Metabolic profiling of an alcoholic fatty liver in zebrafish (Danio rerio)

Multiomics analysis reveal the impact of 17α-Ethinylestradiol on mortality in juvenile zebrafish

17α-Ethinylestradiol (EE2) is known for its endocrine-disrupting effects on embryonic and adult fish. However, its impact on juvenile zebrafish has not been well established. In this study, juvenile zebrafish were exposed to EE2 at concentrations of 5 ng/L (low dose, L), 10 ng/L (medium dose, M), and 50 ng/L (high dose, H) from 21 days post-fertilization (dpf) to 49 dpf. We assessed their growth, development, behavior, transcriptome, and metabolome. The findings showed that the survival rate in the EE2-H group was 66.8 %, with all surviving fish displaying stunted growth and swollen, transparent abdomens by 49 dpf. Moreover, severe organ deformities were observed in the gills, kidneys, intestines, and heart of fish in both the EE2-H and EE2-M groups. Co-expression analysis of mRNA and lncRNA revealed that EE2 downregulated the transcription of key genes involved in the cell cycle, DNA replication, and Fanconi anemia signaling pathways. Additionally, metabolomic analysis indicated that EE2 influenced metabolism and development-related signaling pathways. These pathways were also significantly identified based on the genes regulated by lncRNA. Consequently, EE2 induced organ deformities and mortality in juvenile zebrafish by disrupting signaling pathways associated with development and metabolism. The results of this study offer new mechanistic insights into the adverse effects of EE2 on juvenile zebrafish based on multiomics analysis. The juvenile zebrafish are highly sensitive to EE2 exposure, which is not limited to adult and embryonic stages. It is a potential model for studying developmental toxicity.

Ethyl glucuronide and ethyl sulfate in the zebrafish after ethanol exposure

Ethanol exposure during pregnancy is an important problem and is the cause of fetal alcohol syndrome (FAS) and fetal alcohol spectrum disorder (FASD). The etiology of FAS and FASD can be elucidated using animal models. Recently, a novel model, the zebrafish (Danio rerio), has garnered the interest of researchers. This study confirmed the negative influence of ethyl alcohol (0.5 %, 1.5 %, and 2.5 % v/v) on the development of zebrafish embryos. The observed malformations included pericardial and yolk sac edema, increased body curvature, tail edema, and a decreased embryo hatching rate. The differences in body length, body width, and heart rate were statistically significant. Due to the similarities in the quantity and function of ethanol biotransformation enzymes between zebrafish and mammals, this study investigated the nonoxidative metabolites of ethanol - ethyl glucuronide (EtG) and ethyl sulfate (EtS) - in zebrafish following ethanol exposure. This research confirmed that EtG and EtS concentrations can be measured in zebrafish embryos, and the levels of these metabolites appear to be associated with the ethyl alcohol concentration in the medium.

Inhibitory Effects of Jiuzao Polysaccharides on Alcoholic Fatty Liver Formation in Zebrafish Larvae and Their Regulatory Impact on Intestinal Microbiota

The liver is critical in alcohol metabolism, and excessive consumption heightens the risk of hepatic damage, potentially escalating to hepatitis and cirrhosis. Jiuzao, a by-product of Baijiu production, contains a rich concentration of naturally active polysaccharides known for their antioxidative properties. This study investigated the influence of Laowuzeng Jiuzao polysaccharide (LJP) on the development of ethanol-induced alcoholic fatty liver. Zebrafish larvae served as the model organisms for examining the LJPs hepatic impact via liver phenotypic and biochemical assays. Additionally, this study evaluated the LJPs effects on gene expression associated with alcoholic fatty liver and the composition of the intestinal microbiota through transcriptomic and 16 S rRNA gene sequencing analyses, respectively. Our findings revealed that LJP markedly mitigated morphological liver damage and reduced oxidative stress and lipid peroxidation in larvae. Transcriptome data indicated that LJP ameliorated hepatic fat accumulation and liver injury by enhancing gene expression involved in alcohol and lipid metabolism. Furthermore, LJP modulated the development of alcoholic fatty liver by altering the prevalence of intestinal Actinobacteriota and Firmicutes, specifically augmenting Acinetobacter while diminishing Chryseobacterium levels. Ultimately, LJP mitigated alcohol-induced hepatic injury by modulating gene expression related to ethanol metabolism, lipid metabolism, and inflammation and by orchestrating alterations in the intestinal microbiota.

Zebrafish as a Useful Model System for Human Liver Disease

Liver diseases represent a significant global health challenge, thereby necessitating extensive research to understand their intricate complexities and to develop effective treatments. In this context, zebrafish (Danio rerio) have emerged as a valuable model organism for studying various aspects of liver disease. The zebrafish liver has striking similarities to the human liver in terms of structure, function, and regenerative capacity. Researchers have successfully induced liver damage in zebrafish using chemical toxins, genetic manipulation, and other methods, thereby allowing the study of disease mechanisms and the progression of liver disease. Zebrafish embryos or larvae, with their transparency and rapid development, provide a unique opportunity for high-throughput drug screening and the identification of potential therapeutics. This review highlights how research on zebrafish has provided valuable insights into the pathological mechanisms of human liver disease.

NMR-based metabolomics applied to ecotoxicology with zebrafish (Danio rerio) as a prominent model for metabolic profiling and biomarker discovery: Overviewing the most recent approaches

Metabolomics is an innovative approach used in the medical, toxicological, and biological sciences. As an interdisciplinary topic, metabolomics and its relation with the environment and toxicological research are extensive. The use of substances, such as drugs and pesticides, contributes to the continuous releasing of xenobiotics into the environment, harming organisms and their habitats. In this context, fish are important bioindicators of the environmental condition and have often been used as model species. Among them, zebrafish (Danio rerio) presents itself as a versatile and straightforward option due to its unique attributes for research. Zebrafish proves to be a valuable model for toxicity assays and also for metabolomics profiling by analytical tools. Thus, NMR-based metabolomics associated with statistical analysis can reasonably assist researchers in critical factors related to discovering and validating biomarkers through accurate diagnosis. Therefore, this review aimed to report the studies that applied zebrafish as a model for (eco)toxicological assays and essentially utilized NMR-based metabolomics analysis to assess the biochemical profile and thus suggest the potential biological marker.

Use of Zebrafish as a Model Organism to Study Oxidative Stress: A Review

Dioxygen is an integral part of every living organism, but its concentration varies from organ to organ. Production of metabolites from dioxygen may result in oxidative stress. Since oxidative stress has the potential to damage various biomolecules in the cell, therefore, it has presently become an active field of research. Oxidative stress has been studied in a wide range of model organisms from vertebrates to invertebrates, from rodents to piscine organisms, and from in vivo to in vitro models. But zebrafish (adults, larvae, or embryonic stage) emerged out to be the most promising vertebrate model organism to study oxidative stress because of its vast advantages (transparent embryo, cost-effectiveness, similarity to human genome, easy developmental processes, numerous offspring per spawning, and many more). This is evidenced by voluminous number of researches on oxidative stress in zebrafish exposed to chemicals, radiations, nanoparticles, pesticides, heavy metals, etc. On these backgrounds, this review attempts to highlight the potentiality of zebrafish as model of oxidative stress compared with other companion models. Several areas, from biomedical to environmental research, have been covered to explain it as a more convenient and reliable animal model for experimental research on oxidative mechanisms.

Effect of intravenous ghrelin administration, combined with alcohol, on circulating metabolome in heavy drinking individuals with alcohol use disorder

BACKGROUND

Ghrelin may influence several alcohol-related behaviors in animals and humans by modulating central and/or peripheral biological pathways. The aim of this exploratory analysis was to investigate associations between ghrelin administration and the human circulating metabolome during alcohol exposure in nontreatment seeking, heavy drinking individuals with alcohol use disorder (AUD).

METHODS

We used serum samples from a randomized, crossover, double-blind, placebo-controlled human laboratory study with intravenous (IV) ghrelin or placebo infusion in two experiments. During each session, participants received a loading dose (3 µg/kg) followed by continuous infusion (16.9 ng/kg/min) of acyl ghrelin or placebo. The first experiment included an IV alcohol self-administration (IV-ASA) session and the second experiment included an IV alcohol clamp (IV-AC) session, both with the counterbalanced infusion of ghrelin or placebo. Serum metabolite profiles were analyzed from repeated blood samples collected during each session.

RESULTS

In both experiments, ghrelin infusion was associated with an altered serum metabolite profile, including significantly increased levels of cortisol (IV-ASA q-value = 0.0003 and IV-AC q < 0.0001), corticosterone (IV-ASA q = 0.0202 and IV-AC q < 0.0001), and glycochenodeoxycholic acid (IV-ASA q = 0.0375 and IV-AC q = 0.0013). In the IV-ASA experiment, ghrelin infusion increased levels of cortisone (q = 0.0352) and fatty acids 18:1 (q = 0.0406) and 18:3 (q = 0.0320). Moreover, in the IV-AC experiment, ghrelin infusion significantly increased levels of glycocholic acid (q < 0.0001) and phenylalanine (q = 0.0458).

CONCLUSION

IV ghrelin infusion, combined with IV alcohol administration, was associated with increases in the circulating metabolite levels of corticosteroids and glycine-conjugated bile acids, among other changes. Further research is needed to understand the role that metabolomic changes play in the complex interaction between ghrelin and alcohol.

Comprehensive lipidomics reveals phenotypic differences in hepatic lipid turnover in ALD and NAFLD during alcohol intoxication

Background & Aims

In experimental models, alcohol induces acute changes in lipid metabolism that cause hepatocyte lipoapoptosis and inflammation. Here we study human hepatic lipid turnover during controlled alcohol intoxication.

Methods

We studied 39 participants with 3 distinct hepatic phenotypes: alcohol-related liver disease (ALD), non-alcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD), and healthy controls. Alcohol was administrated via nasogastric tube over 30 min. Hepatic and systemic venous blood was sampled simultaneously at 3 time points: baseline, 60, and 180 min after alcohol intervention. Liver biopsies were sampled 240 min after alcohol intervention. We used ultra-high performance liquid chromatography mass spectrometry to measure levels of more than 250 lipid species from the blood and liver samples.

Results

After alcohol intervention, the levels of blood free fatty acid (FFA) and lysophosphatidylcholine (LPC) decreased, while triglyceride (TG) increased. FFA was the only lipid class to decrease in NAFLD after alcohol intervention, whereas LPC and FFA decreased and TG increased after intervention in ALD and healthy controls. Fatty acid chain uptake preference in FFAs and LPCs were oleic acid, linoleic acid, arachidonic acid, and docosahexaenoic acid. Hepatic venous blood FFA and LPC levels were lower when compared with systemic venous blood levels throughout the intervention. After alcohol intoxication, liver lipidome in ALD was similar to that in NAFLD.

Conclusions

Alcohol intoxication induces rapid changes in circulating lipids including hepatic turnaround from FFA and LPC, potentially leading to lipoapoptosis and steatohepatitis. TG clearance was suppressed in NAFLD, possibly explaining why alcohol and NAFLD are synergistic risk factors for disease progression. These effects may be central to the pathogenesis of ALD.

Clinical Trials Registration

The study is registered at Clinicaltrials.gov (NCT03018990).

Lay summary

We report that alcohol induces hepatic extraction of free unsaturated fatty acids and lysophosphatidylcholines, hepatotoxic lipids which have not been previously associated with alcohol-induced liver injury. We also found that individuals with non-alcoholic fatty liver disease have reduced lipid turnover during alcohol intoxication when compared with people with alcohol-related fatty liver disease. This may explain why alcohol is particularly more harmful in people with non-alcoholic fatty liver and why elevated BMI and alcohol have a synergistic effect on the risk of liver-related death.

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Alcohol intoxication induces rapid changes in the profile of circulating lipids.

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Alcohol has a profound effect on monosaturated fatty acids.

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Triglyceride clearance is suppressed in NAFLD during alcohol intoxication.

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Hepatic lipid turnover differentiates ALD and NAFLD during alcohol intoxication.

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A suppressed metabolic response may explain why alcohol is particularly harmful in NAFLD.

Evaluation of metabolomics behavior of human colon cancer HT29 cell lines treated with ionic liquid graviola fruit pulp extract

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Medicinal plants have been used by indigenous people across the world for centuries to help individuals preserve their wellbeing and cure diseases. Annona muricata L. (Graviola) which is belonging to the Annonaceae family has been traditionally used due to its medicinal abilities including antimicrobial, anti-inflammatory, antioxidant and cancer cell growth inhibition. Graviola is claimed to be a potential antitumor due to its selective cytotoxicity against several cancer cell lines. However, the metabolic mechanism information underlying the anticancer activity remains limited.

AIM OF THE STUDY

This study aimed to investigate the effect of ionic liquid-Graviola fruit pulp extract (IL-GPE) on the metabolomics behavior of colon cancer (HT29) by using an untargeted GC-TOFMS-based metabolic profiling.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Multivariate data analysis was used to determine the metabolic profiling, and the ingenuity pathway analysis (IPA) was used to predict the altered canonical pathways after treating the HT29 cells with crude IL-GPE and Taxol (positive control).

RESULTS

The principal components analysis (PCA) identified 44 metabolites with the most reliable factor loading, and the cluster analysis (CA) separated three groups of metabolites: metabolites specific to the non-treated HT29 cells, metabolites specific to the treated HT29 cells with the crude IL-GPE and metabolites specific to Taxol treatment. Pathway analysis of metabolomic profiles revealed an alteration of many metabolic pathways, including amino acid metabolism, aerobic glycolysis, urea cycle and ketone bodies metabolism that contribute to energy metabolism and cancer cell proliferation.

CONCLUSION

The crude IL-GPE can be one of the promising anticancer agents due to its selective inhibition of energy metabolism and cancer cell proliferation.

Chronic exposure to ethanol alters the expression of miR-155, miR-122 and miR-217 in alcoholic liver disease in an adult zebrafish model

AIM

The aim of this study was to evaluate the hepatic and circulating expression of miR-155, miR-122 and miR-217 in a model of chronic exposure to ethanol in adult zebrafish.

METHODS

Wild-type adult zebrafish were divided into two groups (n = 281): an EG (exposed to 0.5% v/v Ethanol in aquarium water) and a CG (without ethanol). After 28 days the animals were euthanized, followed by histopathological analysis, quantification of lipids, triglycerides and inflammatory cytokines in liver tissue. miR-155, miR-122 and miR-217 gene expression was quantified in liver tissue and serum.

RESULTS

We observed hepatic lesions and increased accumulation of hepatic lipids in the EG. The expression of il-1β was higher in the EG, but there were no differences in il-10 and tnf-α between groups. In the liver, expression of miR-122 and miR-155 was higher in the EG. The circulating expression of miR-155 and miR-217 was significantly higher in the EG.

CONCLUSION

Chronic exposure to ethanol in zebrafish leads to altered hepatic and circulating expression of miR-155, miR-122 and miR-217. This confirms its potential as a biomarker and therapeutic target.

Alcohol effects on hepatic lipid metabolism

Alcoholic liver disease (ALD) is the most prevalent type of chronic liver disease with significant morbidity and mortality worldwide. ALD begins with simple hepatic steatosis and progresses to alcoholic steatohepatitis, fibrosis, and cirrhosis. The severity of hepatic steatosis is highly associated with the development of later stages of ALD. This review explores the disturbances of alcohol-induced hepatic lipid metabolism through altered hepatic lipid uptake, de novo lipid synthesis, fatty acid oxidation, hepatic lipid export, and lipid droplet formation and catabolism. In addition, we review emerging data on the contributions of genetics and bioactive lipid metabolism in alcohol-induced hepatic lipid accumulation.

Glutathione deficiency-elicited reprogramming of hepatic metabolism protects against alcohol-induced steatosis

Depletion of glutathione (GSH) is considered a critical pathogenic event promoting alcohol-induced lipotoxicity. We recently show that systemic GSH deficiency in mice harboring a global disruption of the glutamate-cysteine ligase modifier subunit (Gclm) gene confers protection against alcohol-induced steatosis. While several molecular pathways have been linked to the observed hepatic protection, including nuclear factor erythroid 2-related factor 2 and AMP-activated protein kinase pathways, the precise mechanisms are yet to be defined. In this study, to gain insights into the molecular mechanisms underpinning the protective effects of loss of GCLM, global profiling of hepatic polar metabolites combined with liver microarray analysis was carried out. These inter-omics analyses revealed both low GSH- and alcohol-driven changes in multiple cellular pathways involving the metabolism of amino acids, fatty acid, glucose and nucleic acids. Notably, several metabolic changes were uniquely present in alcohol-treated Gclm-null mouse livers, including acetyl-CoA enrichment and diversion of acetyl-CoA flux from lipogenesis to alterative metabolic pathways, elevation in glutamate concentration, and induction of the glucuronate pathway and nucleotide biosynthesis. These metabolic features reflect low GSH-elicited cellular response to chronic alcohol exposure, which is beneficial for the maintenance of hepatic redox and metabolic homeostasis. The current study indicates that fine-tuning of hepatic GSH pool may evoke metabolic reprogramming to cope with alcohol-induced cellular stress.

Evaluation and optimization of sample pretreatment for GC/MS-based metabolomics in embryonic zebrafish

Metabolomics tactics have been applied in the research associated with embryonic zebrafish. However, the report regarding the evaluation of impacts of sample pretreatment on metabolomics results from zebrafish embryos is limited. In the present study, different data normalization approaches, extraction solvents, and extraction strategies for off-line derivatization gas chromatography coupled with mass spectrometry-based metabolomics analysis of zebrafish eleutheroembryos were evaluated and optimized. The results showed that, when 4-chlorophenylalanine normalization, sample homogenization and pure methanol combined with ultrasonic extraction were conducted, better repeatabilities, higher signals and broader coverages of detected metabolites can be achieved. The recovery and standard deviation of most standards were in the range of 82%-121% and 6.6%-12%, respectively, while the relative standard deviation of major detected metabolites ranged from 5.4% to 19%, indicating good extraction efficiencies and method precision. Under the developed method, 87 important endogenous metabolites such as citric acid and hypoxanthine were identified by universal databases or standards among 270 extracted metabolites, which consisted of sugars, amines, amino acids, nucleotides, fatty acids, and sterols. Therefore, the results could provide a proper pretreatment protocol for the analysis of wide-coverage metabolome in embryonic zebrafish. In addition, this study highlights the impact of normalization and extraction methods on the data quality of metabolomics analysis.

Low dose of chronic ethanol exposure in adult zebrafish induces hepatic steatosis and injury

Chronic alcohol consumption is a major cause of chronic liver disease worldwide. Adult zebrafish have emerged as a new vertebrate model of alcoholic liver disease. In previous research, a high dose of chronic ethanol treatment induced characteristic features of steatosis and hepatic injury in adult zebrafish, yet the ethanol concentration in that study was significantly higher than the lethal dose in humans. In the current study, we examined whether a low dose of chronic ethanol exposure in adult zebrafish induced the metabolic and pathological features seen in alcoholic liver disease. We found that chronic ethanol treatment at 0.2% ethanol (v/v) concentration for 4 weeks induced a significant elevation of serum glucose and triacylglycerol in adult zebrafish. In addition, serum alanine aminotransferase activity was significantly elevated after ethanol treatment. Histological analysis revealed steatosis and hepatocyte ballooning phenotype. Gene expression analysis using quantitative real-time PCR suggested that ethanol treatment induced inflammation, apoptosis, and fibrosis. In addition, we found significant increases in gene expression involved in glucose and lipid metabolism as well as mitochondrial biogenesis and function. Importantly, expression of genes involved in oxidative and endoplasmic reticulum stress, two major stress signaling pathways underlying hepatic injury in alcoholic liver disease, were highly upregulated in the livers of adult zebrafish after chronic ethanol treatment. In conclusion, we found that 4 weeks of low dose ethanol exposure leads to typical ethanol-induced liver disease, with pathological and gene expression patterns.

The Hepatic Lipidome: A Gateway to Understanding the Pathogenes is of Alcohol-Induced Fatty Liver

Chronic alcohol consumption can lead to the development of alcoholic fatty liver disease. The underlying pathogenic mechanisms however, have not been fully elucidated. Here, we review the current state of the art regarding the application of lipidomics to study alcohol's effect on hepatic lipids. It is clear that alcohol has a profound effect on the hepatic lipidome, with documented changes in the major lipid categories (i.e. fatty acyls, glycerolipids, glycerophospholipids, sphingolipids, sterol lipids and prenol lipids). Alcohol's most striking effect is the marked change in the hepatic fatty acyl pool. This effect includes increased levels of 18-carbon fatty acyl chains incorporated into multiple lipid species, as well as a general shift toward increased unsaturation of fatty acyl moieties. In addition to our literature review, we also make several recommendations to consider when designing lipidomic studies into alcohol's effects. These recommendations include integration of lipidomic data with other measures of lipid metabolism, inclusion of multiple experimental time points, and presentation of quantitative data. We believe rigorous analysis of the hepatic lipidome can yield new insight into the pathogenesis of alcohol-induced fatty liver. While the existing literature has been largely descriptive, the field is poised to apply lipidomics to yield a new level of understanding on alcohol's effects on hepatic lipid metabolism.

A Unifying Hypothesis Linking Hepatic Adaptations for Ethanol Metabolism to the Proinflammatory and Profibrotic Events of Alcoholic Liver Disease

The pathogenesis of alcoholic liver disease (ALD) remains poorly understood but is likely a multihit pathophysiological process. Here, we propose a hypothesis of how early mitochondrial adaptations for alcohol metabolism lead to ALD pathogenesis. Acutely, ethanol (EtOH) feeding causes a near doubling of hepatic EtOH metabolism and oxygen consumption within 2 to 3 hours. This swift increase in alcohol metabolism (SIAM) is an adaptive response to hasten metabolic elimination of both EtOH and its more toxic metabolite, acetaldehyde (AcAld). In association with SIAM, EtOH causes widespread hepatic mitochondrial depolarization (mtDepo), which stimulates oxygen consumption. In parallel, voltage-dependent anion channels (VDAC) in the mitochondrial outer membrane close. Together, VDAC closure and respiratory stimulation promote selective and more rapid oxidation of EtOH first to AcAld in the cytosol and then to nontoxic acetate in mitochondria, since membrane-permeant AcAld does not require VDAC to enter mitochondria. VDAC closure also inhibits mitochondrial fatty acid oxidation and ATP release, promoting steatosis and a decrease in cytosolic ATP. After acute EtOH, these changes revert as EtOH is eliminated with little hepatocellular cytolethality. mtDepo also stimulates mitochondrial autophagy (mitophagy). After chronic high EtOH exposure, the capacity to process depolarized mitochondria by mitophagy becomes compromised, leading to intra- and extracellular release of damaged mitochondria, mitophagosomes, and/or autolysosomes containing mitochondrial damage-associated molecular pattern (mtDAMP) molecules. mtDAMPs cause inflammasome activation and promote inflammatory and profibrogenic responses, causing hepatitis and fibrosis. We propose that persistence of mitochondrial responses to EtOH metabolism becomes a tipping point, which links initial adaptive EtOH metabolism to maladaptive changes initiating onset and progression of ALD.

Imazalil exposure induces gut microbiota dysbiosis and hepatic metabolism disorder in zebrafish

The fungicide imazalil (IMZ) is used extensively to preserve freshness, prevent decay and control fungal infections in fruits, vegetables or other plants. Recently, some studies have reported that the real in aquatic systems have reached very high levels. Here, male adult zebrafish were exposed to 100 and 1000μg/L IMZ for 1, 7, 21days, and the gut microbiota and hepatic metabolism were evaluated. Exposure to a high concentration of IMZ for 21days decreased mucin secretion in the gut. Sequencing of the V3-V4 region of the bacterial 16S rRNA gene revealed a significant increase in the diversity of gut microbiota in male zebrafish. At the phylum level, the composition of Proteobacteria and Bacteroidetes was decreased, while those Fusobacteria and Firmicutes increased in the gut after exposure to 1000μg/L IMZ for 21days. At the genus level, 29 species of microorganisms were significantly changed after IMZ exposure. Based on GC/MS metabolomics analysis, 101 metabolites were observably significantly altered in the 1000μg/L IMZ-treatment group. These changed metabolites were mainly associated with the pathway of glycolysis, amino acid metabolism, and lipid metabolism. In addition, the transcription of some genes related to glycolysis and lipid metabolism, including Aco, Cpt1, Acc1, Srebp1a and Fas, was decreased significantly in the liver of zebrafish when exposed to 100 and 1000μg/L IMZ for 7 or 21days. These results indicated that exposure to IMZ could cause gut microbiota dysbiosis and metabolic disorders in adult zebrafish.

Current knowledge of metabolomic approach in infectious fish disease studies

The approaches of transcriptomic and proteomic have been widely used to study host-pathogen interactions in fish diseases, and this is comparable to the recently emerging application of metabolomic in elucidating disease-resistant mechanisms in fish that gives new insight into potential therapeutic strategies to improve fish health. Metabolomic is defined as the large-scale study of all metabolites within an organism and represents the frontline in the 'omics' approaches, providing direct information on the metabolic responses and perturbations in metabolic pathways. In this review, the current research in infectious fish diseases using metabolomic approach will be summarized. The metabolomic approach in economically important fish infected with viruses, bacteria and nematodes will also be discussed. The potential of the metabolomic approach for management of these infectious diseases as well as the challenges and the limitations of metabolomic in fish disease studies will be explored. Current review highlights the impacts of metabolomic studies in infectious fish diseases, which proposed the potential of new therapeutic strategies to enhance disease resistance in fish.

Zebrafish Pancreas Development and Regeneration: Fishing for Diabetes Therapies

The zebrafish pancreas shares its basic organization and cell types with the mammalian pancreas. In addition, the developmental pathways that lead to the establishment of the pancreatic islets of Langherhans are generally conserved from fish to mammals. Zebrafish provides a powerful tool to probe the mechanisms controlling establishment of the pancreatic endocrine cell types from early embryonic progenitor cells, as well as the regeneration of endocrine cells after damage. This knowledge is, in turn, applicable to refining protocols to generate renewable sources of human pancreatic islet cells that are critical for regulation of blood sugar levels. Here, we review how previous and ongoing studies in zebrafish and beyond are influencing the understanding of molecular mechanisms underlying various forms of diabetes and efforts to develop cell-based approaches to cure this increasingly widespread disease.

NMR-based metabolomics reveals compartmental metabolic heterogeneity in liver of Arctic char (Salvelinus alpinus)

Metabolomics involves systematic study of low-molecular-mass metabolites in cells, tissues, or biofluids and is nowadays widely applied to characterize the physiological status of aquatic organisms under a set of conditions, such as disease and toxin exposure. Liver, an important metabolic center in the fish body, is often used for metabolomics analysis. Compared with the whole fish liver, the proportion of liver sample needed for metabolomics analysis is relatively small. The homogeneity of metabolites in liver is thus an important issue, especially for comparative studies and biomarker discovery. This study examined the homogeneity of the metabolic profile in liver of Arctic char (Salvelinus alpinus (L., 1758)) using a NMR-based metabolomics approach. For the analysis, whole liver samples were cut into four parts along the direction of gall bladder and at right angles to this, and metabolites in each part of the liver were extracted and analyzed by multivariate and univariate data analyses. Although the multivariate model was not significant due to variation within the data, the metabolic differences in polar portion of liver extract between the parts were seen, indicating non-homogeneity of Arctic char liver. Therefore, when sampling fish liver for further metabolomics studies, this heterogeneity should be taken into consideration.

Inhibition of vascular endothelial growth factor signaling facilitates liver repair from acute ethanol-induced injury in zebrafish

Alcoholic liver disease (ALD) results from alcohol overconsumption and is among the leading causes of liver-related morbidity and mortality worldwide. Elevated expression of vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) and its receptors has been observed in ALD, but how it contributes to ALD pathophysiology is unclear. Here, we investigated the impact of VEGF signaling inhibition on an established zebrafish model of acute alcoholic liver injury. Kdrl activity was blocked by chemical inhibitor treatment or by genetic mutation. Exposing 4-day-old zebrafish larvae to 2% ethanol for 24 h induced hepatic steatosis, angiogenesis and fibrogenesis. The liver started self-repair once ethanol was removed. Although inhibiting Kdrl did not block the initial activation of hepatic stellate cells during ethanol treatment, it suppressed their proliferation, extracellular matrix protein deposition and fibrogenic gene expression after ethanol exposure, thus enhancing the liver repair. It also ameliorated hepatic steatosis and attenuated hepatic angiogenesis that accelerated after the ethanol treatment. qPCR showed that hepatic stellate cells are the first liver cell type to increase the expression of VEGF ligand and receptor genes in response to ethanol exposure. Both hepatic stellate cells and endothelial cells, but not hepatic parenchymal cells, expressed kdrl upon ethanol exposure and were likely the direct targets of Kdrl inhibition. Ethanol-induced steatosis and fibrogenesis still occurred in cloche mutants that have hepatic stellate cells but lack hepatic endothelial cells, and Kdrl inhibition suppressed both phenotypes in the mutants. These results suggest that VEGF signaling mediates interactions between activated hepatic stellate cells and hepatocytes that lead to steatosis. Our study demonstrates the involvement of VEGF signaling in regulating sustained liver injuries after acute alcohol exposure. It also provides a proof of principle of using the zebrafish model to identify molecular targets for developing ALD therapies.

Development of an Ethanol-induced Fibrotic Liver Model in Zebrafish to Study Progenitor Cell-mediated Hepatocyte Regeneration

Sustained liver fibrosis with continuation of extracellular matrix (ECM) protein build-up results in the loss of cellular competency of the liver, leading to cirrhosis with hepatocellular dysfunction. Among multiple hepatic insults, alcohol abuse can lead to significant health problems including liver failure and hepatocellular carcinoma. Nonetheless, the identity of endogenous cellular sources that regenerate hepatocytes in response to alcohol has not been properly investigated. Moreover, few studies have effectively modeled hepatocyte regeneration upon alcohol-induced injury. We recently reported on establishing an ethanol (EtOH)-induced fibrotic liver model in zebrafish in which hepatic progenitor cells (HPCs) gave rise to hepatocytes upon near-complete hepatocyte loss in the presence of fibrogenic stimulus. Furthermore, through chemical screens using this model, we identified multiple small molecules that enhance hepatocyte regeneration. Here we describe in detail the procedures to develop an EtOH-induced fibrotic liver model and to perform chemical screens using this model in zebrafish. This protocol will be a critical tool to delineate the molecular and cellular mechanisms of how hepatocyte regenerates in the fibrotic liver. Furthermore, these methods will facilitate potential discovery of novel therapeutic strategies for chronic liver disease in vivo.

Seapolynol Extracted from Ecklonia cava Inhibits Adipocyte Differentiation in Vitro and Decreases Fat Accumulation in Vivo

Seapolynol (SN) is a polyphenol mixture derived from Ecklonia cava. We evaluated the effects of SN on lipid accumulation in adipocytes, zebrafish, and mice. SN effectively inhibited lipid accumulation in three experimental models by suppressing adipogenic factors. Triglyceride synthetic enzymes such as diacylglycerol acyltransferase 1 (DGAT1) and GPAT3 were also downregulated by SN. This SN-induced inhibition of adipogenic factors was shown to be due to the regulatory effect of SN on early adipogenic factors; SN downregulated the expression of Krueppel-like factor 4 (KLF4), KLF5, CCAAT-enhancer-binding protein β (C/EBPβ), C/EBPδ, and Protein C-ets-2 (ETS2), while KLF2, an anti-early adipogenic factor, was upregulated by SN. SN-mediated inhibition in early adipogenesis was closely correlated with the inhibition of mitotic clonal expansion via cell cycle arrest. SN inhibited cell cycle progression by suppressing cell cycle regulators, such as cyclin A, cyclinD, and pRb but increased p27, a cell cycle inhibitor. In a mouse study, SN effectively reduced body weight and plasma lipid increases induced by a high-fat diet; triglycerides, total cholesterol, and low-density lipoprotein (LDL) levels were markedly reduced by SN. Moreover, SN remarkably improved high-fat-diet-induced hepatic lipid accumulation. Furthermore, SN activated AMP-activated protein kinase-α (AMPKα), an energy sensor, to suppress acetyl-coA carboxylase (ACC), inhibiting lipid synthesis. Our study suggests that SN may be an edible agent that can play a positive role in prevention of metabolic disorders.

Zebrafish: an important tool for liver disease research

As the incidence of hepatobiliary diseases increases, we must improve our understanding of the molecular, cellular, and physiological factors that contribute to the pathogenesis of liver disease. Animal models help us identify disease mechanisms that might be targeted therapeutically. Zebrafish (Danio rerio) have traditionally been used to study embryonic development but are also important to the study of liver disease. Zebrafish embryos develop rapidly; all of their digestive organs are mature in larvae by 5 days of age. At this stage, they can develop hepatobiliary diseases caused by developmental defects or toxin- or ethanol-induced injury and manifest premalignant changes within weeks. Zebrafish are similar to humans in hepatic cellular composition, function, signaling, and response to injury as well as the cellular processes that mediate liver diseases. Genes are highly conserved between humans and zebrafish, making them a useful system to study the basic mechanisms of liver disease. We can perform genetic screens to identify novel genes involved in specific disease processes and chemical screens to identify pathways and compounds that act on specific processes. We review how studies of zebrafish have advanced our understanding of inherited and acquired liver diseases as well as liver cancer and regeneration.

Differential Metabolic Profiles during the Albescent Stages of 'Anji Baicha' (Camellia sinensis)

'Anji Baicha' is an albino tea cultivar with white shoots at low air temperature and green shoots at high air temperature in early spring. The metabolite contents in the shoots dynamically vary with the color changes and with shoot development. To investigate the metabolomic variation during the albescent and re-greening stages, gas chromatography-mass spectrometry combined with multivariate analysis were applied to analyze the metabolite profiles in the different color stages during the development of 'Anji Baicha' leaves. The metabolite profiles of three albescent stages, including the yellow-green stage, the early albescent stage, and the late albescent stage, as well as the re-greening stage were distinguished using principal component analysis, revealing that the distinct developmental stages were likely responsible for the observed metabolic differences. Furthermore, a group classification and pairwise discrimination was revealed among the three albescent stages and re-greening stage by partial least squares discriminant analysis. A total of 65 differential metabolites were identified with a variable influence on projection greater than 1. The main differential metabolic pathways of the albescent stages compared with the re-greening stage included carbon fixation in photosynthetic organisms and the phenylpropanoid and flavonoid biosynthesis pathways. Compared with the re-greening stage, the carbohydrate and amino acid metabolic pathways were disturbed during the albescent stages. During the albescent stages, the sugar (fructofuranose), sugar derivative (glucose-1-phosphate) and epicatechin concentrations decreased, whereas the amino acid (mainly glycine, serine, tryptophan, citrulline, glutamine, proline, and valine) concentrations increased. These results reveal the changes in metabolic profiling that occur during the color changes associated with the development of the albino tea plant leaves.

Dieckol, a major phlorotannin in Ecklonia cava, suppresses lipid accumulation in the adipocytes of high-fat diet-fed zebrafish and mice: Inhibition of early adipogenesis via cell-cycle arrest and AMPKα activation

SCOPE

Dieckol is a major polyphenol of Ecklonia cava. This study demonstrates a mechanistic role for dieckol in the suppression of lipid accumulation using three models.

METHODS AND RESULTS

Mice were split into four experimental groups (n = 10 per group): normal diet, high-fat diet (HFD), and dieckol-supplemented diets. Dieckol-supplemented mice groups showed a significant decrease of body weight gain (38%) as well as fats of organs including epididymal (45%) compared with a HFD-fed group. LDL cholesterol level was reduced by 55% in dieckol-supplemented group. Adipogenic factors and lipid synthetic enzymes were analyzed via real-time PCR or immunoblotting. Dieckol regulated mRNA expressions of early adipogenic genes in 3T3-L1 cells. These results were reflected in downregulation of late adipogenic factors, resulting in a decrease in triacylglycerol content. These data were also verified in zebrafish and mouse models. Dieckol activated AMP-activated protein kinase α (AMPKα) signaling to inhibit lipid synthesis in 3T3-L1 and mouse model. Dieckol was also shown to inhibit mitotic clonal expansion via cell-cycle arrest.

CONCLUSION

Our data demonstrate that dieckol inhibits lipid accumulation via activation of AMPKα signaling and cell-cycle arrest.

Development of an Animal Model for Alcoholic Liver Disease in Zebrafish

Alcoholic liver disease (ALD) continues to be a major cause of liver-related morbidity and mortality worldwide. To date, no zebrafish animal model has demonstrated the characteristic manifestations of ALD in the setting of chronic alcohol exposure. The aim of this study was to develop a zebrafish animal model for ALD. Male adult zebrafish were housed in a 1% (v/v) ethanol solution up to 3 months. A histopathological study showed the characteristic features of alcoholic liver steatosis and steatohepatitis in the early stages of alcohol exposure, including fat droplet accumulation, ballooning degeneration of the hepatocytes, and Mallory body formation. As the exposure time increased, collagen deposition in the extracellular matrix was observed by Sirius red staining and immunofluorescence staining. Finally, anaplastic hepatocytes with pleomorphic nuclei were arranged in trabecular patterns and formed nodules in the zebrafish liver. Over the time course of 1% ethanol exposure, upregulations of lipogenesis, fibrosis, and tumor-related genes were also revealed by semiquantitative and quantitative real-time reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction. As these data reflect characteristic liver damage by alcohol in humans, this zebrafish animal model may serve as a powerful tool to study the pathogenesis and treatment of ALD and its related disorders in humans.

Comparative metabolome analysis of cultured fetal and adult hepatocytes in humans

The liver is the central organ of metabolism, but its function varies during development from fetus to adult. In this study, we comprehensively analyzed and compared metabolites in fetal and adult hepatocytes, the major parenchymal cell in the liver, from human donors. We identified 211 metabolites (116 anions and 95 cations) by capillary electrophoresis-time-of-flight mass spectrometry (CE-TOFMS) in the hepatocytes cultured in vitro. Principal component analysis and hierarchical clustering analysis of the relative amounts of metabolites clearly classified hepatocytes into 2 groups that were consistent with their origin, i.e., the fetus and adult. The amounts of most metabolites in the glycolysis/glyconeogenesis pathway, tricarboxylic acid cycle and urea cycle were lower in fetal hepatocytes than in adult hepatocytes. These results suggest different susceptibility of the fetal and adult liver to toxic insults affecting energy metabolism.

Acute and chronic ethanol exposure differentially alters alcohol dehydrogenase and aldehyde dehydrogenase activity in the zebrafish liver

Chronic ethanol exposure paradigms have been successfully used in the past to induce behavioral and central nervous system related changes in zebrafish. However, it is currently unknown whether chronic ethanol exposure alters ethanol metabolism in adult zebrafish. In the current study we examine the effect of acute ethanol exposure on adult zebrafish behavioral responses, as well as alcohol dehydrogenase (ADH) and aldehyde dehydrogenase (ALDH) activity in the liver. We then examine how two different chronic ethanol exposure paradigms (continuous and repeated ethanol exposure) alter behavioral responses and liver enzyme activity during a subsequent acute ethanol challenge. Acute ethanol exposure increased locomotor activity in a dose-dependent manner. ADH activity was shown to exhibit an inverted U-shaped curve and ALDH activity was decreased by ethanol exposure at all doses. During the acute ethanol challenge, animals that were continuously housed in ethanol exhibited a significantly reduced locomotor response and increased ADH activity, however, ALDH activity did not change. Zebrafish that were repeatedly exposed to ethanol demonstrated a small but significant attenuation of the locomotor response during the acute ethanol challenge but ADH and ALDH activity was similar to controls. Overall, we identified two different chronic ethanol exposure paradigms that differentially alter behavioral and physiological responses in zebrafish. We speculate that these two paradigms may allow dissociation of central nervous system-related and liver enzyme-dependent ethanol induced changes in zebrafish.

Comparative metabolomic and ionomic approach for abundant fishes in estuarine environments of Japan

Environmental metabolomics or ionomics is widely used to characterize the effects of environmental stressors on the health of aquatic organisms. However, most studies have focused on liver and muscle tissues of fish, and little is known about how the other organs are affected by environmental perturbations and effects such as metal pollutants or eutrophication. We examined the metabolic and mineral profiles of three kinds of abundant fishes in estuarine ecosystem, yellowfin goby, urohaze-goby, and juvenile Japanese seabass sampled from Tsurumi River estuary, Japan. Multivariate analyses, including nuclear magnetic resonance-based metabolomics and inductively coupled plasma optical emission spectrometry-based ionomics approaches, revealed that the profiles were clustered according to differences among body tissues rather than differences in body size, sex, and species. The metabolic and mineral profiles of the muscle and fin tissues, respectively, suggest that these tissues are most appropriate for evaluating environmental perturbations. Such analyses will be highly useful in evaluating the environmental variation and diversity in aquatic ecosystems.

Zebrafish as a model to explore cell metabolism

Cell metabolism plays a key role in many essential biological processes. The recent availability of novel technologies and organisms to model cell metabolism in vivo is expanding current knowledge of cell metabolism. In this context, the zebrafish (Danio rerio) is emerging as a valuable model system to learn about the metabolic routes critical for cellular homeostasis. Here, the most recent methods and studies on cell metabolism are summarized, which support the overall value for the zebrafish model system not only to study metabolism but also metabolic disease states. It is envisioned that this small vertebrate system will help in the understanding of pathogenesis for numerous metabolic-related disorders in humans and in the identification of their therapeutic treatments.

In vivo cell biology in zebrafish - providing insights into vertebrate development and disease

Over the past decades, studies using zebrafish have significantly advanced our understanding of the cellular basis for development and human diseases. Zebrafish have rapidly developing transparent embryos that allow comprehensive imaging of embryogenesis combined with powerful genetic approaches. However, forward genetic screens in zebrafish have generated unanticipated findings that are mirrored by human genetic studies: disruption of genes implicated in basic cellular processes, such as protein secretion or cytoskeletal dynamics, causes discrete developmental or disease phenotypes. This is surprising because many processes that were assumed to be fundamental to the function and survival of all cell types appear instead to be regulated by cell-specific mechanisms. Such discoveries are facilitated by experiments in whole animals, where zebrafish provides an ideal model for visualization and manipulation of organelles and cellular processes in a live vertebrate. Here, we review well-characterized mutants and newly developed tools that underscore this notion. We focus on the secretory pathway and microtubule-based trafficking as illustrative examples of how studying cell biology in vivo using zebrafish has broadened our understanding of the role fundamental cellular processes play in embryogenesis and disease.

1H NMR-based metabolite profiling of plasma in a rat model of chronic kidney disease

Chronic kidney disease (CKD) is characterized by the gradual loss of the kidney function to excrete wastes and fluids from the blood. ¹H NMR-based metabolomics was exploited to investigate the altered metabolic pattern in rats with CKD induced by surgical reduction of the renal mass (i.e., 5/6 nephrectomy (5/6 Nx)), particularly for identifying specific metabolic biomarkers associated with early of CKD. Plasma metabolite profiling was performed in CKD rats (at 4- or 8-weeks after 5/6 Nx) compared to sham-operated rats. Principle components analysis (PCA), partial least squares-discriminant analysis (PLS-DA) and orthogonal partial least squares-discriminant analysis (OPLS-DA) score plots showed a significant separation between the groups. The resulting metabolic profiles demonstrated significantly increased plasma levels of organic anions, including citrate, β-hydroxybutyrate, lactate, acetate, acetoacetate, and formate in CKD. Moreover, levels of alanine, glutamine, and glutamate were significantly higher. These changes were likely to be associated with complicated metabolic acidosis in CKD for counteracting systemic metabolic acidosis or increased protein catabolism from muscle. In contrast, levels of VLDL/LDL (CH₂)_n and N-acetylglycoproteins were decreased. Taken together, the observed changes of plasma metabolite profiles in CKD rats provide insights into the disturbed metabolism in early phase of CKD, in particular for the altered metabolism of acid-base and/or amino acids.

Zebrafish as a model for systems biology

Zebrafish offer a unique vertebrate model for research areas such as drug development, disease modeling and other biological exploration. There is significant conservation of genetics and other cellular networks among zebrafish and other vertebrate models, including humans. Here we discuss the recent work and efforts made in different fields of biology to explore the potential of zebrafish. Along with this, we also reviewed the concept of systems biology. A biological system is made up of a large number of components that interact in a huge variety of combinations. To understand completely the behavior of a system, it is important to know its components and interactions, and this can be achieved through a systems biology approach. At the end of the paper we present a concept of integrating zebrafish into the systems biology approach.

Ethanol metabolism and oxidative stress are required for unfolded protein response activation and steatosis in zebrafish with alcoholic liver disease

Secretory pathway dysfunction and lipid accumulation (steatosis) are the two most common responses of hepatocytes to ethanol exposure and are major factors in the pathophysiology of alcoholic liver disease (ALD). However, the mechanisms by which ethanol elicits these cellular responses are not fully understood. Recent data indicates that activation of the unfolded protein response (UPR) in response to secretory pathway dysfunction can cause steatosis. Here, we examined the relationship between alcohol metabolism, oxidative stress, secretory pathway stress and steatosis using zebrafish larvae. We found that ethanol was immediately internalized and metabolized by larvae, such that the internal ethanol concentration in 4-day-old larvae equilibrated to 160 mM after 1 hour of exposure to 350 mM ethanol, with an average ethanol metabolism rate of 56 μmol/larva/hour over 32 hours. Blocking alcohol dehydrogenase 1 (Adh1) and cytochrome P450 2E1 (Cyp2e1), the major enzymes that metabolize ethanol, prevented alcohol-induced steatosis and reduced induction of the UPR in the liver. Thus, we conclude that ethanol metabolism causes ALD in zebrafish. Oxidative stress generated by Cyp2e1-mediated ethanol metabolism is proposed to be a major culprit in ALD pathology. We found that production of reactive oxygen species (ROS) increased in larvae exposed to ethanol, whereas inhibition of the zebrafish CYP2E1 homolog or administration of antioxidants reduced ROS levels. Importantly, these treatments also blocked ethanol-induced steatosis and reduced UPR activation, whereas hydrogen peroxide (H₂O₂) acted as a pro-oxidant that synergized with low doses of ethanol to induce the UPR. Collectively, these data demonstrate that ethanol metabolism and oxidative stress are conserved mechanisms required for the development of steatosis and hepatic dysfunction in ALD, and that these processes contribute to ethanol-induced UPR activation and secretory pathway stress in hepatocytes.