Association between the endoplasmic reticulum and mitochondria of yeast facilitates interorganelle transport of phospholipids through membrane contact

Mitochondria-associated endoplasmic reticulum membranes and myocardial ischemia: from molecular mechanisms to therapeutic strategies

Myocardial ischemia has the highest disease burden among all cardiovascular diseases making it a significant challenge to the global public health. It can result in myocardial cell damage and death due to impaired mitochondrial and endoplasmic reticulum (ER) functions. These two organelles are important regulators of cell death. In recent years, research has shifted from isolated studies of individual organelles to a more integrative approach, with a particular focus on their membrane contact sites-Mitochondria-Associated Endoplasmic Reticulum Membranes (MAMs). These dynamic microdomains play a crucial role in regulating material exchange and signal transduction between the endoplasmic reticulum and mitochondria. This review comprehensively describes the intricate structure of MAMs and their multifaceted roles in cellular pathophysiological processes. Particular focus was directed at the far-reaching effects of MAMs in regulating key pathological events including calcium homeostasis, mitochondrial dysfunction, ER stress, oxidative stress, and autophagy in ischemic heart disease (IHD). The potential treatment targets and regulatory mechanisms of MAMs were discussed and summarized, providing novel research directions and treatment approaches for improving myocardial ischemia-related diseases.

Research Progress in the Molecular Mechanism of NLRP3 Inflammasome in Alzheimer's Disease and Regulation by Natural Plant Products

Alzheimer's disease (AD) is a prominent neurodegenerative disorder affecting the central nervous system in the elderly. Current understanding of AD primarily centers on the gradual decline in cognitive and memory functions, believed to be influenced by factors including mitochondrial dysfunction, β-amyloid aggregation, and neuroinflammation. Emerging research indicates that neuroinflammation plays a significant role in the development of AD, with the inflammasome potentially mediating inflammatory responses that contribute to neurodegeneration. Recent studies in AD pathology have identified a novel form of inflammasome referred to as NOD-like receptor pyrin domain-containing 3 (NLRP3) inflammasome. Pathological alterations closely associated with NLRP3 inflammasome activation have been observed in the brain tissues of AD patients, transgenic mice, and in vitro neurocyte models. Numerous studies have demonstrated the potent neuroprotective properties of natural plant products (NPPs) against NLRP3 inflammasome-mediated AD pathology. This review provides a comprehensive examination of the NLRP3 inflammasome, its involvement in AD pathology, and the mechanisms underlying the therapeutic effects of NPP targeting the NLRP3 inflammasome.

Mitochondrial phospholipid transport: Role of contact sites and lipid transport proteins

One of the major constituents of mitochondrial membranes is the phospholipids, which play a key role in maintaining the structure and the functions of the mitochondria. However, mitochondria do not synthesize most of the phospholipids in situ, necessitating the presence of phospholipid import pathways. Even for the phospholipids, which are synthesized within the inner mitochondrial membrane (IMM), the phospholipid precursors must be imported from outside the mitochondria. Therefore, the mitochondria heavily rely on the phospholipid transport pathways for its proper functioning. Since, mitochondria are not part of a vesicular trafficking network, the molecular mechanisms of how mitochondria receive its phospholipids remain a relevant question. One of the major ways that hydrophobic phospholipids can cross the aqueous barrier of inter or intraorganellar spaces is by apposing membranes, thereby decreasing the distance of transport, or by being sequestered by lipid transport proteins (LTPs). Therefore, with the discovery of LTPs and membrane contact sites (MCSs), we are beginning to understand the molecular mechanisms of phospholipid transport pathways in the mitochondria. In this review, we will present a brief overview of the recent findings on the molecular architecture and the importance of the MCSs, both the intraorganellar and interorganellar contact sites, in facilitating the mitochondrial phospholipid transport. In addition, we will also discuss the role of LTPs for trafficking phospholipids through the intermembrane space (IMS) of the mitochondria. Mechanistic insights into different phospholipid transport pathways of mitochondria could be exploited to vary the composition of membrane phospholipids and gain a better understanding of their precise role in membrane homeostasis and mitochondrial bioenergetics.

Mic19 depletion impairs endoplasmic reticulum-mitochondrial contacts and mitochondrial lipid metabolism and triggers liver disease

Endoplasmic reticulum (ER)-mitochondria contacts are critical for the regulation of lipid transport, synthesis, and metabolism. However, the molecular mechanism and physiological function of endoplasmic reticulum-mitochondrial contacts remain unclear. Here, we show that Mic19, a key subunit of MICOS (mitochondrial contact site and cristae organizing system) complex, regulates ER-mitochondria contacts by the EMC2-SLC25A46-Mic19 axis. Mic19 liver specific knockout (LKO) leads to the reduction of ER-mitochondrial contacts, mitochondrial lipid metabolism disorder, disorganization of mitochondrial cristae and mitochondrial unfolded protein stress response in mouse hepatocytes, impairing liver mitochondrial fatty acid β-oxidation and lipid metabolism, which may spontaneously trigger nonalcoholic steatohepatitis (NASH) and liver fibrosis in mice. Whereas, the re-expression of Mic19 in Mic19 LKO hepatocytes blocks the development of liver disease in mice. In addition, Mic19 overexpression suppresses MCD-induced fatty liver disease. Thus, our findings uncover the EMC2-SLC25A46-Mic19 axis as a pathway regulating ER-mitochondria contacts, and reveal that impairment of ER-mitochondria contacts may be a mechanism associated with the development of NASH and liver fibrosis.

Biased placement of Mitochondria fission facilitates asymmetric inheritance of protein aggregates during yeast cell division

Mitochondria are essential and dynamic eukaryotic organelles that must be inherited during cell division. In yeast, mitochondria are inherited asymmetrically based on quality, which is thought to be vital for maintaining a rejuvenated cell population; however, the mechanisms underlying mitochondrial remodeling and segregation during this process are not understood. We used high spatiotemporal imaging to quantify the key aspects of mitochondrial dynamics, including motility, fission, and fusion characteristics, upon aggregation of misfolded proteins in the mitochondrial matrix. Using these measured parameters, we developed an agent-based stochastic model of dynamics of mitochondrial inheritance. Our model predicts that biased mitochondrial fission near the protein aggregates facilitates the clustering of protein aggregates in the mitochondrial matrix, and this process underlies asymmetric mitochondria inheritance. These predictions are supported by live-cell imaging experiments where mitochondrial fission was perturbed. Our findings therefore uncover an unexpected role of mitochondrial dynamics in asymmetric mitochondrial inheritance.

Mitochondrial phospholipid metabolism in health and disease

Studies of rare human genetic disorders of mitochondrial phospholipid metabolism have highlighted the crucial role that membrane phospholipids play in mitochondrial bioenergetics and human health. The phospholipid composition of mitochondrial membranes is highly conserved from yeast to humans, with each class of phospholipid performing a specific function in the assembly and activity of various mitochondrial membrane proteins, including the oxidative phosphorylation complexes. Recent studies have uncovered novel roles of cardiolipin and phosphatidylethanolamine, two crucial mitochondrial phospholipids, in organismal physiology. Studies on inter-organellar and intramitochondrial phospholipid transport have significantly advanced our understanding of the mechanisms that maintain mitochondrial phospholipid homeostasis. Here, we discuss these recent advances in the function and transport of mitochondrial phospholipids while describing their biochemical and biophysical properties and biosynthetic pathways. Additionally, we highlight the roles of mitochondrial phospholipids in human health by describing the various genetic diseases caused by disruptions in their biosynthesis and discuss advances in therapeutic strategies for Barth syndrome, the best-studied disorder of mitochondrial phospholipid metabolism.

Phosphatidylethanolamine N-methyltransferase: from Functions to Diseases

Locating on endoplasmic reticulum and mitochondria associated membrane, Phosphatidylethanolamine N-methyltransferase (PEMT), catalyzes phosphatidylethanolamine methylation to phosphatidylcholine. As the only endogenous pathway for choline biosynthesis in mammals, the dysregulation of PEMT can lead to imbalance of phospholipid metabolism. Dysregulation of phospholipid metabolism in the liver or heart can lead to deposition of toxic lipid species that adversely result in dysfunction of hepatocyte/cardiomyocyte. Studies have shown that PEMT-/- mice increased susceptibility of diet-induced fatty liver and steatohepatitis. However, knockout of PEMT protects against diet-induced atherosclerosis, diet-induced obesity, and insulin resistance. Thus, novel insights to the function of PEMT in various organs should be summarized. Here, we reviewed the structural and functional properties of PEMT, highlighting its role in the pathogenesis of obesity, liver diseases, cardiovascular diseases, and other conditions.

In situ architecture of the ER-mitochondria encounter structure

The endoplasmic reticulum and mitochondria are main hubs of eukaryotic membrane biogenesis that rely on lipid exchange via membrane contact sites^1-3, but the underpinning mechanisms remain poorly understood. In yeast, tethering and lipid transfer between the two organelles is mediated by the endoplasmic reticulum-mitochondria encounter structure (ERMES), a four-subunit complex of unresolved stoichiometry and architecture^4-6. Here we determined the molecular organization of ERMES within Saccharomyces cerevisiae cells using integrative structural biology by combining quantitative live imaging, cryo-correlative microscopy, subtomogram averaging and molecular modelling. We found that ERMES assembles into approximately 25 discrete bridge-like complexes distributed irregularly across a contact site. Each bridge consists of three synaptotagmin-like mitochondrial lipid binding protein domains oriented in a zig-zag arrangement. Our molecular model of ERMES reveals a pathway for lipids. These findings resolve the in situ supramolecular architecture of a major inter-organelle lipid transfer machinery and provide a basis for the mechanistic understanding of lipid fluxes in eukaryotic cells.

Mitochondria associated ER membrane and cerebral ischemia: molecular mechanisms and therapeutic strategies

Endoplasmic reticulum (ER) and mitochondria are two important organelles that are highly dynamic in mammalian cells. The physical connection between them is mitochondria associated ER membranes (MAM). In recent years, studies on endoplasmic reticulum and mitochondria have shifted from independent division to association and comparison, especially MAM has gradually become a research hotspot. MAM connects the two organelles, not only to maintain their independent structure and function, but also to promote metabolism and signal transduction between them. This paper reviews the morphological structure and protein localization of MAM, and briefly analyzes the functions of MAM in regulating Ca²⁺ transport, lipid synthesis, mitochondrial fusion and fission, endoplasmic reticulum stress and oxidative stress, autophagy and inflammation. Since ER stress and mitochondrial dysfunction are important pathological events in neurological diseases including ischemic stroke, MAM is likely to play an important role in cerebral ischemia by regulating the signaling of the two organelles and the crosstalk of the two pathological events.

Apoptotic proteins with non-apoptotic activity: expression and function in cancer

Apoptosis is a process of programmed cell death in which a cell commits suicide while maintaining the integrity and architecture of the tissue as a whole. Apoptosis involves activation of one of two major pathways: the extrinsic pathway, where extracellular pro-apoptotic signals, transduced through plasma membrane death receptors, activate a caspase cascade leading to apoptosis. The second, the intrinsic apoptotic pathway, where damaged DNA, oxidative stress, or chemicals, induce the release of pro-apoptotic proteins from the mitochondria, leading to the activation of caspase-dependent and independent apoptosis. However, it has recently become apparent that proteins involved in apoptosis also exhibit non-cell death-related physiological functions that are related to the cell cycle, differentiation, metabolism, inflammation or immunity. Such non-conventional activities were predominantly reported in non-cancer cells although, recently, such a dual function for pro-apoptotic proteins has also been reported in cancers where they are overexpressed. Interestingly, some apoptotic proteins translocate to the nucleus in order to perform a non-apoptotic function. In this review, we summarize the unconventional roles of the apoptotic proteins from a functional perspective, while focusing on two mitochondrial proteins: VDAC1 and SMAC/Diablo. Despite having pro-apoptotic functions, these proteins are overexpressed in cancers and this apparent paradox and the associated pathophysiological implications will be discussed. We will also present possible mechanisms underlying the switch from apoptotic to non-apoptotic activities although a deeper investigation into the process awaits further study.

A trans-kingdom T6SS effector induces the fragmentation of the mitochondrial network and activates innate immune receptor NLRX1 to promote infection

Bacteria can inhibit the growth of other bacteria by injecting effectors using a type VI secretion system (T6SS). T6SS effectors can also be injected into eukaryotic cells to facilitate bacterial survival, often by targeting the cytoskeleton. Here, we show that the trans-kingdom antimicrobial T6SS effector VgrG4 from Klebsiella pneumoniae triggers the fragmentation of the mitochondrial network. VgrG4 colocalizes with the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) protein mitofusin 2. VgrG4 induces the transfer of Ca²⁺ from the ER to the mitochondria, activating Drp1 (a regulator of mitochondrial fission) thus leading to mitochondrial network fragmentation. Ca²⁺ elevation also induces the activation of the innate immunity receptor NLRX1 to produce reactive oxygen species (ROS). NLRX1-induced ROS limits NF-κB activation by modulating the degradation of the NF-κB inhibitor IκBα. The degradation of IκBα is triggered by the ubiquitin ligase SCF^β-TrCP, which requires the modification of the cullin-1 subunit by NEDD8. VgrG4 abrogates the NEDDylation of cullin-1 by inactivation of Ubc12, the NEDD8-conjugating enzyme. Our work provides an example of T6SS manipulation of eukaryotic cells via alteration of the mitochondria.

Quantitative 3D correlative light and electron microscopy of organelle association during autophagy

In macroautophagy, disk-shaped double-membrane structures called phagophores elongate to form cup-shaped structures, becoming autophagosomes upon closure. These autophagosomes then fuse with lysosomes to become autolysosomes and degrade engulfed material. Autophagosome formation is reported to involve other organelles, including the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) and mitochondria. Organelles are also taken up by autophagosomes as autophagy cargos. However, few studies have performed systematic spatiotemporal analysis of inter-organelle relationships during macroautophagy. Here, we investigated the organelles in contact with phagophores, autophagosomes, and autolysosomes by using three-dimensional correlative light and electron microscopy with array tomography in cells starved 30 min. As previously reported, all phagophores associate with the ER. The surface area of phagophores in contact with the ER decreases gradually as they mature into autophagosomes and autolysosomes. However, the ER still associates with 92% of autophagosomes and 79% of autolysosomes, suggesting that most autophagosomes remain on the ER after closure and even when they fuse with lysosomes. In addition, we found that phagophores form frequently near other autophagic structures, suggesting the presence of potential hot spots for autophagosome formation. We also analyzed the contents of phagophores and autophagosomes and found that the ER is the most frequently engulfed organelle (detected in 65% of total phagophores and autophagosomes). These quantitative three-dimensional ultrastructural data provide insights into autophagosome-organelle relationships during macroautophagy.Key words: 3D-CLEM, autophagosome, electron microscopy, endoplasmic reticulum, lysosome.

Mitochondria-endoplasmic reticulum contacts in sepsis-induced myocardial dysfunction

Mitochondrial and endoplasmic reticulum (ER) are important intracellular organelles. The sites that mitochondrial and ER are closely related in structure and function are called Mitochondria-ER contacts (MERCs). MERCs are involved in a variety of biological processes, including calcium signaling, lipid synthesis and transport, autophagy, mitochondrial dynamics, ER stress, and inflammation. Sepsis-induced myocardial dysfunction (SIMD) is a vital organ damage caused by sepsis, which is closely associated with mitochondrial and ER dysfunction. Growing evidence strongly supports the role of MERCs in the pathogenesis of SIMD. In this review, we summarize the biological functions of MERCs and the roles of MERCs proteins in SIMD.

Balancing life and death: BCL-2 family members at diverse ER-mitochondrial contact sites

The outer mitochondrial membrane is a busy place. One essential activity for cellular survival is the regulation of membrane integrity by the BCL-2 family of proteins. Another critical facet of the outer mitochondrial membrane is its close approximation with the endoplasmic reticulum. These mitochondrial-associated membranes (MAMs) occupy a significant fraction of the mitochondrial surface and serve as key signaling hubs for multiple cellular processes. Each of these pathways may be considered as forming their own specialized MAM subtype. Interestingly, like membrane permeabilization, most of these pathways play critical roles in regulating cellular survival and death. Recently, the pro-apoptotic BCL-2 family member BOK has been found within MAMs where it plays important roles in their structure and function. This has led to a greater appreciation that multiple BCL-2 family proteins, which are known to participate in numerous functions throughout the cell, also have roles within MAMs. In this review, we evaluate several MAM subsets, their role in cellular homeostasis, and the contribution of BCL-2 family members to their functions.

Inter-organellar Communication in Parkinson's and Alzheimer's Disease: Looking Beyond Endoplasmic Reticulum-Mitochondria Contact Sites

Neurodegenerative diseases (NDs) are generally considered proteinopathies but whereas this may initiate disease in familial cases, onset in sporadic diseases may originate from a gradually disrupted organellar homeostasis. Herein, endolysosomal abnormalities, mitochondrial dysfunction, endoplasmic reticulum (ER) stress, and altered lipid metabolism are commonly observed in early preclinical stages of major NDs, including Parkinson's disease (PD) and Alzheimer's disease (AD). Among the multitude of underlying defective molecular mechanisms that have been suggested in the past decades, dysregulation of inter-organellar communication through the so-called membrane contact sites (MCSs) is becoming increasingly apparent. Although MCSs exist between almost every other type of subcellular organelle, to date, most focus has been put on defective communication between the ER and mitochondria in NDs, given these compartments are critical in neuronal survival. Contributions of other MCSs, notably those with endolysosomes and lipid droplets are emerging, supported as well by genetic studies, identifying genes functionally involved in lysosomal homeostasis. In this review, we summarize the molecular identity of the organelle interactome in yeast and mammalian cells, and critically evaluate the evidence supporting the contribution of disturbed MCSs to the general disrupted inter-organellar homeostasis in NDs, taking PD and AD as major examples.

Mitochondria-associated membranes: A hub for neurodegenerative diseases

In eukaryotic cells, organelles could coordinate complex mechanisms of signaling transduction metabolism and gene expression through their functional interactions. The functional domain between ER and mitochondria, called mitochondria-associated membranes (MAM), is closely associated with various physiological functions including intracellular lipid transport, Ca²⁺ transfer, mitochondria function maintenance, and autophagosome formation. In addition, more evidence suggests that MAM modulate cellular functions in health and disease. Studies have also demonstrated the association of MAM with numerous diseases, including neurodegenerative diseases, cancer, viral infection, obesity, and diabetes. In fact, recent evidence revealed a close relationship of MAM with Alzheimer's disease (AD), Parkinson's disease (PD), Huntington's disease (HD), amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS), and other neurodegenerative diseases. In this view, elucidating the role of MAM in neurodegenerative diseases is particularly important. This review will focus the main tethering protein complexes of MAM and functions of MAM. Besides, the role of MAM in the regulation of neurodegenerative diseases and the potential molecular mechanisms is introduced to provide a new understanding of the pathogenesis of these diseases.

An ER phospholipid hydrolase drives ER-associated mitochondrial constriction for fission and fusion

Mitochondria are dynamic organelles that undergo cycles of fission and fusion at a unified platform defined by endoplasmic reticulum (ER)-mitochondria membrane contact sites (MCSs). These MCSs or nodes co-localize fission and fusion machinery. We set out to identify how ER-associated mitochondrial nodes can regulate both fission and fusion machinery assembly. We have used a promiscuous biotin ligase linked to the fusion machinery, Mfn1, and proteomics to identify an ER membrane protein, ABHD16A, as a major regulator of node formation. In the absence of ABHD16A, fission and fusion machineries fail to recruit to ER-associated mitochondrial nodes, and fission and fusion rates are significantly reduced. ABHD16A contains an acyltransferase motif and an α/β hydrolase domain, and point mutations in critical residues of these regions fail to rescue the formation of ER-associated mitochondrial hot spots. These data suggest a mechanism whereby ABHD16A functions by altering phospholipid composition at ER-mitochondria MCSs. Our data present the first example of an ER membrane protein that regulates the recruitment of both fission and fusion machineries to mitochondria.

Mechanisms of Non-Vesicular Exchange of Lipids at Membrane Contact Sites: Of Shuttles, Tunnels and, Funnels

Eukaryotic cells are characterized by their exquisite compartmentalization resulting from a cornucopia of membrane-bound organelles. Each of these compartments hosts a flurry of biochemical reactions and supports biological functions such as genome storage, membrane protein and lipid biosynthesis/degradation and ATP synthesis, all essential to cellular life. Acting as hubs for the transfer of matter and signals between organelles and throughout the cell, membrane contacts sites (MCSs), sites of close apposition between membranes from different organelles, are essential to cellular homeostasis. One of the now well-acknowledged function of MCSs involves the non-vesicular trafficking of lipids; its characterization answered one long-standing question of eukaryotic cell biology revealing how some organelles receive and distribute their membrane lipids in absence of vesicular trafficking. The endoplasmic reticulum (ER) in synergy with the mitochondria, stands as the nexus for the biosynthesis and distribution of phospholipids (PLs) throughout the cell by contacting nearly all other organelle types. MCSs create and maintain lipid fluxes and gradients essential to the functional asymmetry and polarity of biological membranes throughout the cell. Membrane apposition is mediated by proteinaceous tethers some of which function as lipid transfer proteins (LTPs). We summarize here the current state of mechanistic knowledge of some of the major classes of LTPs and tethers based on the available atomic to near-atomic resolution structures of several "model" MCSs from yeast but also in Metazoans; we describe different models of lipid transfer at MCSs and analyze the determinants of their specificity and directionality. Each of these systems illustrate fundamental principles and mechanisms for the non-vesicular exchange of lipids between eukaryotic membrane-bound organelles essential to a wide range of cellular processes such as at PL biosynthesis and distribution, lipid storage, autophagy and organelle biogenesis.

The Mitochondrial-Associated Endoplasmic Reticulum Membrane and Its Role in Diabetic Nephropathy

The mitochondrial-associated endoplasmic reticulum membrane (MAM) is located between the outer mitochondrial membrane and the endoplasmic reticulum membrane. The MAM is involved in a wide range of cellular functions, including calcium signaling, the division and fusion of mitochondria, endoplasmic reticulum stress, and the synthesis and transport of lipids. Recent studies have discovered that the MAM is involved in the pathogenesis of diabetic nephropathy (DN). In this article, we summarize the structure, function and role of the MAM in DN. We hope this study will provide clues and a theoretical basis for mechanistic and targeted drug research on DN.

Clustering of catalytic nanocompartments for enhancing an extracellular non-native cascade reaction

Compartmentalization is fundamental in nature, where the spatial segregation of biochemical reactions within and between cells ensures optimal conditions for the regulation of cascade reactions. While the distance between compartments or their interaction are essential parameters supporting the efficiency of bio-reactions, so far they have not been exploited to regulate cascade reactions between bioinspired catalytic nanocompartments. Here, we generate individual catalytic nanocompartments (CNCs) by encapsulating within polymersomes or attaching to their surface enzymes involved in a cascade reaction and then, tether the polymersomes together into clusters. By conjugating complementary DNA strands to the polymersomes' surface, DNA hybridization drove the clusterization process of enzyme-loaded polymersomes and controlled the distance between the respective catalytic nanocompartments. Owing to the close proximity of CNCs within clusters and the overall stability of the cluster architecture, the cascade reaction between spatially segregated enzymes was significantly more efficient than when the catalytic nanocompartments were not linked together by DNA duplexes. Additionally, residual DNA single strands that were not engaged in clustering, allowed for an interaction of the clusters with the cell surface as evidenced by A549 cells, where clusters decorating the surface endowed the cells with a non-native enzymatic cascade. The self-organization into clusters of catalytic nanocompartments confining different enzymes of a cascade reaction allows for a distance control of the reaction spaces which opens new avenues for highly efficient applications in domains such as catalysis or nanomedicine.

Mitostasis, Calcium and Free Radicals in Health, Aging and Neurodegeneration

Mitochondria play key roles in ATP supply, calcium homeostasis, redox balance control and apoptosis, which in neurons are fundamental for neurotransmission and to allow synaptic plasticity. Their functional integrity is maintained by mitostasis, a process that involves mitochondrial transport, anchoring, fusion and fission processes regulated by different signaling pathways but mainly by the peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor-γ coactivator-1α (PGC-1α). PGC-1α also favors Ca²⁺ homeostasis, reduces oxidative stress, modulates inflammatory processes and mobilizes mitochondria to where they are needed. To achieve their functions, mitochondria are tightly connected to the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) through specialized structures of the ER termed mitochondria-associated membranes (MAMs), which facilitate the communication between these two organelles mainly to aim Ca²⁺ buffering. Alterations in mitochondrial activity enhance reactive oxygen species (ROS) production, disturbing the physiological metabolism and causing cell damage. Furthermore, cytosolic Ca²⁺ overload results in an increase in mitochondrial Ca²⁺, resulting in mitochondrial dysfunction and the induction of mitochondrial permeability transition pore (mPTP) opening, leading to mitochondrial swelling and cell death through apoptosis as demonstrated in several neuropathologies. In summary, mitochondrial homeostasis is critical to maintain neuronal function; in fact, their regulation aims to improve neuronal viability and to protect against aging and neurodegenerative diseases.

Reappraisal of metabolic dysfunction in neurodegeneration: Focus on mitochondrial function and calcium signaling

The cellular and molecular mechanisms that drive neurodegeneration remain poorly defined. Recent clinical trial failures, difficult diagnosis, uncertain etiology, and lack of curative therapies prompted us to re-examine other hypotheses of neurodegenerative pathogenesis. Recent reports establish that mitochondrial and calcium dysregulation occur early in many neurodegenerative diseases (NDDs), including Alzheimer's disease, Parkinson's disease, Huntington's disease, and others. However, causal molecular evidence of mitochondrial and metabolic contributions to pathogenesis remains insufficient. Here we summarize the data supporting the hypothesis that mitochondrial and metabolic dysfunction result from diverse etiologies of neuropathology. We provide a current and comprehensive review of the literature and interpret that defective mitochondrial metabolism is upstream and primary to protein aggregation and other dogmatic hypotheses of NDDs. Finally, we identify gaps in knowledge and propose therapeutic modulation of mCa2+ exchange and mitochondrial function to alleviate metabolic impairments and treat NDDs.

Role of Lipid Transfer Proteins (LTPs) in the Viral Life Cycle

Viruses are obligate parasites that depend on the host cell machinery for their replication and dissemination. Cellular lipids play a central role in multiple stages of the viral life cycle such as entry, replication, morphogenesis, and egress. Most viruses reorganize the host cell membranes for the establishment of viral replication complex. These specialized structures allow the segregation of replicating viral RNA from ribosomes and protect it from host nucleases. They also facilitate localized enrichment of cellular components required for viral replication and assembly. The specific composition of the lipid membrane governs its ability to form negative or positive curvature and possess a rigid or flexible form, which is crucial for membrane rearrangement and establishment of viral replication complexes. In this review, we highlight how different viruses manipulate host lipid transfer proteins and harness their functions to enrich different membrane compartments with specific lipids in order to facilitate multiple aspects of the viral life cycle.

Mitochondria-Associated Membranes (MAMs): A Novel Therapeutic Target for Treating Metabolic Syndrome

Mitochondria-associated Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER) Membranes (MAMs) are the cellular structures that connect the ER and mitochondria and mediate communication between these two organelles. MAMs have been demonstrated to be involved in calcium signaling, lipid transfer, mitochondrial dynamic change, mitophagy, and the ER stress response. In addition, MAMs are critical for metabolic regulation, and their dysfunction has been reported to be associated with metabolic syndrome, including the downregulation of insulin signaling and the accelerated progression of hyperlipidemia, obesity, and hypertension. This review covers the roles of MAMs in regulating insulin sensitivity and the molecular mechanism underlying MAM-regulated cellular metabolism and reveals the potential of MAMs as a therapeutic target in treating metabolic syndrome.

SMAC/Diablo controls proliferation of cancer cells by regulating phosphatidylethanolamine synthesis

SMAC/Diablo, a pro-apoptotic protein, yet it is overexpressed in several cancer types. We have described a noncanonical function for SMAC/Diablo as a regulator of lipid synthesis during cancer cell proliferation and development. Here, we explore the molecular mechanism through which SMAC/Diablo regulates phospholipid synthesis. We showed that SMAC/Diablo directly interacts with mitochondrial phosphatidylserine decarboxylase (PSD) and inhibits its catalytic activity during synthesis of phosphatidylethanolamine (PE) from phosphatidylserine (PS). Unlike other phospholipids (PLs), PE is synthesized not only in the endoplasmic reticulum but also in mitochondria. As a result, PSD activity and mitochondrial PE levels were increased in the mitochondria of SMAC/Diablo-deficient cancer cells, with the total amount of cellular PLs and phosphatidylcholine (PC) being lower as compared to SMAC-expressing cancer cells. Moreover, in the absence of SMAC/Diablo, PSD inhibited cancer cell proliferation by catalysing the overproduction of mitochondrial PE and depleting the cellular levels of PC, PE and PS. Additionally, we demonstrated that both SMAC/Diablo and PSD colocalization in the nucleus resulted in increased levels of nuclear PE, that acts as a signalling molecule in regulating several nuclear activities. By using a peptide array composed of 768-peptides derived from 11 SMAC-interacting proteins, we identified six nuclear proteins ARNT, BIRC2, MAML2, NR4A1, BIRC5 and HTRA2 Five of them also interacted with PSD through motifs that are not involved in SMAC binding. Synthetic peptides carrying the PSD-interacting motifs of these proteins could bind purified PSD and inhibit the PSD catalytic activity. When targeted specifically to the mitochondria or the nucleus, these synthetic peptides inhibited cancer cell proliferation. To our knowledge, these are the first reported inhibitors of PSD acting also as inhibitors of cancer cell proliferation. Altogether, we demonstrated that phospholipid metabolism and PE synthesis regulated by the SMAC-PSD interaction are essential for cancer cell proliferation and may be potentially targeted for treating cancer.

Phosphatidylserine Synthase from Salicornia europaea Is Involved in Plant Salt Tolerance by Regulating Plasma Membrane Stability

Salinity-induced lipid alterations have been reported in many plant species; however, how lipid biosynthesis and metabolism are regulated and how lipids work in plant salt tolerance are much less studied. Here, a constitutively much higher phosphatidylserine (PS) content in the plasma membrane (PM) was found in the euhalophyte Salicornia europaea than in Arabidopsis. A gene encoding PS synthase (PSS) was subsequently isolated from S. europaea, named SePSS, which was induced by salinity. Multiple alignments and phylogenetic analysis suggested that SePSS belongs to a base exchange-type PSS, which localises to the endoplasmic reticulum. Knockdown of SePSS in S. europaea suspension cells resulted in reduced PS content, decreased cell survival rate, and increased PM depolarization and K+ efflux under 400 or 800 mM NaCl. By contrast, the upregulation of SePSS leads to increased PS and phosphatidylethanolamine levels and enhanced salt tolerance in Arabidopsis, along with a lower accumulation of reactive oxygen species, less membrane injury, less PM depolarization and higher K+/Na+ in the transgenic lines than in wild-type (WT). These results suggest a positive correlation between PS levels and plant salt tolerance, and that SePSS participates in plant salt tolerance by regulating PS levels, hence PM potential and permeability, which help maintain ion homeostasis. Our work provides a potential strategy for improving plant growth under multiple stresses.

Mitochondria-associated membranes (MAMs): a potential therapeutic target for treating Alzheimer's disease

Alzheimer's disease (AD), a progressive neurodegenerative disorder, is a leading global health concern for individuals and society. However, the potential mechanisms underlying the pathogenesis of AD have not yet been elucidated. Currently, the most widely acknowledged hypothesis is amyloid cascade owing to the brain characteristics of AD patients, including great quantities of extracellular β-amyloid (Aβ) plaques and intracellular neurofibrillary tangles (NFTs). Nevertheless, the amyloid cascade hypothesis cannot address certain pathologies that precede Aβ deposition and NFTs formation in AD, such as aberrant calcium homeostasis, abnormal lipid metabolism, mitochondrial dysfunction and autophagy. Notably, these earlier pathologies are closely associated with mitochondria-associated membranes (MAMs), the physical structures connecting the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) and mitochondria, which mediate the communication between these two organelles. It is plausible that MAMs might be involved in a critical step in the cascade of earlier events, ultimately inducing neurodegeneration in AD. In this review, we focus on the role of MAMs in the regulation of AD pathologies and the potential molecular mechanisms related to MAM-mediated pathological changes in AD. An enhanced recognition of the preclinical pathogenesis in AD could provide new therapeutic strategies, shifting the modality from treatment to prevention.

Relevance of Membrane Contact Sites in Cancer Progression

Membrane contact sites (MCS) are typically defined as areas of proximity between heterologous or homologous membranes characterized by specific proteins. The study of MCS is considered as an emergent field that shows how crucial organelle interactions are in cell physiology. MCS regulate a myriad of physiological processes such as apoptosis, calcium, and lipid signaling, just to name a few. The membranal interactions between the endoplasmic reticulum (ER)–mitochondria, the ER–plasma membrane, and the vesicular traffic have received special attention in recent years, particularly in cancer research, in which it has been proposed that MCS regulate tumor metabolism and fate, contributing to their progression. However, as the therapeutic or diagnostic potential of MCS has not been fully revisited, in this review, we provide recent information on MCS relevance on calcium and lipid signaling in cancer cells and on its role in tumor progression. We also describe some proteins associated with MCS, like CERT, STIM1, VDAC, and Orai, that impact on cancer progression and that could be a possible diagnostic marker. Overall, these information might contribute to the understanding of the complex biology of cancer cells.

Lipid Metabolism at Membrane Contacts: Dynamics and Functions Beyond Lipid Homeostasis

Membrane contact sites (MCSs), regions where the membranes of two organelles are closely apposed, play critical roles in inter-organelle communication, such as lipid trafficking, intracellular signaling, and organelle biogenesis and division. First identified as “fraction X” in the early 90s, MCSs are now widely recognized to facilitate local lipid synthesis and inter-organelle lipid transfer, which are important for maintaining cellular lipid homeostasis. In this review, we discuss lipid metabolism and related cellular and physiological functions in MCSs. We start with the characteristics of lipid synthesis and breakdown at MCSs. Then we focus on proteins involved in lipid synthesis and turnover at these sites. Lastly, we summarize the cellular function of lipid metabolism at MCSs beyond mere lipid homeostasis, including the physiological meaning and relevance of MCSs regarding systemic lipid metabolism. This article is part of an article collection entitled: Coupling and Uncoupling: Dynamic Control of Membrane Contacts.

A central role of the endoplasmic reticulum in the cell emerges from its functional contact sites with multiple organelles

Early eukaryotic cells emerged from the compartmentalization of metabolic processes into specific organelles through the development of an endomembrane system (ES), a precursor of the endoplasmic reticulum (ER), which was essential for their survival. Recently, substantial evidence emerged on how organelles communicate among themselves and with the plasma membrane (PM) through contact sites (CSs). From these studies, the ER-the largest single structure in eukaryotic cells-emerges as a central player communicating with all organelles to coordinate cell functions and respond to external stimuli to maintain cellular homeostasis. Herein we review the functional insights into the ER-CSs with other organelles in a physiological perspective. We hypothesize that, in addition to the primitive role by the ES in the appearance of proto-eukaryotes, its successor-the ER-emerges as the key coordinator of inter-organelle/PM communication. The ER thus appears to be the 'maestro' driving eukaryotic cell evolution by incorporating new functions/organelles, while remaining the real coordinator overarching cellular functions and orchestrating them with the external milieu.

Inter-organelle membrane contact sites: implications for lipid metabolism

This article supplements a recent Perspective by Scorrano et al. in Nature Communications [10 [ (1)]:1287] in which the properties and functions of inter-organelle membrane contact sites were summarized. It is now clear that inter-organelle membrane contact sites are widespread in eukaryotic cells and that diverse pairs of organelles can be linked via unique protein tethers. An appropriate definition of what constitutes an inter-organelle membrane contact site was proposed in the Perspective. In addition, the various experimental approaches that are frequently used to study these organelle associations, as well as the advantages and disadvantages of each of these methods, were considered. The nature of the tethers that link the pairs of organelles at the contact sites was discussed in detail and some biological functions that have been ascribed to specific membrane contact sites were highlighted. Nevertheless, the functions of most types of organelle contact sites remain unclear. In the current article I have considered some of the points raised in the Perspective but have omitted detailed information on the roles of membrane contact sites in biological functions such as apoptosis, autophagy, calcium homeostasis and mitochondrial fusion. Instead, I have provided some background on the initial discovery of mitochondria-endoplasmic reticulum membrane contact sites, and have focussed on the known roles of membrane contact sites in inter-organelle lipid transport. In addition, potential roles for membrane contact sites in human diseases are briefly discussed.

ER membranes associated with mitochondria: Possible therapeutic targets in heart-associated diseases

Cardiovascular system cell biology is tightly regulated and mitochondria play a relevant role in maintaining heart function. In recent decades, associations between such organelles and the sarco/endoplasmic reticulum (SR) have been raised great interest. Formally identified as mitochondria-associated SR membranes (MAMs), these structures regulate different cellular functions, including calcium management, lipid metabolism, autophagy, oxidative stress, and management of unfolded proteins. In this review, we highlight MAMs' alterations mainly in cardiomyocytes, linked with cardiovascular diseases, such as cardiac ischemia-reperfusion, heart failure, and dilated cardiomyopathy. We also describe proteins that are part of the MAMs' machinery, as the FUN14 domain containing 1 (FUNDC1), the sigma 1 receptor (Sig-1R) and others, which might be new molecular targets to preserve the function and structure of the heart in such diseases. Understanding the machinery of MAMs and its function demands our attention, as such knowledge might contribute to strengthen the role of these relative novel structures in heart diseases.

The mystery of mitochondria-ER contact sites in physiology and pathology: A cancer perspective

Mitochondria-associated membranes (MAM), physical platforms that enable communication between mitochondria and the endoplasmic reticulum (ER), are enriched with many proteins and enzymes involved in several crucial cellular processes, such as calcium (Ca²⁺) homeostasis, lipid synthesis and trafficking, autophagy and reactive oxygen species (ROS) production. Accumulating studies indicate that tumor suppressors and oncogenes are present at these intimate contacts between mitochondria and the ER, where they influence Ca²⁺ flux between mitochondria and the ER or affect lipid homeostasis at MAM, consequently impacting cell metabolism and cell fate. Understanding these fundamental roles of mitochondria-ER contact sites as important domains for tumor suppressors and oncogenes can support the search for new and more precise anticancer therapies. In the present review, we summarize the current understanding of basic MAM biology, composition and function and discuss the possible role of MAM-resident oncogenes and tumor suppressors.

The debate continues - What is the role of MCU and mitochondrial calcium uptake in the heart?

Since the identification of the mitochondrial calcium uniporter (MCU) in 2011, several studies utilizing genetic models have attempted to decipher the role of mitochondrial calcium uptake in cardiac physiology. Confounding results in various mutant mouse models have led to an ongoing debate regarding the function of MCU in the heart. In this review, we evaluate and discuss the totality of evidence for mitochondrial calcium uptake in the cardiac stress response and highlight recent reports that implicate MCU in the control of homeostatic cardiac metabolism and function. This review concludes with a discussion of current gaps in knowledge and remaining experiments to define how MCU contributes to contractile function, cell death, metabolic regulation, and heart failure progression.

Mitofusins as mitochondrial anchors and tethers

Mitochondria have their own genomes and their own agendas. Like their primitive bacterial ancestors, mitochondria interact with their environment and organelle colleagues at their physical interfaces, the outer mitochondrial membrane. Among outer membrane proteins, mitofusins (MFN) are increasingly recognized for their roles as arbiters of mitochondria-mitochondria and mitochondria-reticular interactions. This review examines the roles of MFN1 and MFN2 in the heart and other organs as proteins that tether mitochondria to each other or to other organelles, and as mitochondrial anchoring proteins for various macromolecular complexes. The consequences of MFN-mediated tethering and anchoring on mitochondrial fusion, motility, mitophagy, and mitochondria-ER calcium cross-talk are reviewed. Pathophysiological implications are explored from the perspective of mitofusin common functioning as tethering and anchoring proteins, rather than as mediators of individual processes. Finally, some informed speculation is provided for why mouse MFN knockout studies show severe multi-system phenotypes whereas rare human diseases linked to MFN mutations are limited in scope.

The ERMES (Endoplasmic Reticulum and Mitochondria Encounter Structures) mediated functions in fungi

Cellular organelles are membrane-bound and provide a microenvironment for specific functions. A mitochondrion is a double membranous and dynamic organelle that undergoes numerous fusion/fission events, which depends on various cellular factors. However, it is still dependent on other organelles and requires both communications as well as the movement of physical metabolites between them. Mitochondria interact with different organelles counting lipid droplets (LD), peroxisomes, vacuoles, endoplasmic reticulum (ER) and plasma membrane (PM), etc. Apart from them, mitochondria maintain multiple interactions with ER including ERMES (Endoplasmic Reticulum and Mitochondria encounter structures). ERMES is actually a multi-protein complex, and imperative in the maintenance of mitochondrial morphology and its functions. Its disruption also compromises phospholipid exchange, drug resistance and pathogenicity. This assembly is reportedly unique to fungal systems and proposed as a target for development of new antifungal. In the light of separate reports across diverse fungal systems, we have summarised the information about its distribution and effect on mitochondrial fitness.

Predominant localization of phosphatidylserine at the cytoplasmic leaflet of the ER, and its TMEM16K-dependent redistribution

TMEM16K, a membrane protein carrying 10 transmembrane regions, has phospholipid scramblase activity. TMEM16K is localized to intracellular membranes, but whether it actually scrambles phospholipids inside cells has not been demonstrated, due to technical difficulties in studying intracellular lipid distributions. Here, we developed a freeze-fracture electron microscopy method that enabled us to determine the phosphatidylserine (PtdSer) distribution in the individual leaflets of cellular membranes. Using this method, we found that the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) of mammalian cells harbored abundant PtdSer in its cytoplasmic leaflet and much less in the luminal leaflet, whereas the outer and inner nuclear membranes (NMs) had equivalent amounts of PtdSer in both leaflets. The ER and NMs of budding yeast also harbored PtdSer in their cytoplasmic leaflet, but asymmetrical distribution in the ER was not observed. Treating mouse embryonic fibroblasts with the Ca2+ ionophore A23187 compromised the cytoplasmic leaflet-dominant PtdSer asymmetry in the ER and increased PtdSer in the NMs, especially in the nucleoplasmic leaflet of the inner NM. This Ca2+-induced PtdSer redistribution was not observed in TMEM16K-null fibroblasts, but was recovered in these cells by reexpressing TMEM16K. These results indicate that, similar to the plasma membrane, PtdSer in the ER of mammalian cells is predominantly localized to the cytoplasmic leaflet, and that TMEM16K directly or indirectly mediates Ca2+-dependent phospholipid scrambling in the ER.

Mitochondria-Associated Membranes (MAMs) are involved in Bax mitochondrial localization and cytochrome c release

The distribution of the pro-apoptotic protein Bax in the outer mi-tochondrial membrane (OMM) is a central point of regulation of apoptosis. It is now widely recognized that parts of the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) are closely associated to the OMM, and are actively involved in different signaling processes. We addressed a possible role of these domains, called Mitochon-dria-Associated Membranes (MAMs) in Bax localization and function, by ex-pressing the human protein in a yeast mutant deleted of MDM34, a ERMES (ER-Mitochondria Encounter Structure) component. By affecting MAMs stabil-ity, the deletion of MDM34 altered Bax mitochondrial localization, and de-creased its capacity to release cytochrome c. Furthermore, the deletion of MDM34 decreased the size of an incompletely released, MAMs-associated pool of cytochrome c.

Mechanisms by Which Dietary Fatty Acids Regulate Mitochondrial Structure-Function in Health and Disease

Mitochondria are the energy-producing organelles within a cell. Furthermore, mitochondria have a role in maintaining cellular homeostasis and proper calcium concentrations, building critical components of hormones and other signaling molecules, and controlling apoptosis. Structurally, mitochondria are unique because they have 2 membranes that allow for compartmentalization. The composition and molecular organization of these membranes are crucial to the maintenance and function of mitochondria. In this review, we first present a general overview of mitochondrial membrane biochemistry and biophysics followed by the role of different dietary saturated and unsaturated fatty acids in modulating mitochondrial membrane structure-function. We focus extensively on long-chain n-3 (ω-3) polyunsaturated fatty acids and their underlying mechanisms of action. Finally, we discuss implications of understanding molecular mechanisms by which dietary n-3 fatty acids target mitochondrial structure-function in metabolic diseases such as obesity, cardiac-ischemia reperfusion injury, obesity, type 2 diabetes, nonalcoholic fatty liver disease, and select cancers.

ER-mitochondria signaling in Parkinson's disease

Mitochondria form close physical contacts with a specialized domain of the endoplasmic reticulum (ER), known as the mitochondria-associated membrane (MAM). This association constitutes a key signaling hub to regulate several fundamental cellular processes. Alterations in ER-mitochondria signaling have pleiotropic effects on a variety of intracellular events resulting in mitochondrial damage, Ca2+ dyshomeostasis, ER stress and defects in lipid metabolism and autophagy. Intriguingly, many of these cellular processes are perturbed in neurodegenerative diseases. Furthermore, increasing evidence highlights that ER-mitochondria signaling contributes to these diseases, including Parkinson's disease (PD). PD is the second most common neurodegenerative disorder, for which effective mechanism-based treatments remain elusive. Several PD-related proteins localize at mitochondria or MAM and have been shown to participate in ER-mitochondria signaling regulation. Likewise, PD-related mutations have been shown to damage this signaling. Could ER-mitochondria associations be the link between pathogenic mechanisms involved in PD, providing a common mechanism? Would this provide a pharmacological target for treating this devastating disease? In this review, we aim to summarize the current knowledge of ER-mitochondria signaling and the recent evidence concerning damage to this signaling in PD.

Mitochondrial and endoplasmic reticulum calcium homeostasis and cell death

The endoplasmic reticulum (ER) and mitochondria cannot be considered as static structures, as they intimately communicate, forming very dynamic platforms termed mitochondria-associated membranes (MAMs). In particular, the ER transmits proper Ca²⁺ signals to mitochondria, which decode them into specific inputs to regulate essential functions, including metabolism, energy production and apoptosis. Here, we will describe the different molecular players involved in the transfer of Ca²⁺ ions from the ER lumen to the mitochondrial matrix and how modifications in both ER-mitochondria contact sites and Ca²⁺ signaling can alter the cell death execution program.

Mitochondria-organelle contact sites: the plot thickens

Membrane contact sites (MCSs) are areas of close apposition between the membranes of two different organelles that enable non-vesicular transfer of ions and lipids. Recent studies reveal that mitochondria maintain contact sites with organelles other than the endoplasmic reticulum such as the vacuole, plasma membrane and peroxisomes. This review focuses on novel findings achieved mainly in yeast regarding tethers, function and regulation of mitochondria-organelle contact sites. The emerging network of MCSs linking virtually all cellular organelles is highly dynamic and integrated with cellular metabolism.

Of yeast, mice and men: MAMs come in two flavors

The past decade has seen dramatic progress in our understanding of membrane contact sites (MCS). Important examples of these are endoplasmic reticulum (ER)-mitochondria contact sites. ER-mitochondria contacts have originally been discovered in mammalian tissue, where they have been designated as mitochondria-associated membranes (MAMs). It is also in this model system, where the first critical MAM proteins have been identified, including MAM tethering regulators such as phospho-furin acidic cluster sorting protein 2 (PACS-2) and mitofusin-2. However, the past decade has seen the discovery of the MAM also in the powerful yeast model system Saccharomyces cerevisiae. This has led to the discovery of novel MAM tethers such as the yeast ER-mitochondria encounter structure (ERMES), absent in the mammalian system, but whose regulators Gem1 and Lam6 are conserved. While MAMs, sometimes referred to as mitochondria-ER contacts (MERCs), regulate lipid metabolism, Ca²⁺ signaling, bioenergetics, inflammation, autophagy and apoptosis, not all of these functions exist in both systems or operate differently. This biological difference has led to puzzling discrepancies on findings obtained in yeast or mammalian cells at the moment. Our review aims to shed some light onto mechanistic differences between yeast and mammalian MAM and their underlying causes.

Reviewers: This article was reviewed by Paola Pizzo (nominated by Luca Pellegrini), Maya Schuldiner and György Szabadkai (nominated by Luca Pellegrini).

Phosphatidylserine synthesis at membrane contact sites promotes its transport out of the ER

Close contacts between organelles, often called membrane contact sites (MCSs), are regions where lipids are exchanged between organelles. Here, we identify a novel mechanism by which cells promote phospholipid exchange at MCSs. Previous studies have shown that phosphatidylserine (PS) synthase activity is highly enriched in portions of the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) in contact with mitochondria. The objective of this study was to determine whether this enrichment promotes PS transport out of the ER. We found that PS transport to mitochondria was more efficient when PS synthase was fused to a protein in the ER at ER-mitochondria contacts than when it was fused to a protein in all portions of the ER. Inefficient PS transport to mitochondria was corrected by increasing tethering between these organelles. PS transport to endosomes was similarly enhanced by PS production in regions of the ER in contact with endosomes. Together, these findings indicate that PS production at MCSs promotes PS transport out of the ER and suggest that phospholipid production at MCSs may be a general mechanism of channeling lipids to specific cellular compartments.

Mitochondria-Associated Membranes and ER Stress

The endoplasmic reticulum (ER) is a crucial organelle for coordinating cellular Ca²⁺ signaling and protein synthesis and folding. Moreover, the dynamic and complex membranous structures constituting the ER allow the formation of contact sites with other organelles and structures, including among others the mitochondria and the plasma membrane (PM). The contact sites that the ER form with mitochondria is a hot topic in research, and the nature of the so-called mitochondria-associated membranes (MAMs) is continuously evolving. The MAMs consist of a proteinaceous tether that physically connects the ER with mitochondria. The MAMs harness the main functions of both organelles to form a specialized subcompartment at the interface of the ER and mitochondria. Under homeostatic conditions, MAMs are crucial for the efficient transfer of Ca²⁺ from the ER to mitochondria, and for proper mitochondria bioenergetics and lipid synthesis. MAMs are also believed to be the master regulators of mitochondrial shape and motility, and to form a crucial site for autophagosome assembly. Not surprisingly, MAMs have been shown to be a hot spot for the transfer of stress signals from the ER to mitochondria, most notably under the conditions of loss of ER proteostasis, by engaging the unfolded protein response (UPR). In this chapter after an introduction on ER biology and ER stress, we will review the emerging and key signaling roles of the MAMs, which have a root in cellular processes and signaling cascades coordinated by the ER.

Over Six Decades of Discovery and Characterization of the Architecture at Mitochondria-Associated Membranes (MAMs)

The discovery of proteins regulating ER-mitochondria tethering including phosphofurin acidic cluster sorting protein 2 (PACS-2) and mitofusin-2 has pushed contact sites between the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) and mitochondria into the spotlight of cell biology. While the field is developing rapidly and controversies have come and gone multiple times during its history, it is sometimes overlooked that significant research has been done decades ago with the original discovery of these structures in the 1950s and the first characterization of their function (and coining of the term mitochondria-associated membrane, MAM) in 1990. Today, an ever-increasing array of proteins localize to the MAM fraction of the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) to regulate the interaction of this organelle with mitochondria. These mitochondria-ER contacts, sometimes referred to as MERCs, regulate a multitude of biological functions, including lipid metabolism, Ca²⁺ signaling, bioenergetics, inflammation, autophagy, mitochondrial structure, and apoptosis.

Role of Intra- and Inter-mitochondrial Membrane Contact Sites in Yeast Phospholipid Biogenesis

Eukaryotic cells exhibit intracellular compartments called organelles wherein various specialized enzymatic reactions occur. Despite the specificity of the characteristic functions of organelles, recent studies have shown that distinct organelles physically connect and communicate with each other to maintain the integrity of their functions. In yeast, multiple inter- and intramitochondrial membrane contact sites (MCSs) were identified to date and were proposed to be involved in phospholipid biogenesis. In the present article, we focus on inter- and intra-organellar MCSs involving mitochondria and their tethering factors, such as the ERMES (endoplasmic reticulum (ER)-mitochondria encounter structure) complex and EMC (conserved ER membrane protein complex) between mitochondria and the ER, vCLAMP (vacuole and mitochondria patch) between mitochondria and vacuoles, and the MICOS (mitochondrial contact site) complex between the mitochondrial outer and inner membranes (MOM and MIM). All of these membrane-tethering factors were proposed to be involved in phospholipid biogenesis. Furthermore, the existence of functional interconnections among multiple organelle contact sites is suggested. In the present article, we summarize the latest discoveries in regard to MCSs and MCS-forming factors involving mitochondria and discuss their molecular functions, with particular focus on phospholipid metabolism in yeast.