1
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Liu B, Chen K. Advances in Hydrogel-Based Drug Delivery Systems. Gels 2024; 10:262. [PMID: 38667681 PMCID: PMC11048949 DOI: 10.3390/gels10040262] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/19/2024] [Revised: 04/05/2024] [Accepted: 04/10/2024] [Indexed: 04/28/2024] Open
Abstract
Hydrogels, with their distinctive three-dimensional networks of hydrophilic polymers, drive innovations across various biomedical applications. The ability of hydrogels to absorb and retain significant volumes of water, coupled with their structural integrity and responsiveness to environmental stimuli, renders them ideal for drug delivery, tissue engineering, and wound healing. This review delves into the classification of hydrogels based on cross-linking methods, providing insights into their synthesis, properties, and applications. We further discuss the recent advancements in hydrogel-based drug delivery systems, including oral, injectable, topical, and ocular approaches, highlighting their significance in enhancing therapeutic outcomes. Additionally, we address the challenges faced in the clinical translation of hydrogels and propose future directions for leveraging their potential in personalized medicine and regenerative healthcare solutions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Boya Liu
- Division of Hematology/Oncology, Boston Children’s Hospital, Boston, MA 02115, USA
- Department of Pediatrics, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02115, USA
| | - Kuo Chen
- Department of Polymer Science and Engineering, University of Massachusetts, Amherst, MA 01003, USA
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2
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Traeger H, Kiebala D, Calvino C, Sagara Y, Schrettl S, Weder C, Clough JM. Microscopic strain mapping in polymers equipped with non-covalent mechanochromic motifs. MATERIALS HORIZONS 2023; 10:3467-3475. [PMID: 37350289 PMCID: PMC10463555 DOI: 10.1039/d3mh00650f] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/28/2023] [Accepted: 06/14/2023] [Indexed: 06/24/2023]
Abstract
The mechanical failure of polymers remains challenging to understand and predict, as it often involves highly localised phenomena that cannot be probed with bulk characterisation techniques. Here, we present a generalisable protocol based on optical microscopy, tensile testing, and image processing that permits the spatially resolved interrogation of mechanical deformation at the molecular level around defects in mechanophore-containing polymers. The approach can be applied to a broad range of polymeric materials, mechanophores, and deformation scenarios.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hanna Traeger
- Adolphe Merkle Institute, University of Fribourg, Chemin des Verdiers 4, 1700 Fribourg, Switzerland.
| | - Derek Kiebala
- Adolphe Merkle Institute, University of Fribourg, Chemin des Verdiers 4, 1700 Fribourg, Switzerland.
| | - Céline Calvino
- Cluster of Excellence livMatS, University of Freiburg, Georges-Köhler-Allee 105, D-79110 Freiburg, Germany
| | - Yoshimitsu Sagara
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, Tokyo Institute of Technology, 2-12-1, Ookayama, Meguro-ku, Tokyo 152-8552, Japan
| | - Stephen Schrettl
- Adolphe Merkle Institute, University of Fribourg, Chemin des Verdiers 4, 1700 Fribourg, Switzerland.
- Technical University of Munich, TUM School of Life Sciences, Maximus-von-Imhof-Forum 2, 85354 Freising, Germany
| | - Christoph Weder
- Adolphe Merkle Institute, University of Fribourg, Chemin des Verdiers 4, 1700 Fribourg, Switzerland.
| | - Jess M Clough
- Adolphe Merkle Institute, University of Fribourg, Chemin des Verdiers 4, 1700 Fribourg, Switzerland.
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3
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Zhou Y, Centeno SP, Zhang K, Zheng L, Göstl R, Herrmann A. Fracture Detection in Bio-Glues with Fluorescent-Protein-Based Optical Force Probes. ADVANCED MATERIALS (DEERFIELD BEACH, FLA.) 2023; 35:e2210052. [PMID: 36740969 DOI: 10.1002/adma.202210052] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/31/2022] [Revised: 01/25/2023] [Indexed: 06/18/2023]
Abstract
Glues are being used to bond, seal, and repair in industry and biomedicine. The improvement of gluing performance is hence important for the development of new glues with better and balanced property spaces, which in turn necessitates a mechanistic understanding of their mechanical failure. Optical force probes (OFPs) allow the observation of mechanical material damage in polymers from the macro- down to the microscale, yet have never been employed in glues. Here, the development of a series of ratiometric OFPs based on fluorescent-protein-dye and protein-protein conjugates and their incorporation into genetically engineered bio-glues is reported. The OFPs are designed to efficiently modulate Förster resonance energy transfer upon force application thereby reporting on force-induced molecular alterations independent of concentration and fluorescence intensity both spectrally and through their fluorescence lifetime. By fluorescence spectroscopy in solution and in the solid state and by fluorescence lifetime imaging microscopy, stress concentrations are visualized and adhesive and cohesive failure in the fracture zone is differentiated.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yu Zhou
- DWI - Leibniz Institute for Interactive Materials, Forckenbeckstr. 50, 52056, Aachen, Germany
- Zernike Institute for Advanced Materials, University of Groningen, Nijenborgh 4, Groningen, 9747 AG, The Netherlands
| | - Silvia P Centeno
- DWI - Leibniz Institute for Interactive Materials, Forckenbeckstr. 50, 52056, Aachen, Germany
| | - Kuan Zhang
- DWI - Leibniz Institute for Interactive Materials, Forckenbeckstr. 50, 52056, Aachen, Germany
- Wenzhou Institute, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Wenzhou, 325001, China
- Institute of Technical and Macromolecular Chemistry, RWTH Aachen University, Worringerweg 1, 52074, Aachen, Germany
| | - Lifei Zheng
- DWI - Leibniz Institute for Interactive Materials, Forckenbeckstr. 50, 52056, Aachen, Germany
- Wenzhou Institute, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Wenzhou, 325001, China
| | - Robert Göstl
- DWI - Leibniz Institute for Interactive Materials, Forckenbeckstr. 50, 52056, Aachen, Germany
| | - Andreas Herrmann
- DWI - Leibniz Institute for Interactive Materials, Forckenbeckstr. 50, 52056, Aachen, Germany
- Zernike Institute for Advanced Materials, University of Groningen, Nijenborgh 4, Groningen, 9747 AG, The Netherlands
- Institute of Technical and Macromolecular Chemistry, RWTH Aachen University, Worringerweg 1, 52074, Aachen, Germany
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4
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Watabe T, Otsuka H. Swelling-induced Mechanochromism in Multinetwork Polymers. Angew Chem Int Ed Engl 2023; 62:e202216469. [PMID: 36524463 DOI: 10.1002/anie.202216469] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/08/2022] [Revised: 12/06/2022] [Accepted: 12/14/2022] [Indexed: 12/23/2022]
Abstract
We report a novel and versatile approach to achieving swelling-induced mechanochemistry using a multinetwork (MN) strategy that enables polymer networks to repeatedly swell with monomers and solvents. The isotropic expansion of the first network (FN) provides sufficient force to drive the mechanochemical scission of a radical-based mechanophore, difluorenylsuccinonitrile (DFSN). Although prompt recombination generally occurs in such highly mobile environments, the resulting pink radicals are kinetically stabilized in the gels, probably due to limited diffusion in the extended polymer chains. Moreover, the DFSN embedded in the isotropically strained chain exhibits increased thermal reactivity, which can be reasonably explained by an entropic contribution of the FN to the dissociation. The utility of the MN polymers is demonstrated not only in terms of swelling-force-induced network modification, but also in the context of tunable reactivity of the dissociative unit through proper design of the hierarchical network architecture.
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Affiliation(s)
- Takuma Watabe
- Department of Chemical Science and Engineering, Tokyo Institute of Technology, 2-12-1 Ookayama, Meguro-ku, Tokyo, 152-8550, Japan
| | - Hideyuki Otsuka
- Department of Chemical Science and Engineering, Tokyo Institute of Technology, 2-12-1 Ookayama, Meguro-ku, Tokyo, 152-8550, Japan.,Living Systems Materialogy (LiSM) Research Group, International Research Frontiers Initiative (IRFI), Tokyo Institute of Technology, 4259 Nagatsuta-cho, Midori-ku, Yokohama, 226-8501, Japan
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5
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Huang Q, Hassager O, Madsen J. Spatial Radical Distribution in Fractured Polymer Glasses and Melts Visualized Using a Profluorescent Nitroxide Probe. Macromolecules 2022. [DOI: 10.1021/acs.macromol.2c01594] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Qian Huang
- State Key Laboratory of Polymer Materials Engineering, Polymer Research Institute, Sichuan University, 610065Chengdu, China
- Danish Polymer Centre, Department of Chemical Engineering, Technical University of Denmark, 2800 Kgs. Lyngby, Denmark
| | - Ole Hassager
- Danish Polymer Centre, Department of Chemical Engineering, Technical University of Denmark, 2800 Kgs. Lyngby, Denmark
| | - Jeppe Madsen
- Danish Polymer Centre, Department of Chemical Engineering, Technical University of Denmark, 2800 Kgs. Lyngby, Denmark
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6
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Klok HA, Herrmann A, Göstl R. Force ahead: Emerging Applications and Opportunities of Polymer Mechanochemistry. ACS POLYMERS AU 2022; 2:208-212. [PMID: 35971420 PMCID: PMC9372995 DOI: 10.1021/acspolymersau.2c00029] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Harm-Anton Klok
- Institut
des Matériaux and Institut des Sciences et Ingénierie
Chimiques, Laboratoire des Polymères, École Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne (EPFL), Station 12, CH-1015 Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - Andreas Herrmann
- DWI
− Leibniz Institute for Interactive Materials, Forckenbeckstr. 50, 52056 Aachen, Germany
- Institute
of Technical and Macromolecular Chemistry, RWTH Aachen University, Worringerweg 1, 52074 Aachen, Germany
| | - Robert Göstl
- DWI
− Leibniz Institute for Interactive Materials, Forckenbeckstr. 50, 52056 Aachen, Germany
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7
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Xu B, Luo Z, Xiao R, Wang Z, Yang J. Hybrid phenol-rhodamine dye based mechanochromic double network hydrogels with tunable stress sensitivity. Macromol Rapid Commun 2022; 43:e2200580. [PMID: 35929753 DOI: 10.1002/marc.202200580] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/30/2022] [Revised: 07/28/2022] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
Abstract
Mechanochromic hydrogels, which can switch their color in response to the applied external force, have shown great potential in the stress visualization and damage indication. However, the kinds of the colors in the reported mechanochromic hydrogels are limited. It is challenging to develop the mechanochromic hydrogels with new kinds of color change. Herein, we report a kind of mechanochromic double network (DN) hydrogel based on the hybrid phenol-rhodamine (HPR) mechanophore. The hydrogels turn into orange color with an emission wavelength of around 566/574 nm in response to tensile and compressive stress. The DN hydrogels show great reversibility. The color of DN hydrogels vanishes slowly after releasing the stress. The stress sensitivity can be tailored by the crosslinking density and the mechanophore concentration of the first network. In addition, the influence of the pH on the mechanochromic properties of DN hydrogels is also studied. This study provides an insightful study in tuning the stress sensitivity in the mechanochromic hydrogel, which would be beneficial for the development of the mechanochromic materials. This article is protected by copyright. All rights reserved.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bo Xu
- Key Laboratory of Aerospace Advanced Materials and Performance, Ministry of Education, School of Materials Science and Engineering, Beihang University, Beijing, 100191, P. R. China
| | - Zixiong Luo
- Key Laboratory of Aerospace Advanced Materials and Performance, Ministry of Education, School of Materials Science and Engineering, Beihang University, Beijing, 100191, P. R. China
| | - Rui Xiao
- State Key Laboratory of Fluid Power and Mechatronic Systems, Key Laboratory of Soft Machines and Smart Devices of Zhejiang Province, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, 310027, P. R. China
| | - Zhijian Wang
- Key Laboratory of Aerospace Advanced Materials and Performance, Ministry of Education, School of Materials Science and Engineering, Beihang University, Beijing, 100191, P. R. China
| | - Jiping Yang
- Key Laboratory of Aerospace Advanced Materials and Performance, Ministry of Education, School of Materials Science and Engineering, Beihang University, Beijing, 100191, P. R. China
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8
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Baumann C, Willis‐Fox N, Campagna D, Rognin E, Marten P, Daly R, Göstl R. Regiochemical effects for the mechanochemical activation of
9‐π‐extended anthracene‐maleimide Diels–Alder
adducts. JOURNAL OF POLYMER SCIENCE 2022. [DOI: 10.1002/pol.20220342] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Christoph Baumann
- DWI – Leibniz Institute for Interactive Materials Aachen Germany
- Institute of Technical and Macromolecular Chemistry, RWTH Aachen University Aachen Germany
| | - Niamh Willis‐Fox
- Department of Engineering, Institute for Manufacturing University of Cambridge Cambridge UK
| | - Davide Campagna
- DWI – Leibniz Institute for Interactive Materials Aachen Germany
- Institute of Technical and Macromolecular Chemistry, RWTH Aachen University Aachen Germany
| | - Etienne Rognin
- Department of Engineering, Institute for Manufacturing University of Cambridge Cambridge UK
| | - Paul Marten
- DWI – Leibniz Institute for Interactive Materials Aachen Germany
- Institute of Technical and Macromolecular Chemistry, RWTH Aachen University Aachen Germany
| | - Ronan Daly
- Department of Engineering, Institute for Manufacturing University of Cambridge Cambridge UK
| | - Robert Göstl
- DWI – Leibniz Institute for Interactive Materials Aachen Germany
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9
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Xuan M, Schumacher C, Bolm C, Göstl R, Herrmann A. The Mechanochemical Synthesis and Activation of Carbon-Rich π-Conjugated Materials. ADVANCED SCIENCE (WEINHEIM, BADEN-WURTTEMBERG, GERMANY) 2022; 9:e2105497. [PMID: 35048569 PMCID: PMC9259731 DOI: 10.1002/advs.202105497] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/29/2021] [Revised: 12/21/2021] [Indexed: 05/14/2023]
Abstract
Mechanochemistry uses mechanical force to break, form, and manipulate chemical bonds to achieve functional transformations and syntheses. Over the last years, many innovative applications of mechanochemistry have been developed. Specifically for the synthesis and activation of carbon-rich π-conjugated materials, mechanochemistry offers reaction pathways that either are inaccessible with other stimuli, such as light and heat, or improve reaction yields, energy consumption, and substrate scope. Therefore, this review summarizes the recent advances in this research field combining the viewpoints of polymer and trituration mechanochemistry. The highlighted mechanochemical transformations include π-conjugated materials as optical force probes, the force-induced release of small dye molecules, and the mechanochemical synthesis of polyacetylene, carbon allotropes, and other π-conjugated materials.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mingjun Xuan
- DWI – Leibniz Institute for Interactive MaterialsForckenbeckstr. 50Aachen52056Germany
- Institute of Technical and Macromolecular ChemistryRWTH Aachen UniversityWorringerweg 1Aachen52074Germany
| | - Christian Schumacher
- Institute of Organic ChemistryRWTH Aachen UniversityLandoltweg 1Aachen52074Germany
| | - Carsten Bolm
- Institute of Organic ChemistryRWTH Aachen UniversityLandoltweg 1Aachen52074Germany
| | - Robert Göstl
- DWI – Leibniz Institute for Interactive MaterialsForckenbeckstr. 50Aachen52056Germany
| | - Andreas Herrmann
- DWI – Leibniz Institute for Interactive MaterialsForckenbeckstr. 50Aachen52056Germany
- Institute of Technical and Macromolecular ChemistryRWTH Aachen UniversityWorringerweg 1Aachen52074Germany
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10
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Izak‐Nau E, Braun S, Pich A, Göstl R. Mechanically Resistant Poly(N-vinylcaprolactam) Microgels with Sacrificial Supramolecular Catechin Hydrogen Bonds. ADVANCED SCIENCE (WEINHEIM, BADEN-WURTTEMBERG, GERMANY) 2022; 9:e2104004. [PMID: 35187862 PMCID: PMC9036020 DOI: 10.1002/advs.202104004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/10/2021] [Revised: 01/10/2022] [Indexed: 06/14/2023]
Abstract
Microgels (μgels) swiftly undergo structural and functional degradation when they are exposed to shear forces, which potentially limit their applicability in, e.g., biomedicine and engineering. Here, poly(N-vinylcaprolactam) μgels that resist mechanical disruption through supramolecular hydrogen bonds provided by (+)-catechin hydrate (+C) are synthesized. When +C is added to the microgel structure, an increased resistance against shear force exerted by ultrasonication is observed compared to μgels crosslinked by covalent bonds. While covalently crosslinked μgels degrade already after a few seconds, it is found that μgels having both supramolecular interchain interactions and covalent crosslinks show the highest mechanical durability. By the incorporation of optical force probes, it is found that the covalent bonds of the μgels are not stressed beyond their scission threshold and mechanical energy is dissipated by the force-induced reversible dissociation of the sacrificial +C bonds for at least 20 min of ultrasonication. Additionally, +C renders the μgels pH-sensitive and introduces multiresponsivity. The μgels are extensively characterized using Fourier-transform infrared, Raman and quantitative nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy, dynamic light scattering, and cryogenic transmission electron microscopy. These results may serve as blueprint for the preparation of many mechanically durable μgels.
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Affiliation(s)
- Emilia Izak‐Nau
- DWI – Leibniz Institute for Interactive MaterialsForckenbeckstr. 50Aachen52056Germany
| | - Susanne Braun
- DWI – Leibniz Institute for Interactive MaterialsForckenbeckstr. 50Aachen52056Germany
- Institute of Technical and Macromolecular ChemistryRWTH Aachen UniversityWorringerweg 1Aachen52074Germany
| | - Andrij Pich
- DWI – Leibniz Institute for Interactive MaterialsForckenbeckstr. 50Aachen52056Germany
- Institute of Technical and Macromolecular ChemistryRWTH Aachen UniversityWorringerweg 1Aachen52074Germany
- Aachen Maastricht Institute for Biobased Materials (AMIBM) Maastricht UniversityBrightlands Chemelot CampusGeleen6167 RDThe Netherlands
| | - Robert Göstl
- DWI – Leibniz Institute for Interactive MaterialsForckenbeckstr. 50Aachen52056Germany
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11
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Yamakado T, Saito S. Ratiometric Flapping Force Probe That Works in Polymer Gels. J Am Chem Soc 2022; 144:2804-2815. [PMID: 35108003 DOI: 10.1021/jacs.1c12955] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 20.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
Polymer gels have recently attracted attention for their application in flexible devices, where mechanically robust gels are required. While there are many strategies to produce tough gels by suppressing nanoscale stress concentration on specific polymer chains, it is still challenging to directly verify the toughening mechanism at the molecular level. To solve this problem, the use of the flapping molecular force probe (FLAP) is promising because it can evaluate the nanoscale forces transmitted in the polymer chain network by ratiometric analysis of a stress-dependent dual fluorescence. A flexible conformational change of FLAP enables real-time and reversible responses to the nanoscale forces at the low force threshold, which is suitable for quantifying the percentage of the stressed polymer chains before structural damage. However, the previously reported FLAP only showed a negligible response in solvated environments because undesirable spontaneous planarization occurs in the excited state, even without mechanical force. Here, we have developed a new ratiometric force probe that functions in common organogels. Replacement of the anthraceneimide units in the flapping wings with pyreneimide units largely suppresses the excited-state planarization, leading to the force probe function under wet conditions. The FLAP-doped polyurethane organogel reversibly shows a dual-fluorescence response under sub-MPa compression. Moreover, the structurally modified FLAP is also advantageous in the wide dynamic range of its fluorescence response in solvent-free elastomers, enabling clearer ratiometric fluorescence imaging of the molecular-level stress concentration during crack growth in a stretched polyurethane film.
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Affiliation(s)
- Takuya Yamakado
- Graduate School of Science, Kyoto University, Kitashirakawa Oiwake-cho, Sakyo-ku, Kyoto 606-8502, Japan
| | - Shohei Saito
- Graduate School of Science, Kyoto University, Kitashirakawa Oiwake-cho, Sakyo-ku, Kyoto 606-8502, Japan
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12
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Stratigaki M, Baumann C, Göstl R. Confocal Microscopy Visualizes Particle–Crack Interactions in Epoxy Composites with Optical Force Probe-Cross-Linked Rubber Particles. Macromolecules 2022. [DOI: 10.1021/acs.macromol.1c02366] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Maria Stratigaki
- DWI─Leibniz Institute for Interactive Materials, Forckenbeckstr. 50, 52056 Aachen, Germany
| | - Christoph Baumann
- DWI─Leibniz Institute for Interactive Materials, Forckenbeckstr. 50, 52056 Aachen, Germany
- Institute of Technical and Macromolecular Chemistry, RWTH Aachen University, Worringerweg 1, 52074 Aachen, Germany
| | - Robert Göstl
- DWI─Leibniz Institute for Interactive Materials, Forckenbeckstr. 50, 52056 Aachen, Germany
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13
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He S, Stratigaki M, Centeno SP, Dreuw A, Göstl R. Tailoring the Properties of Optical Force Probes for Polymer Mechanochemistry. Chemistry 2021; 27:15889-15897. [PMID: 34582082 PMCID: PMC9292383 DOI: 10.1002/chem.202102938] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/11/2021] [Indexed: 02/05/2023]
Abstract
The correlation of mechanical properties of polymer materials with those of their molecular constituents is the foundation for their holistic comprehension and eventually for improved material designs and syntheses. Over the last decade, optical force probes (OFPs) were developed, shedding light on various unique mechanical behaviors of materials. The properties of polymers are diverse, ranging from soft hydrogels to ultra-tough composites, from purely elastic rubbers to viscous colloidal solutions, and from transparent glasses to super black dyed coatings. Only very recently, researchers started to develop tailored OFP solutions that account for such material requirements in energy (both light and force), in time, and in their spatially detectable resolution. We here highlight notable recent examples and identify future challenges in this emergent field.
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Affiliation(s)
- Siyang He
- DWI - Leibniz Institute for Interactive MaterialsForckenbeckstr. 5052056AachenGermany
- Institute of Technical and Macromolecular ChemistryRWTH Aachen UniversityWorringerweg 152074AachenGermany
| | - Maria Stratigaki
- DWI - Leibniz Institute for Interactive MaterialsForckenbeckstr. 5052056AachenGermany
| | - Silvia P. Centeno
- DWI - Leibniz Institute for Interactive MaterialsForckenbeckstr. 5052056AachenGermany
| | - Andreas Dreuw
- Interdisciplinary Center for Scientific ComputingHeidelberg UniversityIm Neuenheimer Feld 20569120HeidelbergGermany
| | - Robert Göstl
- DWI - Leibniz Institute for Interactive MaterialsForckenbeckstr. 5052056AachenGermany
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14
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Hemmer JR, Rader C, Wilts BD, Weder C, Berrocal JA. Heterolytic Bond Cleavage in a Scissile Triarylmethane Mechanophore. J Am Chem Soc 2021; 143:18859-18863. [PMID: 34735137 DOI: 10.1021/jacs.1c10004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Abstract
Covalent mechanophores display the cleavage of a weak covalent bond when a sufficiently high mechanical force is applied. Three different covalent bond breaking mechanisms have been documented thus far, including concerted, homolytic, and heterolytic scission. Motifs that display heterolytic cleavage typically separate according to non-scissile reaction pathways that afford zwitterions. Here, we report a new mechanochromic triarylmethane mechanophore, which dissociates according to a scissile heterolytic pathway and displays a pronounced mechanochromic response. The mechanophore was equipped with two styrenylic handles that allowed its incorporation as a cross-linker into poly(N,N-dimethylacrylamide) and poly(methyl acrylate-co-2-hydroxyethyl acrylate) networks. These materials are originally colorless, but compression or tensile deformation renders the materials colored. By combining tensile testing and in situ transmittance measurements, we show that this effect is related to scissile cleavage leading to colored triarylmethane carbocations.
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Affiliation(s)
- James R Hemmer
- Adolphe Merkle Institute, University of Fribourg, Chemin des Verdiers 4, 1700 Fribourg, Switzerland
| | - Chris Rader
- Adolphe Merkle Institute, University of Fribourg, Chemin des Verdiers 4, 1700 Fribourg, Switzerland
| | - Bodo D Wilts
- Adolphe Merkle Institute, University of Fribourg, Chemin des Verdiers 4, 1700 Fribourg, Switzerland.,Department of Chemistry and Physics of Materials, University of Salzburg, Jakob-Haringer-Str. 2a, 5020 Salzburg, Austria
| | - Christoph Weder
- Adolphe Merkle Institute, University of Fribourg, Chemin des Verdiers 4, 1700 Fribourg, Switzerland
| | - José Augusto Berrocal
- Adolphe Merkle Institute, University of Fribourg, Chemin des Verdiers 4, 1700 Fribourg, Switzerland
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15
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Sanoja GE, Morelle XP, Comtet J, Yeh CJ, Ciccotti M, Creton C. Why is mechanical fatigue different from toughness in elastomers? The role of damage by polymer chain scission. SCIENCE ADVANCES 2021; 7:eabg9410. [PMID: 34644114 PMCID: PMC8514099 DOI: 10.1126/sciadv.abg9410] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/05/2021] [Accepted: 08/20/2021] [Indexed: 05/22/2023]
Abstract
Although elastomers often experience 10 to 100 million cycles before failure, there is now a limited understanding of their resistance to fatigue crack propagation. We tagged soft and tough double-network elastomers with mechanofluorescent probes and quantified damage by sacrificial bond scission after crack propagation under cyclic and monotonic loading. Damage along fracture surfaces and its spatial localization depend on the elastomer design, as well as on the applied load (i.e., cyclic or monotonic). The key result is that reversible elasticity and strain hardening at low and intermediate strains dictates fatigue resistance, whereas energy dissipation at high strains controls toughness. This information serves to engineer fatigue-resistant elastomers, understand fracture mechanisms, and reduce the environmental footprint of the polymer industry.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gabriel E. Sanoja
- Sciences et Ingénierie de la Matière Molle, ESPCI Paris, Université PSL, Sorbonne Université, CNRS UMR 7615, 75005 Paris, France
- McKetta Department of Chemical Engineering, The University of Texas at Austin, Austin, TX, 78712, USA
- Corresponding author. (G.E.S.); (C.C.)
| | - Xavier P. Morelle
- Sciences et Ingénierie de la Matière Molle, ESPCI Paris, Université PSL, Sorbonne Université, CNRS UMR 7615, 75005 Paris, France
| | - Jean Comtet
- Sciences et Ingénierie de la Matière Molle, ESPCI Paris, Université PSL, Sorbonne Université, CNRS UMR 7615, 75005 Paris, France
| | - C. Joshua Yeh
- Sciences et Ingénierie de la Matière Molle, ESPCI Paris, Université PSL, Sorbonne Université, CNRS UMR 7615, 75005 Paris, France
| | - Matteo Ciccotti
- Sciences et Ingénierie de la Matière Molle, ESPCI Paris, Université PSL, Sorbonne Université, CNRS UMR 7615, 75005 Paris, France
| | - Costantino Creton
- Sciences et Ingénierie de la Matière Molle, ESPCI Paris, Université PSL, Sorbonne Université, CNRS UMR 7615, 75005 Paris, France
- Global Station for Soft Matter, Global Institution for Collaborative Research and Education, Hokkaido University, 001-0021 Sapporo, Japan
- Corresponding author. (G.E.S.); (C.C.)
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16
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Abstract
AbstractOptical force probes (OFPs) are force-responsive molecules that report on mechanically induced transformations by the alteration of their optical properties. Yet, their modular design and incorporation into polymer architectures at desired positions is challenging. Here we report triazole-extended anthracene OFPs that combine two modular ‘click’ reactions in their synthesis potentially allowing their incorporation at desirable positions in complex polymer materials. Importantly, these retain the excellent optical properties of their parent 9-π-extended anthracene OFP counterparts.
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Affiliation(s)
- Robert Göstl
- DWI – Leibniz Institute for Interactive Materials
| | - Christoph Baumann
- DWI – Leibniz Institute for Interactive Materials
- Institute of Technical and Macromolecular Chemistry, RWTH Aachen University
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17
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Magrini T, Kiebala D, Grimm D, Nelson A, Schrettl S, Bouville F, Weder C, Studart AR. Tough Bioinspired Composites That Self-Report Damage. ACS APPLIED MATERIALS & INTERFACES 2021; 13:27481-27490. [PMID: 34076408 DOI: 10.1021/acsami.1c05964] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/12/2023]
Abstract
The increasing use of lightweight composite materials in structural applications requires the development of new damage monitoring technologies to ensure their safe use and prevent accidents. Although several molecular strategies have been proposed to report damage in polymers through mechanochromic responses, these approaches have not yet been translated into lightweight bioinspired composites for load-bearing applications. Here, we report on the development of bioinspired laminates of alternating polymer and nacre-like layers that combine optical translucency, high fracture toughness, and damage-reporting capabilities. The composites signal damage via a fluorescence color change that arises from the force activation of mechanophore molecules embedded in the material's polymer phase. A quantitative correlation between the applied strain and the fluorescence intensity was successfully established. We demonstrate that optical imaging of mechanically loaded composites allows for the localized detection of damage prior to fracture. This fluorescence-based self-reporting mechanism offers a promising approach for the early detection of damage in lightweight structural composites and can serve as a useful tool for the analysis of fracture processes in bulk transparent materials.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tommaso Magrini
- Complex Materials, Department of Materials, ETH Zürich, Zürich 8093, Switzerland
| | - Derek Kiebala
- Adolphe Merkle Institute, University of Fribourg, Fribourg 1700, Switzerland
| | - Dominique Grimm
- Complex Materials, Department of Materials, ETH Zürich, Zürich 8093, Switzerland
| | - Anna Nelson
- Complex Materials, Department of Materials, ETH Zürich, Zürich 8093, Switzerland
| | - Stephen Schrettl
- Adolphe Merkle Institute, University of Fribourg, Fribourg 1700, Switzerland
| | - Florian Bouville
- Centre for Advanced Structural Ceramics, Department of Materials, Imperial College London, London SW7 2AZ, United Kingdom
| | - Christoph Weder
- Adolphe Merkle Institute, University of Fribourg, Fribourg 1700, Switzerland
| | - André R Studart
- Complex Materials, Department of Materials, ETH Zürich, Zürich 8093, Switzerland
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18
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Baumann C, Stratigaki M, Centeno SP, Göstl R. Multicolor Mechanofluorophores for the Quantitative Detection of Covalent Bond Scission in Polymers. Angew Chem Int Ed Engl 2021; 60:13287-13293. [PMID: 33783112 PMCID: PMC8252433 DOI: 10.1002/anie.202101716] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/03/2021] [Revised: 03/23/2021] [Indexed: 01/28/2023]
Abstract
The fracture of polymer materials is a multiscale process starting with the scission of a single molecular bond advancing to a site of failure within the bulk. Quantifying the bonds broken during this process remains a big challenge yet would help to understand the distribution and dissipation of macroscopic mechanical energy. We here show the design and synthesis of fluorogenic molecular optical force probes (mechanofluorophores) covering the entire visible spectrum in both absorption and emission. Their dual fluorescent character allows to track non-broken and broken bonds in dissolved and bulk polymers by fluorescence spectroscopy and microscopy. Importantly, we develop an approach to determine the absolute number and relative fraction of intact and cleaved bonds with high local resolution. We anticipate that our mechanofluorophores in combination with our quantification methodology will allow to quantitatively describe fracture processes in materials ranging from soft hydrogels to high-performance polymers.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christoph Baumann
- DWI—Leibniz Institute for Interactive MaterialsForckenbeckstr. 5052056AachenGermany
- Institute of Technical and Macromolecular ChemistryRWTH Aachen UniversityWorringerweg 152074AachenGermany
| | - Maria Stratigaki
- DWI—Leibniz Institute for Interactive MaterialsForckenbeckstr. 5052056AachenGermany
| | - Silvia P. Centeno
- DWI—Leibniz Institute for Interactive MaterialsForckenbeckstr. 5052056AachenGermany
- Institute of Physical ChemistryRWTH Aachen UniversityLandoltweg 252074AachenGermany
| | - Robert Göstl
- DWI—Leibniz Institute for Interactive MaterialsForckenbeckstr. 5052056AachenGermany
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19
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Baumann C, Stratigaki M, Centeno SP, Göstl R. Mehrfarbige Mechanofluorophore für die quantitative Anzeige kovalenter Bindungsbrüche in Polymeren. Angew Chem Int Ed Engl 2021. [DOI: 10.1002/ange.202101716] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Christoph Baumann
- DWI – Leibniz-Institut für Interaktive Materialien Forckenbeckstr. 50 52056 Aachen Deutschland
- Institut für Technische und Makromolekulare Chemie RWTH Aachen Worringerweg 1 52074 Aachen Deutschland
| | - Maria Stratigaki
- DWI – Leibniz-Institut für Interaktive Materialien Forckenbeckstr. 50 52056 Aachen Deutschland
| | - Silvia P. Centeno
- DWI – Leibniz-Institut für Interaktive Materialien Forckenbeckstr. 50 52056 Aachen Deutschland
- Institut für Physikalische Chemie RWTH Aachen Landoltweg 2 52074 Aachen Deutschland
| | - Robert Göstl
- DWI – Leibniz-Institut für Interaktive Materialien Forckenbeckstr. 50 52056 Aachen Deutschland
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20
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Wang T, Wang H, Shen L, Zhang N. Multicolor mechanochromism of a multinetwork elastomer that can distinguish between low and high stress. Polym Chem 2021. [DOI: 10.1039/d1py00637a] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
We report our findings on a multicolor mechanochromic elastomer that is able to discriminate between low and high stress. The key point of our design depends on the introduction of two UV-inert mechanophores into different polymer networks.
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Affiliation(s)
- Taisheng Wang
- School of Materials Science and Engineering
- Nanjing Institute of Technology
- Nanjing
- P. R. China
- Jiangsu Key Laboratory of Advanced Structural Materials and Application Technology
| | - Haoxiang Wang
- School of Materials Science and Engineering
- Nanjing Institute of Technology
- Nanjing
- P. R. China
| | - Lei Shen
- School of Materials Science and Engineering
- Nanjing Institute of Technology
- Nanjing
- P. R. China
| | - Na Zhang
- School of Materials Science and Engineering
- Nanjing Institute of Technology
- Nanjing
- P. R. China
- Jiangsu Key Laboratory of Advanced Structural Materials and Application Technology
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21
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Chen Y, Mellot G, van Luijk D, Creton C, Sijbesma RP. Mechanochemical tools for polymer materials. Chem Soc Rev 2021; 50:4100-4140. [DOI: 10.1039/d0cs00940g] [Citation(s) in RCA: 112] [Impact Index Per Article: 37.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
This review aims to provide a field guide for the implementation of mechanochemistry in synthetic polymers by summarizing the molecules, materials, and methods that have been developed in this field.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yinjun Chen
- Department of Chemical Engineering & Chemistry and Institute for Complex Molecular Systems
- Eindhoven University of Technology
- 5600 MB Eindhoven
- The Netherlands
| | - Gaëlle Mellot
- Laboratoire Sciences et Ingénierie de la Matière Molle
- ESPCI Paris
- PSL University
- Sorbonne Université
- CNRS
| | - Diederik van Luijk
- Department of Chemical Engineering & Chemistry and Institute for Complex Molecular Systems
- Eindhoven University of Technology
- 5600 MB Eindhoven
- The Netherlands
| | - Costantino Creton
- Laboratoire Sciences et Ingénierie de la Matière Molle
- ESPCI Paris
- PSL University
- Sorbonne Université
- CNRS
| | - Rint P. Sijbesma
- Department of Chemical Engineering & Chemistry and Institute for Complex Molecular Systems
- Eindhoven University of Technology
- 5600 MB Eindhoven
- The Netherlands
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22
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Matsuda T, Kawakami R, Nakajima T, Gong JP. Crack Tip Field of a Double-Network Gel: Visualization of Covalent Bond Scission through Mechanoradical Polymerization. Macromolecules 2020. [DOI: 10.1021/acs.macromol.0c01485] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Takahiro Matsuda
- Faculty of Advanced Life Science, Hokkaido University, N21W11, Kita-ku, Sapporo 001-0021, Japan
| | - Runa Kawakami
- Graduate School of Life Science, Hokkaido University, N21W11, Kita-ku, Sapporo 001-0021, Japan
| | - Tasuku Nakajima
- Faculty of Advanced Life Science, Hokkaido University, N21W11, Kita-ku, Sapporo 001-0021, Japan
- Soft Matter GI-CoRE, Hokkaido University, N21W10, Kita-ku, Sapporo 001-0021, Japan
- Institute for Chemical Reaction Design and Discovery (WPI-ICReDD), Hokkaido University, N21W10, Kita-ku, Sapporo 001-0021, Japan
| | - Jian Ping Gong
- Faculty of Advanced Life Science, Hokkaido University, N21W11, Kita-ku, Sapporo 001-0021, Japan
- Soft Matter GI-CoRE, Hokkaido University, N21W10, Kita-ku, Sapporo 001-0021, Japan
- Institute for Chemical Reaction Design and Discovery (WPI-ICReDD), Hokkaido University, N21W10, Kita-ku, Sapporo 001-0021, Japan
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23
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Luo GF, Chen WH, Zhang XZ. 100th Anniversary of Macromolecular Science Viewpoint: Poly( N-isopropylacrylamide)-Based Thermally Responsive Micelles. ACS Macro Lett 2020; 9:872-881. [PMID: 35648534 DOI: 10.1021/acsmacrolett.0c00342] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/08/2023]
Abstract
Poly(N-isopropylacrylamide) (PNIPAAm)-based thermally responsive micelles are of great importance as smart materials for a number of applications such as drug delivery and biosensing, owing to their tunable lower critical solution temperature (LCST). Their design and synthesis in the nanoscale size range have been widely studied, and research interest in their structural and physic-chemical properties is continually growing. In this Viewpoint, representative research on the construction of PNIPAAm-based thermally responsive micelles as well as their applications are highlighted and discussed, which would serve as a good start for newcomers in this field and a positive guide for future research.
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Affiliation(s)
- Guo-Feng Luo
- Key Laboratory of Biomedical Polymers of Ministry of Education and Department of Chemistry, Wuhan University, Wuhan 430072, People’s Republic of China
| | - Wei-Hai Chen
- Key Laboratory of Biomedical Polymers of Ministry of Education and Department of Chemistry, Wuhan University, Wuhan 430072, People’s Republic of China
| | - Xian-Zheng Zhang
- Key Laboratory of Biomedical Polymers of Ministry of Education and Department of Chemistry, Wuhan University, Wuhan 430072, People’s Republic of China
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24
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Stratigaki M, Göstl R. Methods for Exerting and Sensing Force in Polymer Materials Using Mechanophores. Chempluschem 2020; 85:1095-1103. [PMID: 31958366 DOI: 10.1002/cplu.201900737] [Citation(s) in RCA: 60] [Impact Index Per Article: 15.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/17/2019] [Revised: 01/17/2020] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
In recent years, polymer mechanochemistry has evolved as a methodology to provide insights into the action-reaction relationships of polymers and polymer-based materials and composites in terms of macroscopic force application (stress) and subsequent deformation (strain) through a mechanophore-assisted coupling of mechanical and chemical phenomena. The perplexity of the process, however, from the viewpoint of mechanophore activation via a molecular-scaled disruption of the structure that yields a macroscopically detectable optical signal, renders this otherwise rapidly evolving field challenging. Motivated by this, we highlight here recent advancements of polymer mechanochemistry with particular focus on the establishment of methodologies for the efficient activation and quantification of mechanophores and anticipate to aptly pinpoint unresolved matters and limitations of the respective approaches, thus highlighting possible developments.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maria Stratigaki
- DWI - Leibniz Institute for Interactive Materials, Forckenbeckstr. 50, 52056, Aachen, Germany
| | - Robert Göstl
- DWI - Leibniz Institute for Interactive Materials, Forckenbeckstr. 50, 52056, Aachen, Germany
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25
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Izak-Nau E, Campagna D, Baumann C, Göstl R. Polymer mechanochemistry-enabled pericyclic reactions. Polym Chem 2020. [DOI: 10.1039/c9py01937e] [Citation(s) in RCA: 56] [Impact Index Per Article: 14.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
Polymer mechanochemical pericyclic reactions are reviewed with regard to their structural features and substitution prerequisites to the polymer framework.
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Affiliation(s)
- Emilia Izak-Nau
- DWI – Leibniz Institute for Interactive Materials
- 52056 Aachen
- Germany
| | - Davide Campagna
- DWI – Leibniz Institute for Interactive Materials
- 52056 Aachen
- Germany
- Institute for Technical and Macromolecular Chemistry
- RWTH Aachen University
| | - Christoph Baumann
- DWI – Leibniz Institute for Interactive Materials
- 52056 Aachen
- Germany
- Institute for Technical and Macromolecular Chemistry
- RWTH Aachen University
| | - Robert Göstl
- DWI – Leibniz Institute for Interactive Materials
- 52056 Aachen
- Germany
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