Reading and metaphonological outcomes in late talkers

Capturing the Heterogeneity of Word Learners by Analyzing Persons

Accurately capturing children's word learning abilities is critical for advancing our understanding of language development. Researchers have demonstrated that utilizing more complex statistical methods, such as mixed-effects regression and hierarchical linear modeling, can lead to a more complete understanding of the variability observed within children's word learning abilities. In the current paper, we demonstrate how a person-centered approach to data analysis can provide additional insights into the heterogeneity of word learning ability among children while also aiding researchers' efforts to draw individual-level conclusions. Using previously published data with 32 typically developing and 32 late-talking infants who completed a novel noun generalization (NNG) task to assess word learning biases (i.e., shape and material biases), we compare this person-centered method to three traditional statistical approaches: (1) a t-test against chance, (2) an analysis of variance (ANOVA), and (3) a mixed-effects regression. With each comparison, we present a novel question raised by the person-centered approach and show how results from the corresponding analyses can lead to greater nuance in our understanding of children's word learning capabilities. Person-centered methods, then, are shown to be valuable tools that should be added to the growing body of sophisticated statistical procedures used by modern researchers.

Early, typical, and late talkers: an exploratory study on predictors of language development in the first two years of life

Background

The consensus in scientific literature is that each child undergoes a unique linguistic development path, albeit with shared developmental stages. Some children excel or lag behind their peers in language skills. Consequently, a key challenge in language acquisition research is pinpointing factors influencing individual differences in language development.

Methods

We observed children longitudinally from 3 to 24 months of life to explore early predictors of vocabulary size. Based on the productive vocabulary size of children at 24 months, 30 children met our sample selection criteria: 10 late talkers and 10 early talkers, and we compared them with 10 typical talkers. We evaluated interactive behaviors at 3, 6, 9 and 12 months, considering vocal production, gaze at mother's face, and gestural production during mother-child interactions, and we considered mothers' report of children's actions and gestures and receptive-vocabulary size at 15 and 18 months.

Results

Results indicated early precursors of language outcome at 24 months identifiable as early as 3 months in vocal productions, 6 months for gaze at mother's face and 12 months for gestural productions.

Conclusions

Our research highlights both theoretical and practical implications. Theoretically, identifying the early indicators of belonging to the group of late or early talkers underscores the significant role of this developmental period for future studies. On a practical note, our findings emphasize the crucial need for early investigations to identify predictors of vocabulary development before the typical age at which lexical delay is identified.

From Recognizing Known Words to Learning New Ones: Comparing Online Speech Processing in Typically Developing and Late-Talking 2-Year-Olds

PURPOSE

This study examines online speech processing in typically developing and late-talking 2-year-old children, comparing both groups' word recognition, word prediction, and word learning.

METHOD

English-acquiring U.S. children, from the "When to Worry" study of language and social-emotional development, were identified as typical talkers (n = 67, M age = 27.0 months, SD = 1.4; Study 1) or late talkers (n = 30, M age = 27.0 months, SD = 2.0; Study 2). Children completed an eye-tracking task assessing their ability to recognize both nouns and verbs, to use verbs to predict an upcoming noun's referent, and to use verbs to infer the meaning of novel nouns.

RESULTS

Both typical and late talkers recognized nouns and verbs and used familiar verbs to predict the referents of upcoming nouns, whether the noun was familiar ("You can eat the apple") or novel ("You can eat the dax"). Late talkers were slower in using familiar nouns to orient to the target and were both slower and less accurate in using familiar verbs to identify the upcoming noun's referent. Notably, however, both groups learned and retained novel word meanings with similar success.

CONCLUSIONS

Late talkers demonstrated slower lexical processing, especially for verbs. Yet, their success in using familiar verbs to learn novel nouns suggests that, as a group, their slower processing did not impair word learning in this task. This sets the foundation for future work investigating whether these measures predict later language outcomes and can differentiate late talkers with transient delays from those with language disorders.

Language Difficulties in School-Age Children With Developmental Dyslexia

Developmental dyslexia (DD) is a common reading disability, affecting 5% to 11% of children in North America. Children classified as having DD often have a history of early language delay (ELD) or language impairments. Nevertheless, studies have reported conflicting results as to the association between DD-ELD and the extent of current language difficulties in children with DD. To examine these relationships, we queried the parents of school-age children with reading difficulties on their child's early and current language ability. Siblings were also examined. Children were directly assessed using quantitative tests of language and reading skills. To compare this study with the literature, we divided the sample (N = 674) into three groups: DD, intermediate readers (IR), and skilled readers (SR). We found a significant association between DD and ELD, with parents of children in the DD/IR groups reporting their children put words together later than the SR group. We also found a significant association between DD and language difficulties, with children with low reading skills having low expressive/receptive language abilities. Finally, we identified early language predicted current language, which predicted reading skills. These data contribute to research indicating that children with DD experience language difficulties, suggesting early recognition may help identify reading problems.

Sex differences in early language delay and in developmental language disorder

Developmental language disorder (DLD) is a neurodevelopmental condition, occurring in about 3% to 7% of preschoolers, that can impair communication and negatively impact educational and social attainments, in spite of adequate neurological, cognitive, emotional, social development, and educational opportunities for language learning. Significant risk factors for DLD are male sex, familial history of early language delay, low parental education, and various perinatal factors. A strong sex effect with a higher prevalence of language delay and DLD in males than in females has been consistently reported. Neurobiological and environmental risk factors, interacting with each other, are probably responsible for the phenotypic expression of DLD. The aim of this brief review is to further the knowledge of the role of sex in early language delay and DLD by analyzing the evidence from four significant sources: epidemiological studies, studies on twins, family aggregation studies, and studies on sex chromosome trisomies. Data pertaining only to sex differences (biological and physiological characteristics of females and males) will be analyzed. Studies on family aggregations and twins confirm the role of genetic factors and of sex in determining language abilities and disabilities, but genes alone do not determine outcomes. Sex chromosome trisomies represent a unique example of the relationship between a genetic alteration and a language disorder. Clarification of how sex acts in determining DLD could provide new information on early risk factors and, thus, contribute to improve diagnosis and clinical management.

School-entry language outcomes in late talkers with and without a family risk of dyslexia

Children with familial risk (FR) of dyslexia and children with early language delay are known to be at risk for later language and literacy difficulties. However, research addressing long-term outcomes in children with both risk factors is scarce. This study tracked FR and No-FR children identified as late talkers at 2 years of age and reports development from 4;6 through 6 years. We examined the possible effects of FR-status and late talking (LT) status, respectively, on language skills at school entry, and whether FR-status moderated the associations between 4;6-year and 6-year language scores. Results indicated an effect of LT status on language at both ages, while FR status affected language skills at 6 years only. The interaction between LT and FR statuses was not significant, implying that LT status affected language skills independently of the child's FR status. A proportion of late talkers developed typical language at 6 years of age, while some FR children with typical vocabulary skills in toddlerhood had emerging developmental language disorder by school entry. FR status had a moderating effect on the association between expressive grammar at ages 4;6 and 6 years. Possible explanations for the effect of FR status on language skills are discussed. We highlight limitations in the study size and suggest how these preliminary findings can inform future research.

Children With Persistent Versus Transient Early Language Delay: Language, Academic, and Psychosocial Outcomes in Elementary School

Purpose The objective of this study was to compare children with persistent versus transient preschool language delay on language, academic, and psychosocial outcomes in elementary school. Method Children with persistent language delay (n = 30), transient language delay (n = 29), and no language delay (controls; n = 163) were identified from a population-based sample of twins. They were compared on language skills, academic achievement, and psychosocial adjustment in kindergarten and Grades 1, 3, 4, and 6. Results Children with persistent language delay continued to show language difficulties throughout elementary school. Furthermore, they had academic difficulties, in numeracy, and psychosocial difficulties (attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder behaviors, externalizing behaviors, peer difficulties) from Grade 1 to Grade 6. Children with transient language delay did not differ from controls on language and academic performance. However, they showed more externalizing behaviors in kindergarten and peer difficulties in Grade 1 than controls. Conclusion Difficulties at school age are widespread and enduring in those with persistent early language delay but appear specific to psychosocial adjustment in those with transient language delay.

Predicting Literacy Skills at 8 Years From Preschool Language Trajectories: A Population-Based Cohort Study

Purpose This article explored the predictive values of three main language delay (LD) trajectories (i.e., persistent, late onset, and transient) across 3-5 years on poor literacy at 8 years. Additionally, the effect of gender was assessed, using both gender-neutral and gender-specific thresholds. Method The data comprised mother-reported questionnaire data for 8,371 children in the Norwegian Mother, Father, and Child Cohort Study. Analyses were conducted using binary logistic regression in SPSS to make predictions about risk. Results LD reported at preschool age was associated with excess risk of poor literacy at 8 years with odds ratios ranging from 3.19 to 9.75 dependent on trajectory, persistent LD being the strongest predictor. The odds ratio of transient LD was similar to that of late-onset LD. Gender was not found to play an important role in the association between oral language and literacy, as the gender difference disappeared when gender-specific deficit criterion was used. Conclusion Our study supports the longitudinal association between preschool oral language and school-aged literacy skills and highlights the importance of different LD trajectories across preschool ages in predicting later literacy. Furthermore, practitioners are recommended to consider gender-specific cutoffs in relation to language and literacy measures.

Speech production abilities of 4- to 5-year-old children with and without a history of late talking: The tricky tyrannosaurus

Purpose: Research on the speech production abilities of children with a history of late talking (HLT) is limited. We compared 4- to 5-year-old children with and without a HLT on a routine speech assessment and a single-word polysyllable assessment.Method: The two speech assessments were administered to 13 children with a HLT (4;4-5;9 years) and 11 children with a history of typical development (HTD) (4;1-5;10 years). Data were analysed using descriptive and inferential statistics.Result: The HLT group had significantly poorer speech accuracy than the HTD group on both the routine speech and polysyllable assessments. The HLT group also showed a significantly higher percentage occurrence of consonant omissions on both speech assessments compared to the HTD group. Descriptive analysis of participants' polysyllable productions indicated that the HLT group showed a higher percentage occurrence of a range of error types compared to the HTD group.Conclusion: By 4-5 years of age, children who were late to talk had speech production abilities that were significantly poorer than their peers who were not late to talk, suggesting continued underlying differences.

Measures of Early Social Communication and Vocabulary Production to Predict Language Outcomes at Two and Three Years in Late-Talking Toddlers

BACKGROUND

Late talkers are a heterogeneous group of toddlers and reliable predictors of persistent language delay have been elusive. The purpose of this study was to determine the extent to which early social communication and vocabulary production predicted variance in language outcomes at 2 and 3 years of age.

METHODS

Participants were 408 typically developing and late-talking toddlers who completed the Communication and Symbolic Behavior Scales Caregiver Questionnaire and Behavior Sample (CSBS CQ and CSBS BS) at a mean of 20 months, the Language Development Survey (LDS) at a mean of 24 months, and the Mullen Scales of Early Learning (MSEL) at a mean of 25 months. A subgroup of 198 children completed a second MSEL at 3 years of age. Associations among the LDS, CSBS CQ, CSBS BS, and MSEL were examined using correlational and hierarchical linear regression analyses. Logistic regression was used to examine each measure's contribution to predicting language delay at 2 and 3 years.

RESULTS

Moderate to large correlations were observed among all variables. The LDS, CSBS CQ, and CSBS BS added unique contributions to the prediction of 2- and 3-year expressive and receptive language outcomes. Measures of speech and vocabulary production were the strongest predictors of language outcomes at age 2. At age 3, social and symbolic communication played a more significant role in accounting for variance in expressive and receptive language outcome. A similar pattern emerged for the categorical prediction of language delay.

CONCLUSIONS

Measures of social communication between 18-21 months added important information to predicting language outcomes at 2 and 3 years, above and beyond parent-reported expressive vocabulary production measured at 24 months, with small effect sizes overall. Implications for identifying younger children who are at risk for continued language delay and recommendations for referral to early intervention programs are discussed.

The impact of expressive language development and the left inferior longitudinal fasciculus on listening and reading comprehension

BACKGROUND

During the first 3-years of life, as the brain undergoes dramatic growth, children begin to develop speech and language. Hallmarks of this progression are seen when children reach developmental milestones, forming the foundation of language. Expressive language milestones, such as the production of a child's first word, are delayed in 5-8% of children. While for some children delays in reaching these milestones are harbingers of developmental disorders, for others expressive language delays appear to resolve. Regardless of whether or not early language skills appear resolved, difficulty with later comprehension is a likely outcome. Whether this heightened risk for poor comprehension differs based on text features, individual characteristics, or receipt of intervention remains unknown. Moreover, this relationship between expressive language development and comprehension is not yet linked to neurobiology, though the inferior longitudinal fasciculus (ILF) is a potential neurobiological correlate. Therefore, we investigated the impact of, and interactions between, expressive language development, early intervention, and the ILF on comprehension.

METHODS

Longitudinal recurrent survival analyses predicted the risk of answering a comprehension question incorrectly. Predictors of comprehension included expressive language development, passage features, participant characteristics, fractional anisotropy, receipt of early intervention, and later diagnosis of speech or language disorders.

RESULTS

Children with later expressive language milestones had poorer comprehension. When comprehension text features were examined, children with later milestones had poorer listening and reading comprehension, and poorer narrative and expository comprehension. The left ILF acted as a neurodevelopmental correlate, one that moderated the relationship between expressive language milestones and comprehension. Specifically, the left ILF exacerbated the relationship for those who did not receive early intervention and buffered the relationship for those who received intervention services. Early intervention decreased the risk of poor comprehension by 39% for children later diagnosed with a speech or language disorder.

CONCLUSIONS

Early intervention should be provided for children with delayed expressive language milestones, particularly those who are at risk for speech or language disorders. The ILF plays a critical role in the relationship between expressive language development and comprehension, which may be that of a protective factor for children with the most severe early issues with speech and language.

Which linguistic measures distinguish transient from persistent language problems in Late Talkers from 2 to 4 years? A study on Italian speaking children

BACKGROUND

In spite of the large literature on Late Talkers (LTs) it's still unclear which factors predict outcome in children younger than 3 years old.

AIMS

To identify the early language characteristics of LTs whose outcome was either a transient delay or a Developmental Language Disorder (DLD).

METHODS AND PROCEDURES

50 LTs were assessed both by indirect and direct measures of expressive and receptive language at three time points between 2 and 4 years of age.

OUTCOMES AND RESULTS

At the first evaluation, all LTs had an expressive language delay; 61% also had delayed early syntactic comprehension. Three different linguistic outcomes emerged: children who caught up with their peers ("Late Bloomers") at age 3; children with slow language recovery ("Slow Learners") at age 4 and children at risk of DLD. The linguistic measures that differentiated the groups changed with age. By 28 months, impaired syntactic comprehension differentiated children at risk of DLD at 4 years of age, from the other two groups. By 36 months, the discrepancy between vocabulary size and age was larger in children with persistent language difficulties compared to both "Late Bloomers" and "Slow Learners". Expressive grammar differentiated the groups significantly by age 3 with difficulties in this domain still persisting in children with DLD at age 4.

CONCLUSIONS

An early syntactic comprehension delay was a predictive index of DLD in LTs, suggesting the importance of evaluating this language component when assessing LT toddlers.

IMPLICATIONS

LTs with receptive-expressive language delay around 24-30 months could benefit from an early language intervention.

School-age outcomes of late-talking toddlers: Long-term effects of an early lexical deficit

BACKGROUND

Early intervention for children identified as late talkers (LTs) at the age of 24 months is still a controversial issue in research and clinical routine. Previous studies have shown inconsistent results regarding predictors of early lexical deficits on school-age outcomes of late-talking toddlers.

METHODS

In a five-wave follow-up study, we investigated various aspects of language and literacy abilities in 39 German-speaking third-graders who had been identified as LTs at the age of 24 months, compared to 39 typically developing children (TDC) also attending the third grade. The duration of auditory sensory memory was examined at the age of 4 years using mismatch negativity (MMN) of tones - an event-related potential not confounded by any language skill. In addition, the predictive value of memory performance was examined in a longitudinal perspective.

RESULTS

Overall, LTs scored within normal range in language and literacy assessments. However, LTs differed from TDC in vocabulary size, verbalization of semantic relations, non-word repetition, and spelling. The findings can be explained by phonological working memory. The duration of auditory sensory memory and spatial working memory did not account for any variance.

CONCLUSIONS

LTs sustain persistent phonological processing limitations even though their native language and literacy performance lay within the normal range at school age. Further research on second language acquisition, academic achievements, and the efficacy of early intervention in late-talking toddlers is recommended.

What Our Hands Tell Us: A Two-Year Follow-Up Investigating Outcomes in Subgroups of Children With Language Delay

Purpose This study followed up children identified with expressive language delay (ELD) or receptive/expressive language delay (R/ELD) at 2 years of age, Time 1 (T1), in order to identify their language profiles at 4-5 years, Time 2 (T2), and explore relationships to T1 language, gesture use, and symbolic comprehension. Method Nineteen of 22 children were seen at follow-up (9 of 10 from R/ELD group, 10 of 12 from ELD group). T1 measures assessed receptive and expressive language, gesture use, and symbolic comprehension. At T2, we assessed receptive and expressive language, sentence repetition, and expressive phonology. Results Outcomes for the R/ELD group were significantly poorer, with all children continuing to have delay in receptive and/or expressive language compared to just 20% of the ELD group. Expressive phonology delay was common in both groups. T1 receptive language showed the most pervasive correlations with T2 language measures, but categorical performance on all three T1 measures correctly predicted language outcomes in 16-17 of the 19 children. Conclusion Findings add to evidence that receptive language is a strong predictor of outcomes. Gesture use and symbolic comprehension are also strong predictors and clinically valuable as part of play-based assessments with implications for theoretical understanding and intervention planning.

Brain's functional network clustering coefficient changes in response to instruction (RTI) in students with and without reading disabilities: Multi-leveled reading brain's RTI

In students in grades 4 to 9 (22 males, 20 females), two reading disability groups-dyslexia (n = 20) or oral and written language learning disability (OWL LD) (n = 6)-were compared to each other and two kinds of control groups-typical readers (n = 6) or dysgraphia (n = 10) on word reading/spelling skills and fMRI imaging before and after completing 18 computerized reading lessons. Mixed ANOVAs showed significant time effects on repeated measures within participants and between groups effects on three behavioral markers of reading disabilities-word reading/spelling: All groups improved on the three behavioral measures, but those without disabilities remained higher than those with reading disabilities. On fMRI reading tasks, analyzed for graph theory derived clustering coefficients within a neural network involved in cognitive control functions, on a word level task the time × group interaction was significant in right medial cingulate; on a syntax level task the time × group interaction was significant in left superior frontal and left inferior frontal gyri; and on a multi-sentence text level task the time × group interaction was significant in right middle frontal gyrus. Three white matter-gray matter correlations became significant only after reading instruction: axial diffusivity in left superior frontal region with right inferior frontal gyrus during word reading judgments; mean diffusivity in left superior corona radiata with left middle frontal gyrus during sentence reading judgments; and mean diffusivity in left anterior corona radiata with right middle frontal gyrus during multi-sentence reading judgments. Significance of results for behavioral and brain response to reading instruction (RTI) is discussed.

Language outcomes of children with cerebral palsy aged 5 years and 6 years: a population-based study

AIM

To examine the frequency, range, and features of language impairment in a community sample of children with cerebral palsy (CP) aged 5 to 6 years.

METHOD

Children with CP born between 2005 and 2007 were identified through the Victorian Cerebral Palsy Register. Eighty-four participants were recruited, representing 48% of the contacted families. The recruited sample was representative of non-participants. Participants completed standardized measures of receptive and expressive language, and non-verbal cognition.

RESULTS

Language impairment was identified in 61% (51/84) of participants. Twenty-four per cent (20/84) were non-verbal. Co-occurring receptive and expressive language impairment was common (37/84, 44%). Isolated receptive (6/84, 7%) and expressive (4/84, 5%) impairments occurred relatively infrequently. At a group level, verbal and non-verbal participants demonstrated deficits across language subdomains (i.e. semantics, syntax, morphology), rather than in single domains. Cognitive impairment and Gross Motor Function Classification System levels IV and V were associated with higher rates of language impairment (odds ratio [OR] 15.2, 95% confidence interval [CI] 3.2-71.8 and OR 8.5, 95% CI 1.8-40.3 respectively). Only cognition was independently associated with language impairment when both of these factors were considered within a multivariable model.

INTERPRETATION

Language impairment was common in 5-year-old and 6-year-old children with CP, affecting three out of five children. Participants were impaired across linguistic subdomains indicating a generalized language deficit. Findings suggest most children would benefit from a clinical language assessment. To target services effectively, subgroups of individuals with CP at greatest risk for language impairment need to be identified.

Differential Diagnosis of Dysgraphia, Dyslexia, and OWL LD: Behavioral and Neuroimaging Evidence

In Study 1, children in grades 4 to 9 (N= 88, 29 females and 59 males) with persisting reading and/or writing disabilities, despite considerable prior specialized instruction in and out of school, were given an evidence-based comprehensive assessment battery at the university while parents completed questionnaires regarding past and current history of language learning and other difficulties. Profiles (patterns) of normed measures for different levels of oral and written language used to categorize participants into diagnostic groups for dysgraphia (impaired subword handwriting) (n=26), dyslexia (impaired word spelling and reading) (n=38), or oral and written language learning disability OWL LD (impaired oral and written syntax comprehension and expression) (n=13) or control oral and written language learners (OWLs) without SLDs (n=11) were consistent withreported history. Impairments in working memory components supporting language learning were also examined. In Study 2, right handed children from Study 1 who did not wear braces (controls, n=9, dysgraphia, n= 14; dyslexia, n=17, OWL LD, n=5) completed an fMRI functional connectivity brain imaging study in which they performed a word-specific spelling judgment task, which is related to both word reading and spelling, and may be impaired in dysgraphia, dyslexia, and OWL LD for different reasons. fMRI functional connectivity from 4 seed points in brain locations involved in written word processing to other brain regions also differentiated dysgraphia, dyslexia, and OWL LD; both specific regions to which connected and overall number of functional connections differed. Thus, results provide converging neurological and behavioral evidence, for dysgraphia, dyslexia, and OWL LD being different, diagnosable specific learning disabilities (SLDs) for persisting written language problems during middle childhood and early adolescence. Translation of the research findings into practice at policy and administrative levels and at local school levels is discussed.

Early prediction of language and literacy problems: is 18 months too early?

There is a lack of stability in language difficulties across early childhood: most late talkers (LTs) resolve their difficulties by pre-school; and a significant number of children who were not LTs subsequently manifest language difficulties. Greater reliability in predicting individual outcomes is needed, which might be achieved by waiting until later in development when language is more stable. At 18 months, productive vocabulary scores on the Oxford Communicative Developmental Inventory were used to classify children as LTs or average talkers (ATs). Thirty matched-pairs of LTs and ATs were followed up at school-age (average age 7 years), when language and literacy outcomes were assessed. For 18 children, intermediate testing at age 4 had classified them as showing typical development (TD) or specific language impairment (SLI). After correcting for multiple comparisons, there were no significant differences between the LTs and ATs on any outcome measure, and the LTs were performing in the average range. However, there were large-sized effects on all outcomes when comparing the TD and SLI groups. LT status on its own is not determinative of language and literacy difficulties. It would therefore not be appropriate to use expressive vocabulary measures alone to screen for language difficulties at 18 months. However, children with language impairment at age 4 are at risk of enduring difficulties.

Morphology and syntax in late talkers at age 5

PURPOSE

This study reports age 5 morphology and syntax skills in late talkers identified at age 2 (n=34) and typically developing comparison children (n=20).

RESULTS

The late talkers manifested significant morphological delays at ages 3 and 4 relative to comparison peers. Based on the 14 morphemes analyzed at age 5, the only significant group difference was on the third person regular -s inflection. This was also the only significant difference when we compared late talkers with continuing delay, late bloomers (who scored within 1 standard deviation of the comparison group in mean length of utterance), and typically developing peers. The late talker and comparison children differed greatly in mean total scores on the Index of Productive Syntax (Scarborough, 1990), a measure of syntactic complexity. The group with continuing delay scored significantly lower on the IPSyn than the late bloomer and typically developing groups, which did not differ from each other.

CONCLUSIONS

Findings are consistent with the higher order language group differences found through adolescence in these late talkers relative to comparison peers with similar socioeconomic status and similar nonverbal abilities, supporting the notion that late talkers have an ongoing weakness in language endowment that manifests differently over the course of development.

Late talking, typical talking, and weak language skills at middle childhood

To better understand early predictors of weak language and academic abilities, we identified children with and without weak abilities at age 8. We then looked back at age 2 vocabulary and word combining, and evaluated these measures as predictors of age 8 outcomes. More than 60% of children with weak oral language abilities at 8 were not late talkers at 2. However, no word combining at 2 was a significant risk factor for poor oral language, reading comprehension, and math outcomes at 8. The association of no word combining with age 8 reading comprehension and math ability was mediated by age 8 oral language ability. The findings indicate that children take different developmental pathways to weak language abilities in middle childhood. One begins with a delayed onset of language. A second begins with language measures in the typical range, but ends with language ability falling well below typical peers.

Early and late talkers: school-age language, literacy and neurolinguistic differences

Early language development sets the stage for a lifetime of competence in language and literacy. However, the neural mechanisms associated with the relative advantages of early communication success, or the disadvantages of having delayed language development, are not well explored. In this study, 174 elementary school-age children whose parents reported that they started forming sentences 'early', 'on-time' or 'late' were evaluated with standardized measures of language, reading and spelling. All oral and written language measures revealed consistent patterns for 'early' talkers to have the highest level of performance and 'late' talkers to have the lowest level of performance. We report functional magnetic resonance imaging data from a subset of early, on-time and late talkers matched for age, gender and performance intelligence quotient that allows evaluation of neural activation patterns produced while listening to and reading real words and pronounceable non-words. Activation in bilateral thalamus and putamen, and left insula and superior temporal gyrus during these tasks was significantly lower in late talkers, demonstrating that residual effects of being a late talker are found not only in behavioural tests of oral and written language, but also in distributed cortical-subcortical neural circuits underlying speech and print processing. Moreover, these findings suggest that the age of functional language acquisition can have long-reaching effects on reading and language behaviour, and on the corresponding neurocircuitry that supports linguistic function into the school-age years.

Three profiles of language abilities in toddlers with an expressive vocabulary delay: variations on a theme

PURPOSE

The presence of an expressive vocabulary delay (EVD) in the context of otherwise harmonious development has been the main criterion used to define language delay in 2-year-olds. To better understand the communicative functioning of these children, other variables must be considered. In this study, the aim was to delineate and characterize clusters of 2-year-olds with EVD by measuring other language variables in these children.

METHOD

Language and related variables were measured in 68 francophone children with EVD.

RESULTS

In a cluster analysis, 2 language variables--(a) language expression and engagement in communication and (b) language comprehension--yielded 3 clusters ranging from weak language ability to high scores on both variables. Further differences were found between these clusters with regard to 2 correlates of lexical acquisition--namely, size of the expressive vocabulary and cognitive development.

CONCLUSION

These results shed new light on the notion of heterogeneity in toddlers who present with an EVD by proposing subgroups among them. A follow-up investigation of these participants is ongoing.

Epidemiology of speech and language impairment in a nationally representative sample of 4- to 5-year-old children

PURPOSE

To draw on multiple sources of information to determine prevalence of speech and language impairment in young Australian children.

METHOD

Information about 4,983 children (ages 4-5 years) from Growing Up in Australia: The Longitudinal Study of Australian Children (Australian Institute of Family Studies, 2007) was obtained via parent interviews and questionnaires, teacher questionnaires, and direct assessment. Data were statistically weighted to the Australian population of 253,202 children in the target age group.

RESULTS

Parent-reported prevalence: 25.2% had concerns about how their child talked and made speech sounds (11.8% "concerned"; 13.4% "a little concerned"), and 9.5% had concerns about how their child understood language (4.4% "concerned"; 5.1% "a little concerned"). Parents who reported concerns identified "speech not clear to others" as the most frequent area of difficulty (12.0%). Teacher-reported prevalence: 22.3% of children were considered to be less competent than others in their expressive language ability (6.7% "much less competent"; 15.6% "less competent"); 16.9% were considered to be less competent than others in their receptive language ability (4.0% "much less competent"; 12.9% "less competent"). The match between parent and teacher identification was higher for expressive speech and language concern than for receptive language. Direct assessment: 13.0% of children were 1-2 SDs below the mean on the Adapted Peabody Picture Vocabulary Test-III (S. Rothman, 2003), and a further 1.7% were > 2 SDs below the mean. Parent and teacher reports were significantly correlated with scores obtained via direct assessment. Period prevalence: Parents and teachers reported that 14.5% of children had accessed speech-language pathologist (SLP) services. 2.2% indicated that they needed but could not access an SLP.

CONCLUSION

Multiple indicators of speech and language impairment in diverse contexts confirmed the high prevalence of this condition in early childhood and a concomitant need for SLP services.

Age 17 language and reading outcomes in late-talking toddlers: support for a dimensional perspective on language delay

PURPOSE

This study examined whether late talkers identified at 24-31 months continued to have weaker language and reading skills at 17 years of age than typically developing peers.

METHOD

Language and reading outcomes at 17 years of age were examined in 26 children identified as late talkers with normal nonverbal ability and normal receptive language at intake and in 23 typically developing children matched at intake on age, socioeconomic status (SES), and nonverbal ability.

RESULTS

Although late talkers performed in the average range on all language and reading tasks at 17 years of age, they obtained significantly lower Vocabulary/Grammar and Verbal Memory factor scores than SES-matched peers. The age 17 Vocabulary/Grammar factor had large correlations with the age 17 Verbal Memory and Reading/Writing factors. The age 17 Vocabulary/Grammar and Reading/Writing factors were strongly predicted by comparable factors at 13 years of age. Age 2 Language Development Survey (L. Rescorla, 1989) vocabulary score explained 17% of the variance in the age 17 Vocabulary/Grammar and Verbal Memory factors.

CONCLUSIONS

Results suggest that slow language development at 24-31 months is associated with a weakness in language-related skills into adolescence relative to skills manifested by typically developing peers--findings that are consistent with a dimensional perspective on language delay.

Language outcomes of 7-year-old children with or without a history of late language emergence at 24 months

PURPOSE

The aim of this study was to investigate the language outcomes of 7-year-old children with and without a history of late language emergence at 24 months.

METHOD

One hundred twenty-eight children with a history of late language emergence (LLE) at 24 months and 109 children with a history of normal language emergence (NLE) at 24 months participated in direct behavioral assessment of multiple dimensions of language at 7 years. The children were recruited from a prospective cohort study of 1,766 epidemiologically ascertained 24-month-old singleton children.

RESULTS

The group mean for the LLE children was within the typical range on an omnibus measure of general language ability and measures of specific dimensions of language. However, a greater percentage of LLE children, relative to NLE children, performed below normative expectations on a measure of general language ability (20% versus 11%), speech (7% versus 2%), syntax (18% versus 8%), and morphosyntax (9%-23% versus 2%-14%), but not vocabulary or semantics.

CONCLUSION

The results provide support for growth models of language impairment that predict that late onset of language foretells a protracted growth difference for some LLE children relative to NLE children, particularly for syntax and morphosyntax.

Früherkennung von Sprachentwicklungsstörungen - ein Methodenvergleich

Zusammenfassung: Fragestellung: Zur Früherkennung von Sprachentwicklungsstörungen wurden in den letzten Jahren sowohl Sprachtests als auch Elternfragebögen entwickelt. In der vorliegenden Studie wurde bei zweijährigen Kindern die Vergleichbarkeit der Verfahren überprüft. Methodik: Untersucht wurden 31 Kinder mit und ohne Sprachentwicklungsverzögerungen (Alter 24 -28 Monate). Die Sprachfähigkeit wurde mit einem Elternfragebogen (ELFRA-2) und zwei Sprachtests (SETK-2, RDLS-III) erfasst. Ergebnisse: Der Sprachentwicklungsstand der Kinder wurde mit allen überprüften Verfahren recht übereinstimmend beurteilt. Zwischen Untertests, die vergleichbare Sprachdimensionen erfassen, wurden Korrelationen zwischen rSp = 0,7 und 0,9 erhoben. Die meisten Kinder, die nach dem Elternrating als sprachretardiert eingestuft wurden, waren dies auch nach den Sprachtestergebnissen. Die Sprachretardierung dieser Kinder war allerdings bei der U7 nur selten aufgefallen. Schlussfolgerungen: Mit dem Elternfragebogen ELFRA-2 lassen sich «Late Talkers» mit ähnlicher Zuverlässigkeit wie mit einem Sprachtest erfassen. Der ELFRA-2 sollte deshalb bei ambulanten Untersuchungen primär eingesetzt werden. Bei auffälligen Befunden ist eine weiterführende Sprachdiagnostik mit dem SETK-2 angezeigt. Im Gegensatz zum Elternrating liefert der SETK-2 auch Informationen über das Sprachverständnis und erlaubt eine differenziertere Einstufung des Sprachentwicklungsstandes. Die RDLS-III sollten herangezogen werden, wenn ein Kind wenig Interesse an Bildern zeigt und die Mitarbeit beim SETK-2 verweigert.

Language development and literacy skills in late-talking toddlers with and without familial risk for dyslexia

The relationship between late-talkers' language development and reading and spelling outcomes was examined in children with and without familial risk for dyslexia. The late-talking subgroups were defined using parent- and test-based assessments of receptive and expressive vocabulary and grammar at 2 and 2.5 years as intake criteria. The language skills of late talkers and the remainders of these two groups were assessed at 3.5, 5, and 5.5 years. Reading/spelling outcomes were compared at the end of the second grade. Late-talking toddlers of the at-risk group who had both poor receptive and expressive skills performed less well than all other groups on language measurements at 5.5 years. In contrast, the control group's late talkers with an expressive delay reached the language level of their age-mates already by 3.5 years, and maintained their age-appropriate position two years later. The most significant differences in the reading skills were found between the at-risk children with receptive and expressive delay and the remainder of the controls. Age-appropriate early language skills did not, however, ensure norm-level fluent reading in the at-risk group. The remainder of the at-risk group performed at a significantly lower level than did the remainder of the controls, both on the oral reading and spelling tasks.

Age 13 language and reading outcomes in late-talking toddlers

Language and reading outcomes at 13 years of age were examined in 28 children identified at 24 to 31 months as late talkers, all of whom came from middle- to upper-class socioeconomic status (SES) families and had normal nonverbal ability and age-adequate receptive language at intake. Late talkers were compared with a group of 25 typically developing children matched at intake on age, SES, and nonverbal ability. As a group, late talkers performed in the average range on all standardized language and reading tasks at age 13. However, they scored significantly lower than SES-matched peers on aggregate measures of vocabulary, grammar, and verbal memory, as well as on reading comprehension. They were similar to comparison peers in reading mechanics and writing aggregates. Intercorrelations between outcome measures were moderately high, suggesting considerable shared variance. Regression analyses indicated that age 2 Language Development Survey vocabulary score was a significant predictor of age 13 vocabulary, grammar, verbal memory, and reading comprehension. Findings suggest that slow language development at age 2-2 1/2 is associated with a weakness in language-related skills into adolescence relative to typically developing peers.

Lexical training through modeling and elicitation procedures with late talkers who have specific language impairment and developmental delays

Late talkers with specific language impairment and developmental delay make up a large portion of our early childhood caseloads; therefore, an understanding of best clinical practices for these populations is essential. Early lexical learning was examined in 2 interactive treatment approaches with 29 late-talking preschoolers with language and developmental disabilities. Children were randomly assigned to either a mand-elicited imitation (MEI) condition in which elicitations and imitative prompts were used or to a modeling with auditory bombardment (Mod-AB) condition in which auditory bombardment and play modeling were incorporated with no response demands on participants. Lexical production of target vocabulary words already comprehended was measured during a 10-session training period and then during two 50-min play interactions with a parent/caretaker in the home after treatment was completed. Results indicated that the MEI procedure was relatively more effective in facilitating frequency and rate of target word learning in the treatment setting, but no significant differences were found between conditions in the number or percentage of target words generalized to the home setting. Mod-AB children produced more target words that were limited to the home setting than did MEI children, whose productivity was more balanced across settings. Treatment by aptitude regression analyses indicated that none of the preintervention language, cognitive, or total development aptitude scores were predictive of child performance in 1 treatment condition or the other, although Battelle Developmental Inventory communication scores and sizes of preintervention lexicons were predictive of child performance across conditions. Empirical and clinical issues pertaining to the efficacy of modeling- and elicitation-based procedures for late-talking preschoolers are discussed.

Assessment of information processing in children with functional articulation disorders

OBJECTIVE

The aim of this study was to investigate the information processing skills in children who have functional articulation disorder by using a cognitive-linguistic test battery.

MATERIAL-METHODS

Thirty-three children with functional articulation disorder were enrolled in this study. They ranged in age from 6 to 10 years. A control group without articulation disorders was composed of 160 children with similar properties. In the first stage of this study, both groups were administered the Ross Information Processing Assessment Test-Primary. In this test, the scores obtained from eight subtests; namely immediate memory, recent memory, recall of general information, spatial orientation, temporal orientation, organization, problem solving and abstract reasoning, was calculated for both groups. The scores of the eight subtests are combined to form the four composites. These composites are memory quotient, orientation quotient, thinking and reasoning quotient and information processing quotient. Information processing quotient is the best and the most comprehensive estimate of a child's overall information processing ability. In the second stage of the study the articulation-disordered group was divided into two subgroups according the number of the mistakes, which was done at the level of the phoneme. The scores obtained from both subgroups were compared with the scores of the control group.

RESULTS

The overall statistical analysis of the scores revealed that; the study group had significantly lower scores than the control group from memory quotient, thinking and reasoning quotient and information processing quotient. When compared to control group, the subgroup who cannot pronounce one phoneme had similar scores from all four composites. Moreover, the children who cannot pronounce multiple phonemes had significantly lower scores from memory quotient, thinking and reasoning quotient and information processing quotient. The results obtained from this study seem to be suggesting that information processing skills of children with functional articulation disorder are significantly low as compared to normal children.

CONCLUSIONS

These results are revealing that the information processing skills of children with functional articulation disorder should be investigated in a detailed manner. According to the results obtained from this investigation these children should be put on deficit oriented education programs in addition to articulation therapy.

The development of early literacy skills among children with speech difficulties: a test of the "critical age hypothesis"

This article presents a longitudinal study of the early literacy development of 47 children with speech difficulties from ages 4 to 7 years. Of these children, 19 with specific speech difficulties were compared with 19 children with speech and language difficulties and 19 normally developing controls. The risk of literacy difficulties was greater in the group with speech and language difficulties, and these children displayed deficits in phoneme awareness at 6 years. In contrast, the literacy development of children with isolated speech problems was not significantly different from that of controls. A path analysis relating early speech, language, and literacy skills indicated that preschool language ability was a unique predictor of phoneme awareness at 5;8 (years; months), which, together with early reading skill, predicted literacy outcome at 6;9. Once the effects of phoneme awareness were controlled, neither speech perception nor speech production processes predicted variation in literacy skills. However, it is noteworthy that children with persisting speech difficulties at 6;9 were particularly vulnerable to deficits in reading-related processes.

Language and reading outcomes to age 9 in late-talking toddlers

Language and reading outcomes at 6 to 9 years of age were examined in a sample of 34 children who were late talkers as toddlers. The late talkers, who all had normal nonverbal ability and age-adequate receptive language at intake, were compared to a group of 25 typically developing children matched at intake (24 to 31 months) on age, socioeconomic status, and nonverbal ability. Late talkers performed in the average range on most language tasks by age 5. However, they had significantly poorer scores on most language measures through age 9. The groups did not differ in reading skills at age 6 or 7, but the late talkers were slightly less skilled in reading at ages 8 and 9. Findings suggest that slow early language development reflects a predisposition for slower acquisition and lower asymptotic performance in a wide range of language-related skills into middle childhood.

Do late-talking toddlers turn out to have reading difficulties a decade later?

Language and reading outcomes at age 13 were examined in a sample of 22 children who were late talkers as toddlers. The late talkers, all of whom had normal nonverbal ability and age-adequate receptive language at intake (24-to-31 months), were compared to a group of 14 typically developing children similar at intake on age, SES, and nonverbal ability. Late talkers had significantly poorer vocabulary, grammar, reading/spelling, and verbal memory skills at age 13, although as a group, they generally performed in the average range on most language and academic tasks. The findings suggest that slow early language development reflects a predisposition for slower acquisition and lower asymptotic performance in a wide range of language-related skills into adolescence.

Effects of treatment on linguistic and social skills in toddlers with delayed language development

This study investigated the effects of early language intervention on various linguistic and social skills of late-talking toddlers. The 21 children who participated in the investigation were randomly assigned to an experimental group (n = 11) or a control (delayed-treatment) group (n = 10). The experimental group participated in a 12-week clinician-implemented language intervention program. Groups were compared at pretest and posttest on five linguistic variables: Mean Length of Utterance, Total Number of Words, Number of Different Words, Lexical Repertoire, and Percentage of Intelligible Utterances, as well as on Socialization and Parental Stress. Significant group differences were found for each of the variables, indicating facilitative effects of the treatment. Notably, increases were observed in areas that were not specifically targeted by the intervention. Implications of these results are discussed with respect to considerations regarding clinical management decisions for toddlers with delayed language development.