- For correspondence.
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Herburger K, Ryan LM, Popper ZA, Holzinger A. Localisation and substrate specificities of transglycanases in charophyte algae relate to development and morphology. J Cell Sci 2018; 131:jcs203208. [PMID: 28827406 PMCID: PMC5722204 DOI: 10.1242/jcs.203208] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/27/2017] [Accepted: 08/16/2017] [Indexed: 12/26/2022] Open
Abstract
Cell wall-modifying enzymes have been previously investigated in charophyte green algae (CGA) in cultures of uniform age, giving limited insight into their roles. Therefore, we investigated the in situ localisation and specificity of enzymes acting on hemicelluloses in CGA genera of different morphologies and developmental stages. In vivo transglycosylation between xyloglucan and an endogenous donor in filamentous Klebsormidium and Zygnema was observed in longitudinal cell walls of young (1 month) but not old cells (1 year), suggesting that it has a role in cell growth. By contrast, in parenchymatous Chara, transglycanase action occurred in all cell planes. In Klebsormidium and Zygnema, the location of enzyme action mainly occurred in regions where xyloglucans and mannans, and to a lesser extent mixed-linkage β-glucan (MLG), were present, indicating predominantly xyloglucan:xyloglucan endotransglucosylase (XET) activity. Novel transglycosylation activities between xyloglucan and xylan, and xyloglucan and galactomannan were identified in vitro in both genera. Our results show that several cell wall-modifying enzymes are present in CGA, and that differences in morphology and cell age are related to enzyme localisation and specificity. This indicates an evolutionary significance of cell wall modifications, as similar changes are known in their immediate descendants, the land plants. This article has an associated First Person interview with the first author of the paper.
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Affiliation(s)
- Klaus Herburger
- Department of Botany, Functional Plant Biology, University of Innsbruck, Sternwartestraße 16, 6020 Innsbruck, Austria
| | - Louise M Ryan
- Botany and Plant Science and Ryan Institute for Environmental, Marine, and Energy Research, School of Natural Sciences, National University of Ireland, Galway, University Road, H91 TK33 Galway, Ireland
| | - Zoë A Popper
- Botany and Plant Science and Ryan Institute for Environmental, Marine, and Energy Research, School of Natural Sciences, National University of Ireland, Galway, University Road, H91 TK33 Galway, Ireland
| | - Andreas Holzinger
- Department of Botany, Functional Plant Biology, University of Innsbruck, Sternwartestraße 16, 6020 Innsbruck, Austria
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Barnes WJ, Anderson CT. Release, Recycle, Rebuild: Cell-Wall Remodeling, Autodegradation, and Sugar Salvage for New Wall Biosynthesis during Plant Development. MOLECULAR PLANT 2018; 11:31-46. [PMID: 28859907 DOI: 10.1016/j.molp.2017.08.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 64] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/28/2017] [Revised: 08/16/2017] [Accepted: 08/21/2017] [Indexed: 05/20/2023]
Abstract
Plant cell walls contain elaborate polysaccharide networks and regulate plant growth, development, mechanics, cell-cell communication and adhesion, and defense. Despite conferring rigidity to support plant structures, the cell wall is a dynamic extracellular matrix that is modified, reorganized, and degraded to tightly control its properties during growth and development. Far from being a terminal carbon sink, many wall polymers can be degraded and recycled by plant cells, either via direct re-incorporation by transglycosylation or via internalization and metabolic salvage of wall-derived sugars to produce new precursors for wall synthesis. However, the physiological and metabolic contributions of wall recycling to plant growth and development are largely undefined. In this review, we discuss long-standing and recent evidence supporting the occurrence of cell-wall recycling in plants, make predictions regarding the developmental processes to which wall recycling might contribute, and identify outstanding questions and emerging experimental tools that might be used to address these questions and enhance our understanding of this poorly characterized aspect of wall dynamics and metabolism.
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Affiliation(s)
- William J Barnes
- Department of Biology, The Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA 16802, USA; Center for Lignocellulose Structure and Formation, The Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA 16802, USA
| | - Charles T Anderson
- Department of Biology, The Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA 16802, USA; Center for Lignocellulose Structure and Formation, The Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA 16802, USA.
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48
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Cosgrove DJ. Diffuse Growth of Plant Cell Walls. PLANT PHYSIOLOGY 2018; 176:16-27. [PMID: 29138349 PMCID: PMC5761826 DOI: 10.1104/pp.17.01541] [Citation(s) in RCA: 200] [Impact Index Per Article: 33.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/25/2017] [Accepted: 11/13/2017] [Indexed: 05/04/2023]
Abstract
Structural and functional roles of cellulose, xyloglucan, and pectins in cell wall enlargement are reappraised with insights from mechanics, atomic force microscopy, and other methods.
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Affiliation(s)
- Daniel J Cosgrove
- Department of Biology, Penn State University, University Park, Pennsylvania 16802
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49
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Kuki H, Higaki T, Yokoyama R, Kuroha T, Shinohara N, Hasezawa S, Nishitani K. Quantitative confocal imaging method for analyzing cellulose dynamics during cell wall regeneration in Arabidopsis mesophyll protoplasts. PLANT DIRECT 2017; 1:e00021. [PMID: 31245675 PMCID: PMC6508514 DOI: 10.1002/pld3.21] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/08/2017] [Revised: 09/06/2017] [Accepted: 09/22/2017] [Indexed: 05/24/2023]
Abstract
The network structure of cellulose fibrils provides mechanical properties to the primary cell wall, thereby determining the shapes and growth patterns of plant cells. Despite intensive studies, the construction process of the network structure in muro remains largely unknown, mainly due to the lack of a robust, straightforward technique to evaluate network configuration. Here, we developed a quantitative confocal imaging method for general use in the study of cell wall dynamics in protoplasts derived from Arabidopsis leaf mesophyll cells. Confocal imaging of regenerating cell walls in protoplasts stained with Calcofluor allowed us to visualize the cellulose network, comprising strings of bundled cellulosic fibrils. Using image analysis techniques, we measured several metrics including total length, which is a measure of the spread of the cellulose network. The total length increased during cell wall regeneration. In a proof-of-concept experiment using microtubule-modifying agents, oryzalin, an inhibitor of microtubule polymerization, inhibited the increase in total length and caused abnormal orientation of the network, as shown by the decrease in the average angle of the cellulose with respect to the cell long axis. Taxol, a microtubule stabilizer, stimulated the bundling of cellulose fibrils, as shown by the increase in skewness in the fluorescence intensity distribution of Calcofluor, and inhibited the increase in total length. These results demonstrate the validity of this method for quantitative imaging of the cellulose network, providing an opportunity to gain insight into the dynamic aspects of cell wall regeneration.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hiroaki Kuki
- Graduate School of Life SciencesTohoku UniversitySendaiJapan
| | - Takumi Higaki
- International Research Organization for Advanced Science and TechnologyKumamoto UniversityKumamotoJapan
| | | | - Takeshi Kuroha
- Graduate School of Life SciencesTohoku UniversitySendaiJapan
| | - Naoki Shinohara
- Graduate School of Life SciencesTohoku UniversitySendaiJapan
| | - Seiichiro Hasezawa
- Department of Integrated BiosciencesGraduate School of Frontier SciencesThe University of TokyoKashiwanoha KashiwaChibaJapan
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Guedes FTP, Laurans F, Quemener B, Assor C, Lainé-Prade V, Boizot N, Vigouroux J, Lesage-Descauses MC, Leplé JC, Déjardin A, Pilate G. Non-cellulosic polysaccharide distribution during G-layer formation in poplar tension wood fibers: abundance of rhamnogalacturonan I and arabinogalactan proteins but no evidence of xyloglucan. PLANTA 2017; 246:857-878. [PMID: 28699115 DOI: 10.1007/s00425-017-2737-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/18/2017] [Accepted: 07/05/2017] [Indexed: 05/07/2023]
Abstract
RG-I and AGP, but not XG, are associated to the building of the peculiar mechanical properties of tension wood. Hardwood trees produce tension wood (TW) with specific mechanical properties to cope with environmental cues. Poplar TW fibers have an additional cell wall layer, the G-layer responsible for TW mechanical properties. We investigated, in two poplar hybrid species, the molecules potentially involved in the building of TW mechanical properties. First, we evaluated the distribution of the different classes of non-cellulosic polysaccharides during xylem fiber differentiation, using immunolocalization. In parallel, G-layers were isolated and their polysaccharide composition determined. These complementary approaches provided information on the occurrence of non-cellulosic polysaccharides during G-fiber differentiation. We found no evidence of the presence of xyloglucan (XG) in poplar G-layers, whereas arabinogalactan proteins (AGP) and rhamnogalacturonan type I pectins (RG-I) were abundant, with an apparent progressive loss of RG-I side chains during G-layer maturation. Similarly, the intensity of immunolabeling signals specific for glucomannans and glucuronoxylans varies during G-layer maturation. RG-I and AGP are best candidate matrix components to be responsible for TW mechanical properties.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | - Carole Assor
- BIA, INRA, 44316, Nantes, France
- IATE, INRA, 34060, Montpellier, France
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