Pharmaceuticals and personal care products (PPCPs) in urban and suburban rivers of Beijing, China: occurrence, source apportionment and potential ecological risk

Rapid analysis of pharmaceutical and personal care products by soft microwave-based plasma ionization-linear ion trap mass spectrometer (SMPI-LTQ) in natural water

In this study, a soft microwave plasma torch (SMPT) combined with a mass spectrometer (MS) was used for the first time as an analytical method to detect and analyze various pharmaceutical and personal care products (PPCPs) in aquatic environments without the need for sample pretreatment. For this purpose, ambient SMPT was used to generate plasma for ionizing the analyte molecules. Accordingly, nine PPCPs were identified by the SMPT-MS, and their identification was verified by collision-induced dissociation (CID). The technique's performance was verified with known PPCP samples, and the limits of detection (LOD) and quantification (LOQ) obtained over a linear range of 50-1 μg/L were 1.56 to 2.81 and 2.07 to 3.62 μg/L, respectively, with the standard addition recovery rate falling between 87.14 and 115.16%. These results show that the method has excellent sensitivity and selectivity, suggesting that SMPT can rapidly and directly detect PPCPs in environmental water, making it a promising method for rapid water quality inspection.

Occurrence, distribution, and ecological risk assessment of pharmaceuticals and personal care products in the surface water of the middle and lower reaches of the Yellow River (Henan section)

Pharmaceuticals and personal care products (PPCPs) are commonly seen emerging organic contaminants in aquatic environments. The transects for the occurrence and distribution of 24 PPCPs along the middle and lower reaches of the Yellow River (Henan section) were investigated in this study. All 24 targeted compounds were detected in surface water, with concentrations in the range from not detected (ND) to 527.4 ng/L. Among these PPCPs, caffeine is found to have the highest concentration and its detection frequency is 100%. The total PPCP concentration ranged from 136 ng/L to 916 ng/L (median, 319.5 ng/L). Spatial analysis showed that the pollution level of PPCPs in the trunk stream was lower than that in most tributaries in the middle and lower reaches of the Yellow River (Henan section). The ecotoxicological risk assessment indicated that norfloxacin, azithromycin, estrone, and triclosan posed high risks to aquatic organisms (RQ > 1), roxithromycin and oxytetracycline imposed moderate risks (0.1 ≤ RQ < 1), and the tributary Jindi River had the highest mixed risk (MRQ = 222).

Source-specific ecological risks and critical source identification of PPCPs in surface water: Comparing urban and rural areas

To control the concentrations of pharmaceutical and personal care products (PPCPs) in the surface water of urban and rural areas, it is important to explore the spatial variation in source-specific ecological risks and identify critical sources. Here, we focused on 22 PPCPs found in the effluent from wastewater treatment plants and surface water in Tianjin, and source-specific risk was quantitatively apportioned combining positive matrix factorization with ecological risk assessment. Results showed that rural areas exhibited a more severe contamination level than urban areas. Medical wastewater (30.1 %) accounted for the highest proportion, while domestic sewage posed the greatest threat to aquatic ecosystems. The incidence of potential risks (RQ > 0.01) caused by domestic sewage in urban areas (88.9 %) was higher than that in rural areas (75.9 %). However, PPCP risks caused by farmland drainage, aquaculture, and livestock discharge were mainly distributed in rural areas. The critical source identified in the entire region was domestic sewage (weight, 0.36), and its weight (0.51) in urban areas was greater than that in rural areas (0.32). The impact of aquaculture (weight, 0.16) in rural areas was noteworthy. These findings may contribute to developing environmental management strategies in key areas to help alleviate PPCP contamination worldwide.

Integrating source apportionment and landscape patterns to capture nutrient variability across a typical urbanized watershed

Effective integrated watershed management requires models that can characterize the sources and transport processes of pollutants at the watershed with multiple landscape patterns. However, few studies have investigated the influence of landscape spatial configuration on pollutant transport processes. In this study, the SPARROW_TN and SPARROW_TP models were constructed by combining direct pollution source data and landscape pattern data to investigate the source composition and nutrient transport processes and to reveal the influence of landscape patterns on nutrient transport in the urbanized Beiyun River Watershed. The introduction of landscape metrics significantly improved the simulation results of both models, with R² increasing from 0.89 to 0.85 to 0.93 and 0.91, respectively. Spatial variations existed in TN and TP loads and yields, as well as the source compositions. Pollution hotspots were effectively identified. Source apportionment showed that for the entire watershed, TN came from atmospheric nitrogen deposition (35.25%), untreated sewage (28.23%), agricultural sources (22.60%), and treated sewage (13.92%). In comparison, TP came from untreated sewage (44.94%), agricultural sources (40.22%), and treated sewage (11.51%). In addition, the largest patch index of grassland correlated positively with both TN and TP, whereas the largest shape index of buildup land and interspersion and juxtaposition index of forest were negatively correlated with TN and TP, respectively. The results of this study will provide insight into effective nutrient control measures that consider spatially varying nutrient sources and associated nutrient transport processes.

Derivation of Water Quality Criteria for Carbamazepine and Ecological Risk Assessment in the Nansi Lake Basin

Carbamazepine, as one of several pharmaceutical and personal care products, has gained much attention in recent years because of its continuous discharge in natural waters and toxicity to aquatic ecosystems. However, it is difficult to evaluate and manage carbamazepine pollution because of the lack of a rational and scientific Water Quality Criteria (WQC) of carbamazepine. In this study, the carbamazepine toxicity data of thirty-five aquatic species from eight taxonomic groups were selected, and the species sensitivity distribution (SSD) method was applied to derive the WQC for carbamazepine based on the Log-logistic model, which was 18.4 ng/L. Meanwhile, the occurrence and distribution of carbamazepine in the Nansi Lake basin was studied. Results showed that concentrations of carbamazepine in 29 sampling sites were in the range of 3.3 to 128.2 ng/L, with the mean of 17.3 ng/L. In general, the levels of carbamazepine in tributaries were higher than those in the lakes. In addition, qualitative and quantitative ecological risk assessment methods were applied to assess the adverse effect of carbamazepine on aquatic systems. The hazard quotient (HQ) method showed that there were 24 and 5 sampling sites, in which risk levels were low and moderate, respectively. The joint probability curve (JPC) method indicated that ecological risks might exist in 1.4% and 1.0% of surface water, while a 5% threshold and 1% threshold were set up to protect aquatic species, respectively. Generally, carbamazepine posed a low risk to the aquatic organisms in the Nansi Lake basin.

Distribution and Ecological Risk Assessment of Pharmaceuticals and Personal Care Products in Sediments of North Canal, China

The pollution of water bodies by pharmaceuticals and personal care products (PPCPs) has attracted widespread concern due to their widespread use and pseudo-persistence, but their effects on sediments are less known. In this study, solid-phase extraction-high performance liquid chromatography–tandem mass spectrometry (SPE-LC/MSMS) was used to investigate the occurrence and ecological risks of five typical pharmaceuticals and personal care products (PPCPs) in thirteen key reservoirs, sluices, dams, and estuaries in the Haihe River Basin. At the same time, the PPCP exchanges of surface water, groundwater, and sediments in three typical sections were studied. Finally, the PPCP’s environmental risk is evaluated through the environmental risk quotient. The results showed that the five PPCPs were tri-methoprazine (TMP), sinolamine (SMX), ibuprofen (IBU), triclosan (TCS), and caffeine (CAF). The average concentration of these PPCPs ranged from 0 to 481.19 μg/kg, with relatively high concentrations of TCS and CAF. The relationship between PPCPs in the surface sediments was analyzed to reveal correlations between SMX and TMP, CAF and IBU, CAF and TCS. The risk quotients (RQ) method was used to evaluate the ecological risk of the five detected PPCPs. The major contributors of potential environmental risks were IBU, TCS and CAF, among which all the potential environmental risks at the TCS samples were high risk. This study supplemented the research on the ecological risk of PPCPs in sediments of important reaches of the North Canal to reveal the importance of PPCP control in the North Canal and provided a scientific basis for pollution control and risk prevention of PPCPs.

Fingerprinting pharmaceuticals of multiple sources at a provincial watershed scale

Pharmaceutical residues in the aquatic environment have increasingly attracted public concerns but their fingerprint of sources remain unclear at a watershed scale. This study systematically explored pharmaceutical residues in effluent of 8 different type of sources in a provincial watershed in China using a multi-category protocol of pharmaceutical quantification. Seventy-seven out of 94 target compounds from 6 categories were quantified in effluent, up to 71,318 ng L^-1 in total from urban hospital sources with 20 antibiotics and 32 others. The spectrum of the quantified compounds in effluent significantly differentiated the urban (hospitals, domestic sewages, and WWTPs), rural (health centers and domestic sewages), and agricultural production sources (poultry and swine breeding yards, aquaculture ponds, and paddy fields). Compounds of non-steroidal anti-inflammation drugs (NSAIDs), cardiovascular drugs (CVs), and central nervous drugs (CNs) could fingerprint the three groups of sources. However, the three categories contributed 7 out of 10 compounds with high risk (risk quotient >1.0) to the aquatic environment identified by the eco-environmental risk assessment. No high-risk compounds were identified in effluent of urban WWTPs. Findings of this study suggest source identification and compound spectrum fingerprinting are crucial for studies on pharmaceutical residues in the aquatic environment, especially the complexity of pharmaceutical residues in source effluents for exploring source-sink dynamics at a watershed scale.

Quantitatively identifying the emission sources of pharmaceutically active compounds (PhACs) in the surface water: Method development, verification and application in Huangpu River, China

Recognizing the main sources of pharmaceutically active compounds (PhACs) found in surface waters has been a challenge to the effective control of PhAC contamination from the sources. In the present study, a novel method based on Characteristic Matrix (ChaMa) model of indicator PhACs to quantitatively identify the contribution of multiple emission sources was developed, verified, and applied in Huangpu River, Shanghai. Carbamazepine (CBZ), caffeine (CF) and sulfadiazine (SDZ) were proposed as indicators. Their occurrence patterns in the corresponding emission sources and the factor analysis of their composition in the surface water samples were employed to construct the ChaMa model and develop the source apportionment method. Samples from typical emission sources were collected and analyzed as hypothetical surface water samples, to verify the method proposed. The results showed that the calculated contribution proportions of emission sources to the corresponding source samples were 45%-85%, proving the feasibility of the method. Finally, the method was applied to different sections in Huangpu River, and the results showed that livestock wastewater was the dominant emission source, accounting for 55%-73% in the upper reach of Huangpu River. Untreated municipal wastewater was dominant in the middle and lower reaches of Huangpu River, accounting for 76%-94%. This novel source apportionment method allows the quantitative identification of the contribution of multiple PhAC emission sources. It can be replicated in other regions where the occurrence of localized indicators was available, and will be helpful to control the contamination of PhACs in the water environment from the major sources.

Ecological Risk Evaluation and Removal of Emerging Pollutants in Urban Wastewater by a Hollow Fiber Forward Osmosis Membrane

Forward osmosis (FO) is a promising technology for the treatment of urban wastewater. FO can produce high-quality effluents and preconcentrate urban wastewater for subsequent anaerobic treatment. This membrane technology makes it possible to eliminate the pollutants present in urban wastewater, which can cause adverse effects in the ecosystem even at low concentrations. In this study, a 0.6 m² hollow fiber aquaporin forward osmosis membrane was used for the treatment of urban wastewater from the Valladolid wastewater treatment plant (WWTP). A total of 51 Contaminants of Emerging Concern (CECs) were investigated, of which 18 were found in the target urban wastewater. They were quantified, and their ecotoxicological risk impact was evaluated. Different salts with different concentrations were tested as draw solutions to evaluate the membrane performances when working with pretreated urban wastewater. NaCl was found to be the most appropriate salt since it leads to higher permeate fluxes and lower reverse saline fluxes. The membrane can eliminate or significantly reduce the pollutants present in the studied urban wastewater, producing water without ecotoxicological risk or essentially free of pollutants. In all cases, good recovery was achieved, which increased with molecular weight, although chemical and electrostatic interactions also played a role.

Effects of Agriculture and Animal Husbandry on Heavy Metal Contamination in the Aquatic Environment and Human Health in Huangshui River Basin

Huangshui River (HSR) is the mother river of Qinghai province. Croplands and grasslands cover more than 76% of the total area, and highland agriculture and animal husbandry are the dominant industries. The use of pesticides, fertilizers, and feed additives increases the risk of heavy metal (HM) contamination. In this study, the concentration of HMs in the main stream and tributaries of HSR were investigated. The Positive Matrix Factorization model was used for source apportionment, and Health Risk Assessment method was used to assess the human health risks. To further analyze the effect of agriculture and animal husbandry on aquatic environment and human health, we considered agriculture and animal husbandry as two factors in the source apportionment process, defined the effect of the factors, established the calculation formula, and quantified the effects. The results show that the overall situation of aquatic environment in HSR is good; natural processes, traffic tail gas and atmospheric deposition, agricultural planting, industrial wastewater discharge, and animal husbandry are the main sources of HMs in the water. These HMs present noncarcinogenic and carcinogenic risks for infants. A total effect of agricultural and animal husbandry on HMs or HI in HSRB is approximately 20%, while on TCR is 40%. However, the effects of agriculture on the hazard quotient of arsenic, carcinogenic risk of nickel and lead, and that of animal husbandry on carcinogenic risk of cadmium were significant. This study can provide a theoretical basis for local managers of agriculture and animal husbandry to perform their work effectively.

Occurrence, source apportionment and potential risks of selected PPCPs in groundwater used as a source of drinking water from key urban-rural settings of Pakistan

BACKGROUND

Pharmaceuticals and personal care products (PPCPs) are emerging contaminants that have been extensively used in present time to improve the living standards. Their persistence in water resources due to various anthropogenic sources such as wastewater treatment plants, pharmaceutical industries, and runoff from agricultural and livestock farms has not only threaten aquatic life but their occurrence in groundwater has also raised concerns related to humans' wellbeing.

METHODS

Considering this as a neglected area of research in Pakistan, a systematic monitoring study was designed to investigate their occurrence, sources, and potential environmental and human health risks in groundwater from urban-rural areas of six cities. Ultra-High-Performance Liquid Chromatography-Tandem Mass Spectrometry (UHPLC-MS/MS) was used to analyze the collected samples preceded by solid-phase extraction.

RESULTS

Overall, 8 out of 11 selected PPCPs were detected in groundwater samples with detection frequency ranging from 5.5-65%. Their concentrations ranged from below limit of detection (<LOD) to 1961 ng/L. The overall mean concentrations of detected PPCPs were found below 100 ng/L. The highest mean concentration was reported for Ibuprofen (154 ng/L) in Rawalpindi/Islamabad. Results of PCA-MLR revealed that domestic wastewater discharge (76.4%) was the dominant source contributing to PPCPs contamination in groundwater. Followed by mixed source (pharmaceutical & hospital waste) 17.8%, and rural discharge/animal husbandry 5.8%. No appreciable risk to human health upon exposure to detected PPCPs via drinking water was anticipated. However, environmental risk assessment indicated moderate risk posed to P. subcapitata (RQ = 0.98) and D. magna (RQ = 0.2) by ibuprofen.

CONCLUSION

The current study reports the first evidence of PPCPs occurrence in groundwater in Pakistan. Reporting their occurrence in groundwater is a fundamental initial step to inform public-health decisions concerning sewage systems and drinking water quality. Hence, comprehensive monitoring programs are required to further investigate contamination of emerging contaminants in groundwater and their associated risks.

Using a fugacity model to determine the degradation rate of typical polycyclic musks in the field: A case study in the North Canal River watershed of Beijing, China

To quantitate the degradation rate of 1,3,4,6,7,8-hexahydro-4,6,6,7,8,8-hexamethylcyclopenta-[g]-2-benzopyran (HHCB) and 7-acetyl-1,1,3,4,4,6-hexamethyl-1,2,3,4-tetrahydronaphthalene (AHTN) under field conditions, a level III fugacity model combined with a least-squares method was used to determine the degradation rate of HHCB and AHTN in the North Canal River watershed of Beijing, China. Model fitting, validation, sensitivity, and uncertainty analyses revealed that the established model was stable and robust. The degradation rates of HHCB and AHTN were 4.16 × 10^-3 h^-1 (t_1/2 = 167 h) and 1.68 × 10^-2 h^-1 (t_1/2 = 41.3 h), respectively. The calculated degradation rates were extrapolated to the Liangshui River, and indicated that the differences between the measured and predicted concentrations were less than 0.32 and 0.34 log units for HHCB and AHTN, respectively. The attenuation rates of HHCB and AHTN were calculated, and the results indicated that degradation was an important yet not the sole contributor to the degradation of the polycyclic musks. Results of uncertainty analyses indicated that the inflow and outflow concentrations of the polycyclic musks in the surface water of each segment strongly influenced the model outputs, followed by environmental factors (water depth and flow rate). It is essential to measure the degradation rate in the field because of the influence of the surrounding environment. The present study reveals the utility of fugacity models to quantify the degradation rate of organic micropollutants in the field.

Occurrence of pharmaceuticals in seafood from two Brazilian coastal areas: Implication for human risk assessment

Pharmaceuticals (PhACs) are considered emerging contaminants with potential accumulation in aquatic organisms. Thus, seafood consumption may cause long-term effects and health risk for consumers. In the present study, the occurrence of PhACs in seafood from two Brazilian coastal areas, Sepetiba Bay (n = 43) and Parnaiba Delta River (n = 48), was determined for the first time, and their potential risk for human health was assessed. An eco-friendly multi-analytes method was used, after being validated for the different types of matrices (mussels, fatty and lean fish). All compounds under study were detected at least in four seafood species, including chloramphenicol, an antibiotic prohibited in animal foods. Most PhACs had mean concentrations below limit of quantification. Ibuprofen and other nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs), as well as simvastatin and carbamazepine were the main PhACs bioaccumulated in edible parts of seafood species from Brazil. The high trophic level carnivorous species, snook, was the most contaminated by NSAIDs, while bivalves were the seafood more contaminated by lipid regulators. The profile of contamination did not vary among different types of matrix, except in relation to carbamazepine and ketoprofen. These PhACs were more abundant in species from Sepetiba Bay, an area highly impacted by human influence. The estimated daily exposure for Brazilian population that consumes the studied species was up to 20.3 ng/kg bw/day via carib pointed-venus and 25.7 ng/kg bw/day via snooks, lower than acceptable daily intake. Thus, consumption of seafood species from Sepetiba Bay and Parnaiba Delta River seems to be safe to the population in what concerns the PhACs studied.

Hazard assessment of beta-lactams: Integrating in silico and QSTR approaches with in vivo zebrafish embryo toxicity testing

Antibiotics have emerged as a well-known representative of pharmaceuticals and personal care products (PPCPs) by causing public health and environmental problems due to their potential toxicity. β-lactams are the most commonly used antibiotics in the world. This study used zebrafish embryos to evaluate the toxicity of β-lactams. The results showed that 23 β-lactam compounds induced malformation and death in a concentration-response manner. Moreover, this study established and validated quantitative structure-toxicity relationship (QSTR) models for the toxicity of β-lactams in zebrafish. These models performed well and fast in the prediction of the acute toxicity of β-lactams. Structural interpretation indicated that the β-lactam ring, the thiazolidine/dihydrothiazine rings, the side chains, and spatial configuration are the main factors responsible for the toxicity of β-lactams. The results from our previous studies and this study also revealed that the potential biological risks caused by β-lactams and their degradation products could not be ignored. This study provided important data for further environmental risk assessment of β-lactams and regulatory purposes.

Environmental Risk Assessment of Active Human Pharmaceutical Ingredients in Urban Rivers in Japan

Active pharmaceutical ingredients (APIs) have become a public concern owing to their possible adverse effects on aquatic organisms. Ministry of Health, Labor and Welfare in Japan (MHLW) issued "Guidance on the Environmental Risk Assessment (ERA) in new pharmaceutical development" in 2016. To evaluate the validity of phase 1 in the MHLW's ERA guidance, we monitored the measured environmental concentrations (MECs) of approved APIs in urban rivers and sewage treatment plants (STPs) in Japan and compared these MECs with the predicted environmental concentration (PEC). We collected water samples from urban seven rivers and three STPs during each season. Fifty-one APIs for human and veterinary use and the artificial sweetener sucralose were analyzed by liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS). Forty-four APIs were observed in the rivers and 42 were found in the influent and effluent of STPs, with levels ranging from nanograms to micrograms per liter. The action limit in phase I of the MHLW's guidance was set to 10 ng/L, and there was no API except for ketoprofen, for which PEC of the MHLW's guidance (PECjapan) was lower than 10 ng/L and the maximum MEC (MECmax) was 10 ng/L or greater. Almost all APIs also had median MECs that were lower than those of the respective PECjapan. These results indicate that the PECjapan values in phase I of the MHLW's guidance were appropriate. However, some APIs had MECmax values that were greater than those of the respective PECjapan due to overestimation of the dilution factor of river water and/or underestimation of API production.

Emission and ecological risk of pharmaceuticals and personal care products affected by tourism in Sanya City, China

In recent years, concern around the impact of pharmaceuticals and personal care products (PPCPs) on the environment has grown. In order to investigate the influence of tourists on emissions and ecological risk of PPCPs, the concentrations of thirty PPCPs were measured in influent and effluent from the four largest wastewater treatment plants, as well as surface river water at six sites in a famous tourist city (Sanya City, China). Substantial increasing trends on PPCPs levels were observed from low to high tourist season (ng/L to µg/L, or µg/L to mg/L). Caffeine (CAF) was dominant with concentrations as high as 185 µg/L. Emission load per capita was estimated to explore the contribution of different populations. Tourist migrant population might be a dominant contributor, as they were mostly elderly people who took long-term medication. The predicted no-effect concentration was derived using the species sensitivity distribution method to calculate the ecological risk quotient (RQ) of the dominant PPCPs. Additionally, RQs of seven dominant PPCPs in rivers were > 1, indicating high chronic ecological risk for freshwater ecosystems. The results of this study will assist in raising the awareness and improving management of emerging pollutants in less industrialized regions.

Seasonal occurrence and source analysis of pharmaceutically active compounds (PhACs) in aquatic environment in a small and medium-sized city, China

Pharmaceutically active compounds (PhACs) have been widely reported in most megacities in China but seldom in small and median-sized cities. The aim of this study is to investigate occurrence and distribution characteristics of PhACs in a typical small and medium-sized city in China and analyze their sources. 33 PhACs and 4 chiral drugs were selected for a four-season monitoring campaign in Wujin District, Jiangsu Province, a typical small and median-sized city, in 2018. PhACs concentration level in surface water, ranging from ng L^-1 to μg L^-1, was lower than in large-sized cities and areas in China. Impact from agricultural sources should be concerned in the study area: (1) Significant correlation between concentrations of antibiotics and NH₄-N in surface water indicated the potential impact from agricultural sources (fishponds and livestock farms); (2) Government regulating measures on livestock and poultry farms since January 2018 have effectively decreased macrolides and lincosamides emissions into surface water. As for source analysis, CF/CBZ (Caffeine/Carbamazepine) was a feasible indicator to trace untreated wastewater and enantiomeric fraction values of metoprolol (MTP) were also suggested to be helpful for identifying untreated wastewater. The results of both two indicators indicated more input of untreated wastewater to surface water in the northeast area and upstream of Wuyi Canal. To our best knowledge, this is the first study to systematically analyze PhACs in aquatic environment for a small and medium-sized city in China.

Pharmaceutical and Personal Care Products in Different Matrices: Occurrence, Pathways, and Treatment Processes

The procedures for analyzing pharmaceuticals and personal care products (PPCPs) are typically tedious and expensive and thus, it is necessary to synthesize all available information from previously conducted research. An extensive collection of PPCP data from the published literature was compiled to determine the occurrence, pathways, and the effectiveness of current treatment technologies for the removal of PPCPs in water and wastewater. Approximately 90% of the compiled published papers originated from Asia, Europe, and the North American regions. The incomplete removal of PPCPs in different water and wastewater treatment processes was widely reported, thus resulting in the occurrence of PPCP compounds in various environmental compartments. Caffeine, carbamazepine, diclofenac, ibuprofen, triclosan, and triclocarban were among the most commonly reported compounds detected in water and solid matrices. Trace concentrations of PPCPs were also detected on plants and animal tissues, indicating the bioaccumulative properties of some PPCP compounds. A significant lack of studies regarding the presence of PPCPs in animal and plant samples was identified in the review. Furthermore, there were still knowledge gaps on the ecotoxicity, sub-lethal effects, and effective treatment processes for PPCPs. The knowledge gaps identified in this study can be used to devise a more effective research paradigm and guidelines for PPCP management.

Occurrence and variations of pharmaceuticals and personal-care products in rural water bodies: A case study of the Taige Canal (2018-2019)

A systematic monitoring campaign of pharmaceuticals and personal-care products (PPCPs) was performed in the Taige Canal basin, which is located in a rural area of the Yangtze River Delta. A total of 55 out of 61 monitored PPCPs were detected, with concentrations up to 647 ng/L. The maximum concentrations of 75% of monitored antibiotics and 80% of non-antibiotics were above the median values of previously reported maximum concentrations in China, indicating that the basin is heavily contaminated. It is estimated that the PPCP mass flow of the Taige Canal (0.06-0.58 kg/day) entering into Lake Taihu is similar to that of the influent of a wastewater treatment plant. Analysis of the seasonal variation shows that, during the wet season, the average total concentration of sulfonamides was 8 and 11 times that of the normal season and dry season, respectively. The concentration of sulfachlorpyridazine accounted for 40.37% of total antibiotics, suggesting heavy pollution from the animal-breeding industry in this area. The PPCP mass flow rates observed in 2019 were lower than those of 2018 in the same season, and this interannual variation is mainly attributable to water pollution controls in the watershed. Combined analysis of ordination and clustering indicates that the distribution of PPCPs in the Taige Canal is affected by the confluence with Yong'an River and human activities such as water pollution control. Water-sediment distribution analysis demonstrates that the sediment-water distribution coefficients of quinolone and macrolide were higher than those of sulfonamide, lincosamide and chloramphenicol.

Contamination, source and potential risks of pharmaceuticals and personal products (PPCPs) in Baiyangdian Basin, an intensive human intervention area, China

The presence of pharmaceuticals and personal care products (PPCPs) has become a global concern, as it poses a threat to the environment, especially to the aquatic ecosystem. This study focused on 30 PPCPs found in the Baiyangdian basin of the Xiong'an New Area, in the core of Beijing-Tianjin-Hebei region, with intensive human interventions during two seasons. In general, 30 PPCPs were all frequently detected, ranging from 42.3 to 7710 ng/L in May and 48.9 to 1300 ng/L in November. Sulfamethoxazole, ofloxacin, anhydro-erythromycin, carbamazepine, caffeine, and were screened as the predominant PPCPs. The rivers input was an essential source of PPCPs. The source apportionment with a series of analytical methods revealed that domestic sewage was the primary source, and untreated water also crucial for PPCPs contamination. The risk assessment suggested carbamazepine, caffeine, ofloxacin, and anhydro-erythromycin exhibited relatively high ecological risks for protecting most species such as algae, fish, and flowers in the aquatic ecosystem, especially near the outlet of WWTPs. Thus, management strategies for such PPCPs will be needed. Intensive human interventions, including a prohibition of fish breeding, water diversion project, and wastewater treatment in villages, were having an effective role in alleviating PPCPs contamination.

Identification of indicator PPCPs in landfill leachates and livestock wastewaters using multi-residue analysis of 70 PPCPs: Analytical method development and application in Yangtze River Delta, China

The source apportionment of pharmaceuticals and personal care products (PPCPs) in the water environment based on indicators (i-PPCPs) requires a comprehensive characterization of various emission sources using reliable analytical methods for a wide spectrum of PPCPs. In this study, a robust and sensitive method based on solid phase extraction (SPE) and ultra-high performance liquid chromatography coupled with tandem mass spectrometry (UHPLC-MS/MS) for analyzing 70 PPCPs belonging to 17 therapeutic classes in landfill leachates and livestock wastewaters was developed. The SPE cartridges, sample pH, elution solvents and chelating agent additions were optimized, and acceptable recoveries (60- 130% for 67 target compounds), low method quantification limits (landfill leachate: 3- 1309 ng/L; livestock wastewater: 3- 686 ng/L) and high precisions (repeatability: 0- 20% for over 99% injections; reproducibility: 0- 20% for over 90% injections) were obtained. Using the optimized analytical method to characterize PPCPs in the typical landfill leachate and livestock wastewater in Yangtze River Delta, China, we found anthelmintics, which were first reported in landfill leachates globally, exhibited the highest concentration (albendazole, maximum concentration of 61.6 μg/L), and therefore proposed albendazole as one of the promising i-PPCP candidates in landfill leachates. In livestock wastewaters, antibiotics lincomycin was the most abundant PPCP (maximum concentration: 735 μg/L) and identified as an i-PPCP candidate for livestock-originated contamination. In addition, 15 non-antibiotic PPCPs were first investigated in the livestock wastewater in China and some non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs, acetaminophen, diclofenac and naproxen, were detected at similar concentration level (1.16- 91.1 μg/L) to antibiotics, highlighting the necessity to include representative non-antibiotic PPCPs in the studies of emerging contaminants in livestock wastewaters. The developed method provides a tool to comprehensively investigate PPCPs in high-strength wastewater, and the preliminary findings in the characterization of typical landfill leachates and livestock wastewaters are helpful to select i-PPCPs for the source apportionment of PPCPs in Yangtze River Delta, China.

Source Tracking and Risk Assessment of Pharmaceutical and Personal Care Products in Surface Waters of Qingdao, China, with Emphasis on Influence of Animal Farming in Rural Areas

The occurrence and potential sources of pharmaceuticals and personal care products (PPCPs) in surface waters from a large coastal city Qingdao, North China, were investigated. Forty-five compounds were analyzed by high-performance liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry. The results showed that 28 compounds of PPCPs were detected. The most frequently detected compounds were atrazine, clarithromycin, nonylphenol, and bisphenol A with the detection rates > 90%. Paracetamol showed the highest concentration up to 4400 ng/L (mean 152.5 ng/L), followed by ampicillin (max. 2980 ng/L) with the highest mean concentration (229.3 ng/L), iopromide (max. 1744 ng/L, mean 74.5 ng/L), atrazine (max. 1612 ng/L, mean 96.1 ng/L), and bisphenol A (max. 1384 ng/L, mean 78.3 ng/L). The contamination levels and composition profiles of PPCPs along the rivers flowing through rural and urban areas and in seawater showed large spatial variability. Typical source markers and principle component analysis were used to track and differentiate the potential PPCP sources. The emphases of the study were the influence of animal farming in rural areas on PPCP composition profiles and the ecological risk. The results indicated that PPCPs in Qingdao surface water mainly came from three potential sources, i.e., treated wastewater (effluents from WWTPs), untreated wastewater, and nonpoint sources in agricultural areas.

Occurrences of microorganic pollutants in the Kumho River by a comprehensive target analysis using LC-Q/TOF-MS with sequential window acquisition of all theoretical fragment ion spectra (SWATH)

In this study, simultaneous identification and semi-quantification of hundreds of micropollutant compounds, including pharmaceutical and personal care products (PPCPs) and pesticides were performed in river and effluent samples from the Kumho River Basin using liquid chromatography quadrupole time-of-flight mass spectrometry (LC-Q-TOF/MS) with sequential window acquisition of all theoretical fragment ion spectra (SWATH). In total, 85 compounds (29 pesticides and 56 PPCPs) were identified. The highest proportions of PPCP residues were detected in the downstream area of the Kumho River, close to the central city. On the other hand, the highest proportions of pesticide residues were observed upstream, near agricultural land and golf courses. Additionally, the highly exposable chemicals were prioritized using a scoring and ranking system based on their concentration and detection frequency. Thus, 20 compounds (7 pesticides and 13 PPCPs) with scores of 200 or higher were defined as highly exposable compounds in Kumho River basin.

Anthropogenic impacts on the contamination of pharmaceuticals and personal care products (PPCPs) in the coastal environments of the Yellow and Bohai seas

Pharmaceuticals and personal care products (PPCPs) are recognized as one emerging group of environmental contaminants, capturing worldwide attention. These chemicals, closely connected to anthropogenic activities, are mainly transported through aquatic environments and reach coastal areas, eventually entering ocean offshore. Thus, this study concentrated on the 30 PPCPs in coastal waters of the Yellow and Bohai seas (77 sites), a fast-growing area with intensive anthropogenic activities. In general, the total concentrations of PPCPs in Chinese coastal waters (0.880-1194 ng L^-1) greatly varied and were relatively greater than those (9.91-442 ng L^-1) in Korean coastal waters. Sulfamethoxazole, sulfamethazine, oxytetracycline, ofloxacin, roxithromycin, anhydro-erythromycin, and caffeine were the seven predominant PPCPs in the coastal waters of study area. Further, we established the Predicted PPCPs Contamination Indicator (PPCI) to address potential anthropogenic activities being associated with site-specific PPCPs contamination. Three anthropogenic factors to PPCPs contamination were proven as the most influential, including (1) quantity of wastewater discharge, (2) gross product of meat, poultry, eggs and milk, and (3) gross aquatic product. The relatively high PPCI values appeared in Tianjin, Dalian, Tangshan, Yantai, and Qingdao in China and Gyeonggi and Jeonbuk in South Korea, which exhibited fairly good consistency with the corresponding PPCPs concentrations. A mini-review of the global PPCPs distributions revealed that seven priority PPCPs found in this study distributed widely in Asia rather than Europe, North America, and Australia. In general, global PPCPs contamination also reflected site- and region-specific distributions, suggesting varying usages and sources cross the region and/or country. Finally, the risk assessment suggested that ofloxacin and anhydro-erythromycin, with 36.4% and 23.4% sites higher than medium risks respectively, posed relatively high risks to sensitive algal species, Microcystis aeruginosa and Selenastrum capricornutum. Overall, the ecological risks of exposure of PPCPs in the Yellow and Bohai seas were higher compared to other regions of the world, thus the bilateral management of PPCPs between China and South Korea needs an immediate attention.

Occurrence, spatial-temporal distribution and ecological risks of pharmaceuticals and personal care products response to water diversion across the rivers in Nanjing, China

Water diversion projects have been continuously used to alleviate water quality issues that arise during urbanization. However, studies about whether it has possible effects on the status of pharmaceutical and personal care products (PPCPs) are limited. In this study, the occurrence trends and spatial-temporal distribution characteristics of 50 PPCPs were investigated in surface water, suspended particulate matter (SPM) and sediments in Nanjing urban rivers under the background of the water diversion project from the Yangtze River to the Qinhuai River. In the four field campaigns that were embarked on April to July 2018, a total of 40, 38 and 24 PPCPs were detected in surface water, SPM and sediments, respectively, with overall concentrations of 138-1990 ng/L, 3214-33,701 ng/g and 12.1-109 ng/g dry weight (dw) among nine sampling sites. The excessive concentration of caffeine (20.6-905 ng/L) may be evidence of the direct discharge of untreated sewage and an obvious indicator of the overall concentrations of PPCPs. The PPCPs contamination levels in surface water were increased along with the direction of the water diversion in urban runoff, and decreased by 8-31% due to the increase in volume attributable to the water diversion. The distribution coefficients (K_d) of pollutants in the SPM-water phases (3.0-5.6 L/kg) were two orders of magnitude higher than those in the sediment-water phases (0.3-3.3 L/kg). And the positive correlations between their log K_ow and SPM-water log K_d values indicated SPM was the important carrier determining the fate of organic UV filters. Furthermore, the results of ecological risk assessment demonstrated that although the increase in the volume of water caused by the water diversion reduced the overall ecological risks of PPCPs in urban rivers, the current contamination level still represents high risks to algae and fish.

Pharmaceutical and Personal Care Products in Surface Waters from the Inner City of Beijing, China: Influence of Hospitals and Reclaimed Water Irrigation

Surface waters from five districts in the inner city of Beijing were collected for analysis of 43 target compounds of pharmaceuticals and personal care products (PPCPs) to understand the spatial distribution patterns of different groups of PPCPs in the central urban area of a metropolitan city characterized by many hospitals and public parks. The total concentrations of PPCPs showed large spatial variability, ranging from 71.1 to 2400 ng/L. The x-ray contrast medium iopromide was the compound with the highest concentrations. Pharmaceuticals showed similar spatial distributional patterns with large hospitals. Positive correlations between iopromide and pharmaceuticals were observed. In contrast, in general there is no correlation between iopromide and personal care products. The concentrations of PPCPs in the landscape waters were not high but were characterized by high proportions of acidic, nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs with low or even negative removal efficiencies in the WWTP in Beijing, suggesting that the reclaimed water irrigation can be another source of PPCPs in surface waters in the inner city of Beijing.

Health and ecological risk assessment of emerging contaminants (pharmaceuticals, personal care products, and artificial sweeteners) in surface and groundwater (drinking water) in the Ganges River Basin, India

Pharmaceuticals, personal care products (PPCPs), and artificial sweeteners (ASWs) are contaminants of emerging concern commonly found in the aquatic environments. In India, studies reporting environmental occurrence of these contaminants are scarce. In this study, we investigated the occurrence and distribution of 15 PPCPs and five ASWs in the river and groundwater (used untreated as drinking water) at several sites along the Ganges River. Based on the measured groundwater concentrations, we estimated the life-long human health risk from exposure to PPCPs through drinking. In addition, we estimated the risk of exposure to PPCPs and ASWs in the river water for aquatic organisms. The sum of detected PPCPs in the river water ranged between 54.7-826 ng/L, with higher concentrations in the severely anthropogenically influenced middle and lower reaches of the Ganges. The highest concentration among the PPCPs in the river water was of caffeine (743 ng/L). The sum of detected ASWs in river water ranged between 0.2-102 ng/L. Similar to PPCPs, the sum of ASWs in the river water was higher in the middle and lower reaches of the Ganges. In groundwater, the sum of detected PPCPs ranged between 34-293 ng/L, whereas of ASWs ranged between 0.5-25 ng/L. Negligible risk for humans was estimated from PPCPs in the drinking groundwater sources along the Ganges River, whereas moderate risks to PPCPs and ASWs (namely: caffeine, sulfamethoxazole, triclocarban, triclosan, and sucralose) were estimated for aquatic organisms in the Ganges River.

Pharmaceuticals and personal care products in the urban river across the megacity Shanghai: Occurrence, source apportionment and a snapshot of influence of rainfall

Occurrence of eleven pharmaceuticals and personal care products (PPCPs) along Huangpu River, a representative urban river of megacity Shanghai, was investigated in four sampling campaigns. The overall concentrations of PPCPs ranged from <LOQ to 1455 ng/L, and untreated domestic wastewater was proposed as an important source of PPCPs in Huangpu River. Higher contamination levels of target PPCPs were detected in the lower reach (urban area) and dry season, compared to those in the upper reach (rural area) and wet season, respectively. The influence of rainfall on the occurrence of PPCPs was also extensively discussed in different regions along Huangpu River. At sampling sites in the rural area, similar or even lower concentrations of PPCPs were detected after rainfall; while increased concentrations of PPCPs were observed at most sampling sites, especially in the urban area, suggesting that overflow of untreated wastewater exceeding the capacity of wastewater treatment plants and leachates generated at temporary storage and transfer station of solid wastes might be the additional sources of PPCPs in the urban area in rainy days. These findings indicated that management of wastewater or/and solid wastes was more important to solve the problem of PPCPs contamination in the urban river of megacity.

Occurrence and ecological risk assessment of 22 emerging contaminants in the Jilin Songhua River (Northeast China)

Rivers may receive pharmaceuticals, personal care products, and environment estrogens, which are emerging concerns, from various sources. Understanding the fate of these emerging contaminants (ECs) from the sources to their receiving river is important for assessing their ecosystem risk. Here, the occurrence, seasonal variation, spatial distribution, and ecological risk of 22 ECs in water and sediments from the Jilin Songhua River, as well as in the effluents from the riverside Jilin wastewater treatment plant (WWTP) were investigated. Results indicated that estriol with the highest median concentration of 21.5 ng L^-1 in the river water and with the highest median concentration of 481.5 ng g^-1 in the sediments, and methylparaben with the highest concentration of 29.6 ± 2.9 ng L^-1 in the WWTP effluents were the predominant contaminants. The total concentration of ECs in the river water in the dry season was about 1.5 times higher than that in the wet season. The concentrations of these ECs close to the contaminated tributary and the WWTP were relatively high. Risk assessment showed that the maximum risk quotient value of estrone was 1.07 in the river water and estriol was 2.10 in the effluents. In addition, erythromycin posed generally medium risk in the river water and WWTP effluents. It should be paid attention to the prior control of the three contaminants in the river region.

Transformation Products of Carbamazepine (CBZ) After Ozonation and their Toxicity Evaluation Using Pseudomonas sp. Strain KSH-1 in Aqueous Matrices

Carbamazepine (CBZ) is an anti-epileptic and anti-convulsant drug widely used for the treatment of epilepsy and other bipolar disorders. Ozone as an advanced oxidation process has been widely used for the degradation of CBZ resulting in the formation of transformation products (ozonides). The present research aims to isolate and identify potential microorganism, capable of degradation of CBZ and its transformation products. The cell viability and cytotoxicity of pure CBZ and their ozone transformation products were evaluated using the cells of Pseudomonas sp. strain KSH-1 through cell viability assay tests. The cells metabolic activity was assessed at varying CBZ concentrations (~ 10-25 ppm, pure CBZ) and cumulatively for ozone transformation products. For pure CBZ, % cell viability decreases as CBZ concentration increases, while, in case of post-ozonated CBZ transformation products, the viability decreases initially and then increases upon exposure of ozone with a maximum cell viability of 97 ± 2.8% evaluated for 2 h post-ozonated samples.

Semivolatile organic compounds in surface microlayer and subsurface water of Dianshan Lake, Shanghai, China: implications for accumulation and interrelationship

Semivolatile organic compounds (SVOCs) in surface microlayer (SML) and subsurface water (SSW) from Dianshan Lake were studied to investigate their occurrence, distributions, as well as enrichment and potential sources. A sample was concentrated by solid-phase micro-extraction (SPME). Identification and quantification were carried out by gas chromatography coupled to mass spectrometry (GC-MS). Total SVOCs concentrations ranged from 25.93 to 47.49 μg/L in SSW and 38.19 to 77.23 μg/L in SML. The phthalic acid esters (PAE) concentrations in both SSW and SML are the highest of the total SVOC. The enrichment factors (EFs) of total SVOCs ranged from 0.80 to 2.98, while the highest EF was found in benzyl phthalate and dibutyl phthalate, compounds of PAEs (4.06). The EFs values calculated in this study were consistent with the EFs reported for other water ecosystems. Compared with other place, the EF of PAHs were in the normal level (0.88-2.37). The results of correlation analysis, principal component analysis (PCA) suggested that at least three sources, i.e., agricultural residual pesticides, industrial sewage and miscellaneous sources, were responsible for the presence of SVOCs in Dianshan Lake examined, accounting for 94.16% of the total variance in the dataset. Environmental risk assessment revealed that a majority of SVOCs posed relatively low risks (the values of risk quotient were less than 0.1), while naphthalene, acenaphthene, 2,4-dinitrotoluene, and dibutyl phthalat exhibited moderate risks (values of risk quotient were more than 0.1 but less than 1fore) to aquatic organisms.