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Jiménez-Jiménez FJ, Alonso-Navarro H, Salgado-Cámara P, García-Martín E, Agúndez JAG. Oxidative Stress Markers in Multiple Sclerosis. Int J Mol Sci 2024; 25:6289. [PMID: 38927996 PMCID: PMC11203935 DOI: 10.3390/ijms25126289] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/29/2024] [Revised: 03/10/2024] [Accepted: 06/03/2024] [Indexed: 06/28/2024] Open
Abstract
The pathogenesis of multiple sclerosis (MS) is not completely understood, but genetic factors, autoimmunity, inflammation, demyelination, and neurodegeneration seem to play a significant role. Data from analyses of central nervous system autopsy material from patients diagnosed with multiple sclerosis, as well as from studies in the main experimental model of multiple sclerosis, experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis (EAE), suggest the possibility of a role of oxidative stress as well. In this narrative review, we summarize the main data from studies reported on oxidative stress markers in patients diagnosed with MS and in experimental models of MS (mainly EAE), and case-control association studies on the possible association of candidate genes related to oxidative stress with risk for MS. Most studies have shown an increase in markers of oxidative stress, a decrease in antioxidant substances, or both, with cerebrospinal fluid and serum/plasma malonyl-dialdehyde being the most reliable markers. This topic requires further prospective, multicenter studies with a long-term follow-up period involving a large number of patients with MS and controls.
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Affiliation(s)
- Félix Javier Jiménez-Jiménez
- Section of Neurology, Hospital Universitario del Sureste, Arganda del Rey, E-28500 Madrid, Spain; (H.A.-N.); (P.S.-C.)
| | - Hortensia Alonso-Navarro
- Section of Neurology, Hospital Universitario del Sureste, Arganda del Rey, E-28500 Madrid, Spain; (H.A.-N.); (P.S.-C.)
| | - Paula Salgado-Cámara
- Section of Neurology, Hospital Universitario del Sureste, Arganda del Rey, E-28500 Madrid, Spain; (H.A.-N.); (P.S.-C.)
| | - Elena García-Martín
- University Institute of Molecular Pathology Biomarkers, Universidad de Extremadura, E-10071 Cáceres, Spain; (E.G.-M.); (J.A.G.A.)
| | - José A. G. Agúndez
- University Institute of Molecular Pathology Biomarkers, Universidad de Extremadura, E-10071 Cáceres, Spain; (E.G.-M.); (J.A.G.A.)
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2
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LeVine SM. Exploring Potential Mechanisms Accounting for Iron Accumulation in the Central Nervous System of Patients with Alzheimer's Disease. Cells 2024; 13:689. [PMID: 38667304 PMCID: PMC11049304 DOI: 10.3390/cells13080689] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/04/2024] [Revised: 04/12/2024] [Accepted: 04/14/2024] [Indexed: 04/28/2024] Open
Abstract
Elevated levels of iron occur in both cortical and subcortical regions of the CNS in patients with Alzheimer's disease. This accumulation is present early in the disease process as well as in more advanced stages. The factors potentially accounting for this increase are numerous, including: (1) Cells increase their uptake of iron and reduce their export of iron, as iron becomes sequestered (trapped within the lysosome, bound to amyloid β or tau, etc.); (2) metabolic disturbances, such as insulin resistance and mitochondrial dysfunction, disrupt cellular iron homeostasis; (3) inflammation, glutamate excitotoxicity, or other pathological disturbances (loss of neuronal interconnections, soluble amyloid β, etc.) trigger cells to acquire iron; and (4) following neurodegeneration, iron becomes trapped within microglia. Some of these mechanisms are also present in other neurological disorders and can also begin early in the disease course, indicating that iron accumulation is a relatively common event in neurological conditions. In response to pathogenic processes, the directed cellular efforts that contribute to iron buildup reflect the importance of correcting a functional iron deficiency to support essential biochemical processes. In other words, cells prioritize correcting an insufficiency of available iron while tolerating deposited iron. An analysis of the mechanisms accounting for iron accumulation in Alzheimer's disease, and in other relevant neurological conditions, is put forward.
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Affiliation(s)
- Steven M LeVine
- Department of Cell Biology and Physiology, University of Kansas Medical Center, 3901 Rainbow Blvd., Mail Stop 3043, Kansas City, KS 66160, USA
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3
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Levine AJ, Thadani C, Soontornniyomkij V, Lopez-Aranda MF, Mesa YG, Kitchen S, Rezek V, Silva A, Kolson DL. Behavioral and histological assessment of a novel treatment of neuroHIV in humanized mice. RESEARCH SQUARE 2023:rs.3.rs-3678629. [PMID: 38168407 PMCID: PMC10760308 DOI: 10.21203/rs.3.rs-3678629/v1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/05/2024]
Abstract
Neurocognitive deficits are prevalent among people living with HIV, likely due to chronic inflammation and oxidative stress in the brain. To date, no pharmaceutical treatments beyond antiretroviral therapy (ARV) has been shown to reduce risk for, or severity of, HIV-associated neurocognitive disorder. Here we investigate a novel compound, CDDO-Me, with documented neuroprotective effects via activation of the nrf2 and inhibition of the NFkB pathways. Methods We conducted three studies to assess the efficacy of CDDO-Me alone or in combination with antiretroviral therapy in humanized mice infected with HIV; behavioral, histopathological, and immunohistochemical. Results CDDO-Me in combination with ARV rescued social interaction deficits; however, only ARV was associated with preserved functioning in other behaviors, and CDDO-Me may have attenuated those benefits. A modest neuroprotective effect was found for CDDO-Me when administered with ARV, via preservation of PSD-95 expression; however, ARV alone had a more consistent protective effect. No significant changes in antioxidant enzyme expression levels were observed in CDDO-Me-treated animals. Only ARV use seemed to affect some antioxidant levels, indicating that it is ARV rather than CDDO-Me that is the major factor providing neuroprotection in this animal model. Finally, immunohistochemical analysis found that several cellular markers in various brain regions varied due to ARV rather than CDDO-Me. Conclusion Limited benefit of CDDO-Me on behavior and neuroprotection were observed. Instead, ARV was shown to be the more beneficial treatment. These experiments support the future use of this chimeric mouse for behavioral experiments in neuroHIV research.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | | | | | - Scott Kitchen
- UCLA Humanized Mouse Core Laboratory, University of California
| | - Valerie Rezek
- UCLA Humanized Mouse Core Laboratory, University of California
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4
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Asiaei S, Nasiri N, Ravari MP, Shahmoradi D, Mohamadbagher M, Jarrahi F, Jafari SK, Azarbayjani MA. Exercise regulates NG2-expressing cells in a cuprizone-induced demyelination rat model of multiple sclerosis. SPORT SCIENCES FOR HEALTH 2023. [DOI: 10.1007/s11332-023-01116-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/27/2023] [Accepted: 08/10/2023] [Indexed: 10/30/2023]
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5
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Sharkus R, Thakkar R, Kolson DL, Constantinescu CS. Dimethyl Fumarate as Potential Treatment for Alzheimer's Disease: Rationale and Clinical Trial Design. Biomedicines 2023; 11:1387. [PMID: 37239057 PMCID: PMC10216730 DOI: 10.3390/biomedicines11051387] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/05/2023] [Revised: 05/03/2023] [Accepted: 05/05/2023] [Indexed: 05/28/2023] Open
Abstract
Alzheimer's Disease (AD) is a debilitating disease that leads to severe cognitive impairment and functional decline. The role of tau hyperphosphorylation and amyloid plaque deposition in the pathophysiology of AD has been well described; however, neuroinflammation and oxidative stress related to sustained microglial activation is thought to play a significant role in the disease process as well. NRF-2 has been identified in modulating the effects of inflammation and oxidative stress in AD. Activation of NRF-2 leads to an increased production of antioxidant enzymes, including heme oxygenase, which has been shown to have protective effects in neurodegenerative disorders such as AD. Dimethyl fumarate and diroximel fumarate (DMF) have been approved for the use in relapsing-remitting multiple sclerosis. Research indicates that they can modulate the effects of neuroinflammation and oxidative stress through the NRF-2 pathway, and as such, could serve as a potential therapeutic option in AD. We propose a clinical trial design that could be used to assess DMF as a treatment option for AD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Robert Sharkus
- Department of Neurology, Cooper Neurological Institute, Cherry Hill, NJ 08002, USA; (R.S.); (R.T.)
| | - Richa Thakkar
- Department of Neurology, Cooper Neurological Institute, Cherry Hill, NJ 08002, USA; (R.S.); (R.T.)
| | - Dennis L. Kolson
- Department of Neurology, Perelman School of Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA 19104, USA;
| | - Cris S. Constantinescu
- Department of Neurology, Cooper Neurological Institute, Cherry Hill, NJ 08002, USA; (R.S.); (R.T.)
- Department of Neurology, Cooper Medical School of Rowan University, Camden, NJ 08103, USA
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6
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Duarte-Silva E, Meuth SG, Peixoto CA. The role of iron metabolism in the pathogenesis and treatment of multiple sclerosis. Front Immunol 2023; 14:1137635. [PMID: 37006264 PMCID: PMC10064139 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2023.1137635] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/04/2023] [Accepted: 02/21/2023] [Indexed: 03/19/2023] Open
Abstract
Multiple sclerosis is a severe demyelinating disease mediated by cells of the innate and adaptive immune system, especially pathogenic T lymphocytes that produce the pro-inflammatory cytokine granulocyte-macrophage colony stimulating factor (GM-CSF). Although the factors and molecules that drive the genesis of these cells are not completely known, some were discovered and shown to promote the development of such cells, such as dietary factors. In this regard, iron, the most abundant chemical element on Earth, has been implicated in the development of pathogenic T lymphocytes and in MS development via its effects on neurons and glia. Therefore, the aim of this paper is to revise the state-of-art regarding the role of iron metabolism in cells of key importance to MS pathophysiology, such as pathogenic CD4+ T cells and CNS resident cells. Harnessing the knowledge of iron metabolism may aid in the discovery of new molecular targets and in the development of new drugs that tackle MS and other diseases that share similar pathophysiology.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eduardo Duarte-Silva
- Center for Research in Inflammatory Diseases (CRID), Ribeirão Preto Medical School, Department of Pharmacology, University of São Paulo, Ribeirão Preto, SP, Brazil
- Network of Immunity in Infection, Malignancy and Autoimmunity (NIIMA), Universal Scientific Education and Research Network (USERN), Ribeirão Preto, SP, Brazil
- *Correspondence: Christina Alves Peixoto, ; Eduardo Duarte-Silva,
| | - Sven G. Meuth
- Department of Neurology, Medical Faculty, University Hospital Düsseldorf, Düsseldorf, Germany
| | - Christina Alves Peixoto
- Laboratory of Ultrastructure, Aggeu Magalhães Institute (IAM), Recife, PE, Brazil
- National Institute of Science and Technology on Neuroimmunomodulation (INCT-NIM), Oswaldo Cruz Institute, Oswaldo Cruz Foundation, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
- *Correspondence: Christina Alves Peixoto, ; Eduardo Duarte-Silva,
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7
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Dysregulation of a Heme Oxygenase–Synuclein Axis in Parkinson Disease. NEUROSCI 2022. [DOI: 10.3390/neurosci3020020] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
α-Synuclein is a key driver of the pathogenesis of Parkinson disease (PD). Heme oxygenase-1 (HO-1), a stress protein that catalyzes the conversion of heme to biliverdin, carbon monoxide and free ferrous iron, is elevated in PD-affected neural tissues and promotes iron deposition and mitochondrial dysfunction in models of the disease, pathways also impacted by α-synuclein. Elevated expression of human HO-1 in astrocytes of GFAP.HMOX1 transgenic mice between 8.5 and 19 months of age elicits a parkinsonian phenotype characterized by nigrostriatal hypodopaminergia, locomotor incoordination and overproduction of neurotoxic native S129-phospho-α-synuclein. Two microRNAs (miRNA) known to regulate α-synuclein, miR-153 and miR-223, are significantly decreased in the basal ganglia of GFAP.HMOX1 mice. Serum concentrations of both miRNAs progressively decline in wild-type (WT) and GFAP.HMOX1 mice between 11 and 18 months of age. Moreover, circulating levels of miR-153 and miR-223 are significantly lower, and erythrocyte α-synuclein concentrations are increased, in GFAP.HMOX1 mice relative to WT values. MiR-153 and miR-223 are similarly decreased in the saliva of PD patients compared to healthy controls. Upregulation of glial HO-1 may promote parkinsonism by suppressing miR-153 and miR-223, which, in turn, enhance production of neurotoxic α-synuclein. The aim of the current review is to explore the link between HO-1, α-synuclein and PD, evaluating evidence derived from our laboratory and others. HO-1, miR-153 and miR-223 and α-synuclein may serve as potential biomarkers and targets for disease-modifying therapy in idiopathic PD.
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Si Z, Wang X, Kang Y, Wang X, Sun C, Li Y, Xu J, Wu J, Zhang Z, Li L, Peng Y, Li J, Sun C, Hui Y, Gao X. Heme Oxygenase 1 Inhibits Adult Neural Stem Cells Proliferation and Survival via Modulation of Wnt/β-Catenin Signaling. J Alzheimers Dis 2021; 76:623-641. [PMID: 32568195 DOI: 10.3233/jad-200114] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/07/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Adult hippocampal neurogenesis is critical for renewing hippocampal neural circuits and maintaining hippocampal cognitive function and is closely associated with age-related neurodegenerative diseases. Heme oxygenase 1 (HO-1) is a stress protein that catalyzes the degradation of heme into free iron, biliverdin, and carbon monoxide. Elevated HO-1 level constitutes a pathological feature of Alzheimer's disease, Parkinson's disease, and many other age-related neurodegenerative diseases. OBJECTIVE Here we research the precise role of HO-1 in adult hippocampal neurogenesis. METHODS To explore the effect of HO-1 overexpression on adult neural stem cells (aNSCs) and elucidate its mechanisms, Tg(HO-1) was constructed. The transgenic mice and aNSCs were subjected to neurosphereing assay, clonal analysis, and BrdU labelling to detect the proliferation and self-renewal ability. LiCl, MG132, CHX, and IGF-1 treatment were used to research the signaling pathways which regulated by HO-1. RESULTS HO-1 overexpression decreased proliferation ability and induced apoptosis of aNSCs in subgranular zoon (SGZ) in vivo and in vitro. Furthermore, HO-1 overexpression inactivated canonical WNT/β-catenin pathway. Re-activate canonical WNT/β-catenin pathway rescued aNSCs proliferation and survival upon HO-1 overexpression. More importantly, phosphorylation of AKTS473 and GSK3βS9 was found to be significantly decreased in HO-1 overexpressed aNSCs. Re-activation of AKT signaling proved that HO-1 inhibited Wnt/β-catenin signaling pathway via AKT/GSK3β signaling pathway. CONCLUSION These results demonstrated a critical role of HO-1 in regulating aNSCs survival and proliferation by inhibiting Wnt/β-catenin pathway through repression of AKT/GSK3β, which provide a novel insight into the role of HO-1 in Alzheimer's disease pathogenesis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zizhen Si
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Harbin Medical University, Harbin, China
| | - Xue Wang
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Harbin Medical University, Harbin, China
| | - Yuchun Kang
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Harbin Medical University, Harbin, China
| | - Xidi Wang
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Harbin Medical University, Harbin, China.,Key Laboratory of Cardiovascular Medicine Research (Harbin Medical University), Ministry of Education, Harbin, China.,State-Province Key Laboratories of Biomedicine-Pharmaceutics of China
| | - Changhui Sun
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Harbin Medical University, Harbin, China
| | - Yuanxin Li
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Harbin Medical University, Harbin, China
| | - Jiakun Xu
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Harbin Medical University, Harbin, China
| | - Jiajia Wu
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Harbin Medical University, Harbin, China
| | - Zhujun Zhang
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Harbin Medical University, Harbin, China
| | - Ling Li
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Harbin Medical University, Harbin, China
| | - Yahui Peng
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Harbin Medical University, Harbin, China.,Key Laboratory of Cardiovascular Medicine Research (Harbin Medical University), Ministry of Education, Harbin, China.,State-Province Key Laboratories of Biomedicine-Pharmaceutics of China
| | - Jihong Li
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Harbin Medical University, Harbin, China.,Key Laboratory of Cardiovascular Medicine Research (Harbin Medical University), Ministry of Education, Harbin, China.,State-Province Key Laboratories of Biomedicine-Pharmaceutics of China
| | - Chongran Sun
- Department of Neurosurgery, The Second Affiliated Hospital of Zhejiang University Medical School, Zhejiang, China
| | - Yang Hui
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Harbin Medical University, Harbin, China.,Key Laboratory of Cardiovascular Medicine Research (Harbin Medical University), Ministry of Education, Harbin, China.,State-Province Key Laboratories of Biomedicine-Pharmaceutics of China
| | - Xu Gao
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Harbin Medical University, Harbin, China.,Key Laboratory of Cardiovascular Medicine Research (Harbin Medical University), Ministry of Education, Harbin, China.,State-Province Key Laboratories of Biomedicine-Pharmaceutics of China
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9
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Heme oxygenase-1 in blood and saliva during acute psychosis: A pilot study. Psychiatry Res 2021; 299:113857. [PMID: 33756209 DOI: 10.1016/j.psychres.2021.113857] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/29/2020] [Accepted: 03/04/2021] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
Despite the extensive prevalence of psychosis and schizophrenia spectrum disorders, their biological underpinnings remain largely unexplained. Recently, the overproduction of heme oxygenase-1 (HO-1), an enzyme that catalyzes the degradation of heme, was associated with oxidative stress and a neurologic phenotype similar to schizophrenia in transgenic mice. We sought to evaluate, by comparing patients experiencing an acute psychotic episode, and age/sex-matched healthy control participants, whether there was an association between HO-1 overexpression and psychosis. This cross-sectional pilot study included 16 patients and 17 control participants. Enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay and quantitative real-time polymerase chain reaction were used to quantify HO-1 expression in blood and saliva. Four psychiatric questionnaires were used to measure psychiatric symptoms in participants. Higher levels of salivary HO-1 expression were detected in patients experiencing an acute psychotic episode when compared to control participants (84.01 vs. 61.26 ng/ml, p = 0.026), but plasma and lymphocyte HO-1 expression did not significantly differ between groups. Overexpression of HO-1 in saliva specimens was also positively associated with psychiatric symptom severity and disability. The overexpression of HO-1 in the saliva of patients with psychosis suggests that it may serve as a potential biomarker for this symptom which should be explored in larger clinical trials.
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10
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Si Z, Wang X. The Neuroprotective and Neurodegeneration Effects of Heme Oxygenase-1 in Alzheimer's Disease. J Alzheimers Dis 2020; 78:1259-1272. [PMID: 33016915 DOI: 10.3233/jad-200720] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/15/2022]
Abstract
Alzheimer's disease (AD) is a neurodegenerative disease characterized by complex pathological and biological features. Notably, extracellular amyloid-β deposits as senile plaques and intracellular aggregation of hyperphosphorylated tau as neurofibrillary tangles remain the primary premortem criterion for the diagnosis of AD. Currently, there exist no disease-modifying therapies for AD, and many clinical trials have failed to show its benefits for patients. Heme oxygenase 1 (HO-1) is a 32 kDa enzyme, which catalyzes the degradation of cellular heme to free ferrous iron, biliverdin, and carbon monoxide under stressful conditions. Several studies highlight the crucial pathological roles of HO-1 in the molecular processes of AD. The beneficial roles of HO-1 overexpression in AD brains are widely accepted due to its ability to convert pro-oxidant heme to biliverdin and bilirubin (antioxidants), which promote restoration of a suitable tissue redox microenvironment. However, the intracellular oxidative stress might be amplified by metabolites of HO-1 and exacerbate the progression of AD under certain circumstances. Several lines of evidence have demonstrated that upregulated HO-1 is linked to tauopathies, neuronal damage, and synapse aberrations in AD. Here, we review the aspects of the molecular mechanisms by which HO-1 regulates AD and the latest information on the pathobiology of AD. We further highlight the neuroprotective and neurodystrophic actions of HO-1 and the feasibility of HO-1 as a therapeutic target for AD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zizhen Si
- Department of Physiology and Pharmacology, Ningbo University School of Medicine, Ningbo, China
| | - Xidi Wang
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Harbin Medical University, Harbin, China
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Tavitian A, Cressatti M, Song W, Turk AZ, Galindez C, Smart A, Liberman A, Schipper HM. Strategic Timing of Glial HMOX1 Expression Results in Either Schizophrenia-Like or Parkinsonian Behavior in Mice. Antioxid Redox Signal 2020; 32:1259-1272. [PMID: 31847534 DOI: 10.1089/ars.2019.7937] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/25/2022]
Abstract
Aims: In this original research communication, we assess the impact of shifting the window of glial HMOX1 overexpression in mice from early-to-midlife to mid-to-late life, resulting in two disparate conditions modeling schizophrenia (SCZ) and Parkinson's disease (PD). Mesolimbic hyperdopaminergia is a widely accepted feature of SCZ, while nigrostriatal hypodopaminergia is the sine qua non of idiopathic PD. Although the advent of parkinsonian features in SCZ patients after treatment with antidopaminergic agents is intuitive, subtle features of parkinsonism commonly observed in young, drug-naïve schizophrenics are not. Similarly, emergent psychosis in PD subjects receiving levodopa replacement is not unusual, whereas spontaneous hallucinosis in nonmedicated persons with idiopathic PD is enigmatic. Investigations using GFAP.HMOX1 mice may shed light on these clinical paradoxes. Results: Astroglial heme oxygenase-1 (HO-1) overexpression in mice throughout embryogenesis until 6 or 12 months of age resulted in hyperdopaminergia, hyperkinesia/stereotypy ameliorated with clozapine, deficient prepulse inhibition of the acoustic startle response, reduced preference for social novelty, impaired nest building, and cognitive dysfunction reminiscent of SCZ. On the contrary, astroglial HO-1 overexpression between 8.5 and 19 months of age yielded a PD-like behavioral phenotype with hypodopaminergia, altered gait, locomotor incoordination, and reduced olfaction. Innovation: We conjecture that region-specific disparities in the susceptibility of dopaminergic and other circuitry to the trophic and degenerative influences of glial HMOX1 induction may permit the concomitant expression of mixed SCZ and PD traits within affected individuals. Conclusion: Elucidation of these converging mechanisms may (i) help better understand disease pathogenesis and (ii) identify HO-1 as a potential therapeutic target in neurodevelopmental and neurodegenerative disorders.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ayda Tavitian
- Lady Davis Institute for Medical Research, Jewish General Hospital, Montreal, Canada.,Department of Neurology and Neurosurgery, McGill University, Montreal, Canada
| | - Marisa Cressatti
- Lady Davis Institute for Medical Research, Jewish General Hospital, Montreal, Canada.,Department of Neurology and Neurosurgery, McGill University, Montreal, Canada
| | - Wei Song
- Lady Davis Institute for Medical Research, Jewish General Hospital, Montreal, Canada
| | - Ariana Z Turk
- Department of Neurology and Neurosurgery, McGill University, Montreal, Canada
| | - Carmela Galindez
- Lady Davis Institute for Medical Research, Jewish General Hospital, Montreal, Canada
| | - Adam Smart
- Lady Davis Institute for Medical Research, Jewish General Hospital, Montreal, Canada.,Department of Neurology and Neurosurgery, McGill University, Montreal, Canada
| | - Adrienne Liberman
- Lady Davis Institute for Medical Research, Jewish General Hospital, Montreal, Canada
| | - Hyman M Schipper
- Lady Davis Institute for Medical Research, Jewish General Hospital, Montreal, Canada.,Department of Neurology and Neurosurgery, McGill University, Montreal, Canada
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12
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Zhang L, Ren L, Shan K, Guo X, Wang J, Cui B, An J. Serum Inflammatory Cytokines Comparison in Gastric Cancer Therapy. Open Med (Wars) 2019; 14:300-306. [PMID: 30931396 PMCID: PMC6434663 DOI: 10.1515/med-2019-0027] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/21/2018] [Accepted: 11/19/2018] [Indexed: 01/22/2023] Open
Abstract
To compare serum inflammatory cytokines between laparoscopic-assisted and open radical gastrectomy in the perioperative period, 80 cases of advanced gastric cancer were chosen for the study. They were divided into laparoscopy group (40 cases) and abdominal open surgery group (40 cases), performed laparoscopic-assisted radical gastrostomy and conventional open radical gastrectomy, respectively. Serum Heme oxygenase-1 (HO-1), TNF-α, IL-6 and CRP were measured by ELISA on preoperative day 1, post-operative day 1 and post-operative day3. Serum HO-1, TNF-α, IL-6 and CRP had no significant difference between the laparoscopy group and the open group on pre-operative day 1. Serum HO-1, IL-6 and CRP of the laparoscopy group were significantly lower than that of the open group on post-operative day 1 and day 3 except for Serum TNF-α which had no significant difference. Laparoscopic-assisted radical gastrectomy was minimally invasive compared with conventional open radical gastrectomy in advanced gastric cancer patients.
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Affiliation(s)
- Li Zhang
- Department of general surgery, Shandong Provincial Hospital Affiliated to Shandong University, Jinan, Shandong, 250021, China
| | - Lehao Ren
- Department of general surgery, Shandong Provincial Hospital Affiliated to Shandong University, Jinan, Shandong, 250021, China
| | - Keshu Shan
- Department of general surgery, Shandong Provincial Hospital Affiliated to Shandong University, Jinan, Shandong, 250021, China
| | - Xiaobo Guo
- Department of general surgery, Shandong Provincial Hospital Affiliated to Shandong University, Jinan, Shandong, 250021, China
| | - Jinshen Wang
- Department of general surgery, Shandong Provincial Hospital Affiliated to Shandong University, Jinan, Shandong, 250021, China
| | - Bin Cui
- Department of general surgery, Shandong Provincial Hospital Affiliated to Shandong University, Jinan, Shandong, 250021, China
| | - Jie An
- Department of Pharmacology, Shandong University School of Medicine, 44 Wenhua Xi Road, Jinan, Shandong, 250012 P.R. China
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13
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The sinister face of heme oxygenase-1 in brain aging and disease. Prog Neurobiol 2019; 172:40-70. [DOI: 10.1016/j.pneurobio.2018.06.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 103] [Impact Index Per Article: 20.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/27/2018] [Revised: 06/19/2018] [Accepted: 06/30/2018] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
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14
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Wang L, Li B, Quan MY, Li L, Chen Y, Tan GJ, Zhang J, Liu XP, Guo L. Mechanism of oxidative stress p38MAPK-SGK1 signaling axis in experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis (EAE). Oncotarget 2018; 8:42808-42816. [PMID: 28467798 PMCID: PMC5522107 DOI: 10.18632/oncotarget.17057] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/08/2016] [Accepted: 03/16/2017] [Indexed: 12/05/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Multiple sclerosis (MS), a complex disease associated with multifocal demyelination of the central nervous system and poorly understood etiology. It has been previously indicated that many factors, including oxidative stress and p38MAPK-SGK1 pathway, contribute to the pathogenesis of MS. Methods This study, using an experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis (EAE) model system, was aimed at investigating the molecular mechanisms determining interaction p38MAPK-SGK1 pathway and oxidative stress in MS pathogenesis. C57BL/6 mice was immunized with MOG35-55 peptide for EAE induction, which was followed by determination of the effect of treatment with classic p38 inhibitor SB203580 and antioxidant tempol on the development and progression of EAE. Results Our experiments showed a dynamic change of immune inflammation, oxidative stress and p38MAPK-SGK1 pathway involvement in EAE demonstrating that p38MAPK-SGK1 pathway and oxidative stress contribute to the demyelination in central nerve system caused by Th17 inflammatory responses in a synergistic way. The administration of SB203580 and Tempol both markedly suppressed the progression of EAE. Furthermore, tempol showed a strong inhibiting effect to the p38MAPK-SGK1 pathway similar to SB203580 suggesting that oxidative stress exacerbates EAE via the activation of p38MAPK-SGK1 pathway. Conclusion Cumulatively, our results show that oxidative stress p38MAPK-SGK1 signaling pathway may be a central player in EAE and even in MS.
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Affiliation(s)
- Liang Wang
- Department of Neurology, The Second Hospital of Hebei Medical University, Shijiazhuang, Hebei 050000, China.,Key Laboratory of Hebei Neurology, Shijiazhuang, Hebei 050000, China
| | - Bin Li
- Department of Neurology, The Second Hospital of Hebei Medical University, Shijiazhuang, Hebei 050000, China.,Key Laboratory of Hebei Neurology, Shijiazhuang, Hebei 050000, China
| | - Mo-Yuan Quan
- Department of Neurology, The Second Hospital of Hebei Medical University, Shijiazhuang, Hebei 050000, China.,Key Laboratory of Hebei Neurology, Shijiazhuang, Hebei 050000, China
| | - Lin Li
- Department of Neurology, Tongren Hospital of Capital Medical University, Beijing, Hebei 100088, China
| | - Yuan Chen
- Department of Pediatrics, The Second Hospital of Hebei Medical University, Shijiazhuang, Hebei 050000, China
| | - Guo-Jun Tan
- Department of Neurology, The Second Hospital of Hebei Medical University, Shijiazhuang, Hebei 050000, China.,Key Laboratory of Hebei Neurology, Shijiazhuang, Hebei 050000, China
| | - Jing Zhang
- Department of Neurology, The Second Hospital of Hebei Medical University, Shijiazhuang, Hebei 050000, China.,Key Laboratory of Hebei Neurology, Shijiazhuang, Hebei 050000, China
| | - Xiao-Peng Liu
- Department of Neurosurgery, The Second Hospital of Hebei Medical University, Shijiazhuang, Hebei 050000, China
| | - Li Guo
- Department of Neurology, The Second Hospital of Hebei Medical University, Shijiazhuang, Hebei 050000, China.,Key Laboratory of Hebei Neurology, Shijiazhuang, Hebei 050000, China
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15
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Adiele RC, Adiele CA. Metabolic defects in multiple sclerosis. Mitochondrion 2017; 44:7-14. [PMID: 29246870 DOI: 10.1016/j.mito.2017.12.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/23/2017] [Revised: 10/12/2017] [Accepted: 12/11/2017] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
Brain injuries in multiple sclerosis (MS) involve immunopathological, structural and metabolic defects on myelin sheath, oligodendrocytes (OLs), axons and neurons suggesting that different cellular mechanisms ultimately result in the formation of MS plaques, demyelination, inflammation and brain damage. Bioenergetics, oxygen and ion metabolism dominate the metabolic and biochemical pathways that maintain neuronal viability and impulse transmission which directly or indirectly point to mitochondrial integrity and adenosine triphosphate (ATP) availability indicating the involvement of mitochondria in the pathogenesis of MS. Loss of myelin proteins including myelin basic protein (MBP), proteolipid protein (PLP), myelin associated glycoprotein (MAG), myelin oligodendrocyte glycoproetin (MOG), 2, 3,-cyclic nucleotide phosphodiestarase (CNPase); microglia and microphage activation, oligodendrocyte apoptosis as well as expression of inducible nitric oxide synthase (i-NOS) and myeloperoxidase activities have been implicated in a subset of Balo's type and relapsing remitting MS (RRMS) lesions indicating the involvement of metabolic defects and oxidative stress in MS. Here, we provide an insighting review of defects in cellular metabolism including energy, oxygen and metal metabolism in MS as well as the relevance of animal models of MS in understanding the molecular, biochemical and cellular mechanisms of MS pathogenesis. Additionally, we also discussed the potential for mitochondrial targets and antioxidant protection for therapeutic benefits in MS.
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Affiliation(s)
- Reginald C Adiele
- Department of Anatomy and Cell Biology, College of Medicine, University of Saskatchewan, Saskatoon, SK, Canada; Cameco MS Neuroscience Research Center, Saskatoon City Hospital, Saskatoon, SK, Canada; Department of Public Health, Concordia University of Edmonton, Edmonton, AB, Canada.
| | - Chiedukam A Adiele
- Department of Clinical Pharmacy, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Nigeria, Nsukka, Nigeria
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16
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Santos J, Milthorpe BK, Herbert BR, Padula MP. Proteomic Analysis of Human Adipose Derived Stem Cells during Small Molecule Chemical Stimulated Pre-neuronal Differentiation. Int J Stem Cells 2017; 10:193-217. [PMID: 28844130 PMCID: PMC5741201 DOI: 10.15283/ijsc17036] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 07/04/2017] [Indexed: 11/09/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Adipose derived stem cells (ADSCs) are acquired from abdominal liposuction yielding a thousand fold more stem cells per millilitre than those from bone marrow. A large research void exists as to whether ADSCs are capable of transdermal differentiation toward neuronal phenotypes. Previous studies have investigated the use of chemical cocktails with varying inconclusive results. Methods Human ADSCs were treated with a chemical stimulant, beta-mercaptoethanol, to direct them toward a neuronal-like lineage within 24 hours. Quantitative proteomics using iTRAQ was then performed to ascertain protein abundance differences between ADSCs, beta-mercaptoethanol treated ADSCs and a glioblastoma cell line. Results The soluble proteome of ADSCs differentiated for 12 hours and 24 hours was significantly different from basal ADSCs and control cells, expressing a number of remodeling, neuroprotective and neuroproliferative proteins. However toward the later time point presented stress and shock related proteins were observed to be up regulated with a large down regulation of structural proteins. Cytokine profiles support a large cellular remodeling shift as well indicating cellular distress. Conclusion The earlier time point indicates an initiation of differentiation. At the latter time point there is a vast loss of cell population during treatment. At 24 hours drastically decreased cytokine profiles and overexpression of stress proteins reveal that exposure to beta-mercaptoethanol beyond 24 hours may not be suitable for clinical application as our results indicate that the cells are in trauma whilst producing neuronal-like morphologies. The shorter treatment time is promising, indicating a reducing agent has fast acting potential to initiate neuronal differentiation of ADSCs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jerran Santos
- Advanced Tissue Regeneration & Drug Delivery Group, School of Life Sciences, University of Technology Sydney, NSW, Australia.,Proteomics Core Facility, School of Life Sciences, University of Technology Sydney, NSW, Australia
| | - Bruce K Milthorpe
- Advanced Tissue Regeneration & Drug Delivery Group, School of Life Sciences, University of Technology Sydney, NSW, Australia
| | - Benjamin R Herbert
- Northern Clinical School, Sydney Medical School, University of Sydney, NSW, Australia
| | - Matthew P Padula
- Proteomics Core Facility, School of Life Sciences, University of Technology Sydney, NSW, Australia
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17
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Are Astrocytes the Predominant Cell Type for Activation of Nrf2 in Aging and Neurodegeneration? Antioxidants (Basel) 2017; 6:antiox6030065. [PMID: 28820437 PMCID: PMC5618093 DOI: 10.3390/antiox6030065] [Citation(s) in RCA: 111] [Impact Index Per Article: 15.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/13/2017] [Revised: 08/11/2017] [Accepted: 08/16/2017] [Indexed: 12/29/2022] Open
Abstract
Nuclear factor erythroid 2-related factor 2 (Nrf2) is a transcription factor that regulates hundreds of antioxidant genes, and is activated in response to oxidative stress. Given that many neurodegenerative diseases including Alzheimer’s disease, Parkinson’s disease, amyotrophic lateral sclerosis, Huntington’s disease and multiple sclerosis are characterised by oxidative stress, Nrf2 is commonly activated in these diseases. Evidence demonstrates that Nrf2 activity is repressed in neurons in vitro, and only cultured astrocytes respond strongly to Nrf2 inducers, leading to the interpretation that Nrf2 signalling is largely restricted to astrocytes. However, Nrf2 activity can be observed in neurons in post-mortem brain tissue and animal models of disease. Thus this interpretation may be false, and a detailed analysis of the cell type expression of Nrf2 in neurodegenerative diseases is required. This review describes the evidence for Nrf2 activation in each cell type in prominent neurodegenerative diseases and normal aging in human brain and animal models of neurodegeneration, the response to pharmacological and genetic modulation of Nrf2, and clinical trials involving Nrf2-modifying drugs.
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18
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Esmaeil Mousavi S, Heydarpour P, Reis J, Amiri M, Sahraian MA. Multiple sclerosis and air pollution exposure: Mechanisms toward brain autoimmunity. Med Hypotheses 2017; 100:23-30. [PMID: 28236843 DOI: 10.1016/j.mehy.2017.01.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/19/2016] [Revised: 11/25/2016] [Accepted: 01/04/2017] [Indexed: 01/03/2023]
Abstract
The association between neurodegenerative diseases and environmental exposures, in particular air pollution, has been noticed in the last two decades, but the importance of this environmental factor in multiple sclerosis (MS) pathogenesis has not been considered extensively. However, recent evidence suggests that major mechanisms involved in MS pathogenesis, such as inflammatory factors expression, free radicals overproduction, the blood brain barrier (BBB) breakdown, neuroinflammation, vitamin D deficiency and mitochondrial dysfunction could also occur due to exposure to air pollutants. A prospective hypothesis is suggested here in which exposure to air pollutants may initiate destructive mechanisms inducing inflammatory-oxidative cascades, reduction of immunological self-tolerance and neurodegeneration leading to brain autoimmunity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sayed Esmaeil Mousavi
- Social Health Determinants Research Center, Shahrekord University of Medical Sciences, Shahrekord, Iran
| | - Pouria Heydarpour
- MS Research Center, Neuroscience Institute, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran
| | - Jacques Reis
- Service de Neurologie, Centre Hospitalier Universitaire, Hôpital de Hautepierre, 1, avenue Molière, 67200 Strasbourg, France
| | - Masoud Amiri
- Social Health Determinants Research Center, Shahrekord University of Medical Sciences, Shahrekord, Iran
| | - Mohammad Ali Sahraian
- MS Research Center, Neuroscience Institute, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran.
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19
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Diaz-Amarilla P, Miquel E, Trostchansky A, Trias E, Ferreira AM, Freeman BA, Cassina P, Barbeito L, Vargas MR, Rubbo H. Electrophilic nitro-fatty acids prevent astrocyte-mediated toxicity to motor neurons in a cell model of familial amyotrophic lateral sclerosis via nuclear factor erythroid 2-related factor activation. Free Radic Biol Med 2016; 95:112-20. [PMID: 27012417 PMCID: PMC4867302 DOI: 10.1016/j.freeradbiomed.2016.03.013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/16/2015] [Revised: 03/11/2016] [Accepted: 03/18/2016] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
Abstract
Nitro-fatty acids (NO2-FA) are electrophilic signaling mediators formed in tissues during inflammation, which are able to induce pleiotropic cytoprotective and antioxidant pathways including up regulation of Nuclear factor erythroid 2-related factor 2 (Nrf2) responsive genes. Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis (ALS) is a fatal neurodegenerative disease characterized by the loss of motor neurons associated to an inflammatory process that usually aggravates the disease progression. In ALS animal models, the activation of the transcription factor Nrf2 in astrocytes confers protection to neighboring neurons. It is currently unknown whether NO2-FA can exert protective activity in ALS through Nrf2 activation. Herein we demonstrate that nitro-arachidonic acid (NO2-AA) or nitro-oleic acid (NO2-OA) administrated to astrocytes expressing the ALS-linked hSOD1(G93A) induce antioxidant phase II enzyme expression through Nrf2 activation concomitant with increasing intracellular glutathione levels. Furthermore, treatment of hSOD1(G93A)-expressing astrocytes with NO2-FA prevented their toxicity to motor neurons. Transfection of siRNA targeted to Nrf2 mRNA supported the involvement of Nrf2 activation in NO2-FA-mediated protective effects. Our results show for the first time that NO2-FA induce a potent Nrf2-dependent antioxidant response in astrocytes capable of preventing motor neurons death in a culture model of ALS.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pablo Diaz-Amarilla
- Instituto de Investigaciones Biológicas Clemente Estable, Montevideo, Uruguay
| | - Ernesto Miquel
- Departamento de Histología y Embriología, Facultad de Medicina, Universidad de la República, Montevideo, Uruguay
| | - Andrés Trostchansky
- Departamento de Bioquímica and Center for Free Radical and Biomedical Research, Facultad de Medicina, Universidad de la República, Montevideo, Uruguay
| | | | - Ana M Ferreira
- Catedra de Inmunología, Facultad de Quimica y Ciencias, Universidad de la República, Montevideo, Uruguay
| | - Bruce A Freeman
- Department of Pharmacology and Chemical Biology, University of Pittsburgh, PA, USA
| | - Patricia Cassina
- Departamento de Histología y Embriología, Facultad de Medicina, Universidad de la República, Montevideo, Uruguay
| | | | - Marcelo R Vargas
- Cell and Molecular Pharmacology and Experimental Therapeutics, Medical University of South Carolina, Charleston, SC, USA
| | - Homero Rubbo
- Departamento de Bioquímica and Center for Free Radical and Biomedical Research, Facultad de Medicina, Universidad de la República, Montevideo, Uruguay.
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20
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Tolerability and Safety of Combined Glatiramer Acetate and N-Acetylcysteine in Relapsing-Remitting Multiple Sclerosis. Clin Neuropharmacol 2016; 38:127-31. [PMID: 26166235 DOI: 10.1097/wnf.0000000000000090] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
INTRODUCTION Multiple sclerosis (MS) is an autoimmune disorder of the central nervous system where inflammation and neurodegeneration play key roles. Mounting evidence implicates oxidative stress in the development of irreversible neuronal and glial injury in this condition. N-acetylcysteine (NAC) is a sulfhydryl amino acid derivative with antioxidant and antiapoptotic properties. Administration of NAC to mice attenuated the induction of or improved experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis (an MS model). METHODS We performed an open-label study to explore the tolerability and safety of the combination of glatiramer acetate (GA) and NAC in patients with relapsing-remitting multiple sclerosis at the outpatient MS clinics of the Jewish General Hospital and Hôpital Charles Lemoyne, Montreal, Canada. Seven patients with relapsing-remitting multiple sclerosis with at least one T1 gadolinium-enhancing lesion on screening magnetic resonance imaging were recruited. Treatment consisted of a 10-week run-in period followed by 36-week treatment with a combination of GA 20 mg subcutaneously once daily plus NAC 2.5 g orally twice daily. Outcome measures included safety and tolerability, redox biochemistry, and magnetic resonance imaging effect. RESULTS Treatment with the combination of GA and NAC was safe and well tolerated. CONCLUSIONS In light of the favorable safety profile, an efficacy-demonstrating study may be considered.
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21
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Jiang H, Wang J, Rogers J, Xie J. Brain Iron Metabolism Dysfunction in Parkinson's Disease. Mol Neurobiol 2016; 54:3078-3101. [PMID: 27039308 DOI: 10.1007/s12035-016-9879-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 117] [Impact Index Per Article: 14.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/24/2015] [Accepted: 03/21/2016] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
Dysfunction of iron metabolism, which includes its uptake, storage, and release, plays a key role in neurodegenerative disorders, including Parkinson's disease (PD), Alzheimer's disease, and Huntington's disease. Understanding how iron accumulates in the substantia nigra (SN) and why it specifically targets dopaminergic (DAergic) neurons is particularly warranted for PD, as this knowledge may provide new therapeutic avenues for a more targeted neurotherapeutic strategy for this disease. In this review, we begin with a brief introduction describing brain iron metabolism and its regulation. We then provide a detailed description of how iron accumulates specifically in the SN and why DAergic neurons are especially vulnerable to iron in PD. Furthermore, we focus on the possible mechanisms involved in iron-induced cell death of DAergic neurons in the SN. Finally, we present evidence in support that iron chelation represents a plausable therapeutic strategy for PD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hong Jiang
- Department of Physiology, Shandong Provincial Key Laboratory of Pathogenesis and Prevention of Neurological Disorders and State Key Disciplines: Physiology, Shandong Provincial Collaborative Innovation Center for Neurodegenerative Disorders, Medical College of Qingdao University, Qingdao, 266071, China.
| | - Jun Wang
- Department of Physiology, Shandong Provincial Key Laboratory of Pathogenesis and Prevention of Neurological Disorders and State Key Disciplines: Physiology, Shandong Provincial Collaborative Innovation Center for Neurodegenerative Disorders, Medical College of Qingdao University, Qingdao, 266071, China
| | - Jack Rogers
- Neurochemistry Laboratory, Division of Psychiatric Neurosciences and Genetics and Aging Research Unit, Massachusetts General Hospital, Boston, MA, 02114, USA
| | - Junxia Xie
- Department of Physiology, Shandong Provincial Key Laboratory of Pathogenesis and Prevention of Neurological Disorders and State Key Disciplines: Physiology, Shandong Provincial Collaborative Innovation Center for Neurodegenerative Disorders, Medical College of Qingdao University, Qingdao, 266071, China.
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22
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Watanabe T, Frahm J, Michaelis T. In Vivo Brain MR Imaging at Subnanoliter Resolution: Contrast and Histology. Magn Reson Med Sci 2015; 15:11-25. [PMID: 26346405 DOI: 10.2463/mrms.2015-0048] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022] Open
Abstract
This article provides an overview of in vivo magnetic resonance (MR) imaging contrasts obtained for mammalian brain in relation to histological knowledge. Emphasis is paid to the (1) significance of high spatial resolution for the optimization of T1, T2, and magnetization transfer contrast, (2) use of exogenous extra- and intracellular contrast agents for validating endogenous contrast sources, and (3) histological structures and biochemical compounds underlying these contrasts and (4) their relevance to neuroradiology. Comparisons between MR imaging at subnanoliter resolution and histological data indicate that (a) myelin sheaths, (b) nerve cells, and (c) the neuropil are most responsible for observed MR imaging contrasts, while (a) diamagnetic macromolecules, (b) intracellular paramagnetic ions, and (c) extracellular free water, respectively, emerge as the dominant factors. Enhanced relaxation rates due to paramagnetic ions, such as iron and manganese, have been observed for oligodendrocytes, astrocytes, microglia, and blood cells in the brain as well as for nerve cells. Taken together, a plethora of observations suggests that the delineation of specific structures in high-resolution MR imaging of mammalian brain and the absence of corresponding contrasts in MR imaging of the human brain do not necessarily indicate differences between species but may be explained by partial volume effects. Second, paramagnetic ions are required in active cells in vivo which may reduce the magnetization transfer ratio in the brain through accelerated T1 recovery. Third, reductions of the magnetization transfer ratio may be more sensitive to a particular pathological condition, such as astrocytosis, microglial activation, inflammation, and demyelination, than changes in relaxation. This is because the simultaneous occurrence of increased paramagnetic ions (i.e., shorter relaxation times) and increased free water (i.e., longer relaxation times) may cancel T1 or T2 effects, whereas both processes reduce the magnetization transfer ratio.
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Affiliation(s)
- Takashi Watanabe
- Biomedizinische NMR Forschungs GmbH am Max-Planck-Institut für biophysikalische Chemie
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23
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Abstract
Multiple sclerosis is a neurologic disease caused by immune cell infiltration into the central nervous system, resulting in gray and white matter inflammation, progressive demyelination, and neuronal loss. Astrocytes, the most abundant cell population in the central nervous system (CNS), have been considered inert scaffold or housekeeping cells for many years. However, recently, it has become clear that this cell population actively modulates the immune response in the CNS at multiple levels. While being exposed to a plethora of cytokines during ongoing autoimmune inflammation, astrocytes modulate local CNS inflammation by secreting cytokines and chemokines, among other factors. This review article gives an overview of the most recent understanding about cytokine networks operational in astrocytes during autoimmune neuroinflammation and highlights potential targets for immunomodulatory therapies for multiple sclerosis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Veit Rothhammer
- Ann Romney Center for Neurologic Diseases, Brigham and Women's Hospital, Harvard Medical School, 77 Ave. Louis Pasteur, HIM 714, Boston, MA, 02115, USA
| | - Francisco J Quintana
- Ann Romney Center for Neurologic Diseases, Brigham and Women's Hospital, Harvard Medical School, 77 Ave. Louis Pasteur, HIM 714, Boston, MA, 02115, USA.
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24
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Ambegaokar SS, Kolson DL. Heme oxygenase-1 dysregulation in the brain: implications for HIV-associated neurocognitive disorders. Curr HIV Res 2015; 12:174-88. [PMID: 24862327 PMCID: PMC4155834 DOI: 10.2174/1570162x12666140526122709] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/29/2013] [Revised: 01/20/2014] [Accepted: 01/27/2014] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Abstract
Heme oxygenase-1 (HO-1) is a highly inducible and ubiquitous cellular enzyme that subserves cytoprotective responses to toxic insults, including inflammation and oxidative stress. In neurodegenerative diseases such as Alzheimer’s disease, Parkinson’s disease and multiple sclerosis, HO-1 expression is increased, presumably reflecting an endogenous neuroprotective response against ongoing cellular injury. In contrast, we have found that in human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) infection of the brain, which is also associated with inflammation, oxidative stress and neurodegeneration, HO-1 expression is decreased, likely reflecting a unique role for HO-1 deficiency in neurodegeneration pathways activated by HIV infection. We have also shown that HO-1 expression is significantly suppressed by HIV replication in cultured macrophages which represent the primary cellular reservoir for HIV in the brain. HO-1 deficiency is associated with release of neurotoxic levels of glutamate from both HIV-infected and immune-activated macrophages; this glutamate-mediated neurotoxicity is suppressed by pharmacological induction of HO-1 expression in the macrophages. Thus, HO-1 induction could be a therapeutic strategy for neuroprotection against HIV infection and other neuroinflammatory brain diseases. Here, we review various stimuli and signaling pathways regulating HO-1 expression in macrophages, which could promote neuronal survival through HO-1-modulation of endogenous antioxidant and immune modulatory pathways, thus limiting the oxidative stress that can promote HIV disease progression in the CNS. The use of pharmacological inducers of endogenous HO-1 expression as potential adjunctive neuroprotective therapeutics in HIV infection is also discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Dennis L Kolson
- Department of Neurology, Perelman School of Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, 280 Clinical Research Building, 415 Curie Blvd., Philadelphia, PA 19104, USA.
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25
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A heme oxygenase-1 transducer model of degenerative and developmental brain disorders. Int J Mol Sci 2015; 16:5400-19. [PMID: 25761244 PMCID: PMC4394483 DOI: 10.3390/ijms16035400] [Citation(s) in RCA: 48] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/11/2014] [Revised: 01/28/2015] [Accepted: 02/22/2015] [Indexed: 12/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Heme oxygenase-1 (HO-1) is a 32 kDa protein which catalyzes the breakdown of heme to free iron, carbon monoxide and biliverdin. The Hmox1 promoter contains numerous consensus sequences that render the gene exquisitely sensitive to induction by diverse pro-oxidant and inflammatory stimuli. In “stressed” astroglia, HO-1 hyperactivity promotes mitochondrial iron sequestration and macroautophagy and may thereby contribute to the pathological iron deposition and bioenergetic failure documented in Alzheimer disease, Parkinson disease and certain neurodevelopmental conditions. Glial HO-1 expression may also impact neuroplasticity and cell survival by modulating brain sterol metabolism and the proteasomal degradation of neurotoxic proteins. The glial HO-1 response may represent a pivotal transducer of noxious environmental and endogenous stressors into patterns of neural damage and repair characteristic of many human degenerative and developmental CNS disorders.
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26
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Queiroga CSF, Vercelli A, Vieira HLA. Carbon monoxide and the CNS: challenges and achievements. Br J Pharmacol 2015; 172:1533-45. [PMID: 24758548 PMCID: PMC4369262 DOI: 10.1111/bph.12729] [Citation(s) in RCA: 65] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/07/2014] [Revised: 03/20/2014] [Accepted: 03/26/2014] [Indexed: 01/12/2023] Open
Abstract
Haem oxygenase (HO) and its product carbon monoxide (CO) are associated with cytoprotection and maintenance of homeostasis in several different organs and tissues. This review focuses upon the role of exogenous and endogenous CO (via HO activity and expression) in various CNS pathologies, based upon data from experimental models, as well as from some clinical data on human patients. The pathophysiological conditions reviewed are cerebral ischaemia, chronic neurodegenerative diseases (Alzheimer's and Parkinson's diseases), multiple sclerosis and pain. Among these pathophysiological conditions, a variety of cellular mechanisms and processes are considered, namely cytoprotection, cell death, inflammation, cell metabolism, cellular redox responses and vasomodulation, as well as the different targeted neural cells. Finally, novel potential methods and strategies for delivering exogenous CO as a drug are discussed, particularly approaches based upon CO-releasing molecules, their limitations and challenges. The diagnostic and prognostic value of HO expression in clinical use for brain pathologies is also addressed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Cláudia S F Queiroga
- Chronic Diseases Research Center (CEDOC), Faculdade de Ciências Médicas, Universidade Nova de LisboaLisbon, Portugal
| | - Alessandro Vercelli
- Department of Neuroscience, Neuroscience Institute Cavalieri Ottolenghi (NICO), University of TurinTurin, Italy
| | - Helena L A Vieira
- Chronic Diseases Research Center (CEDOC), Faculdade de Ciências Médicas, Universidade Nova de LisboaLisbon, Portugal
- Instituto de Biologia Experimental e Tecnológica (IBET)Oeiras, Portugal
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27
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Ward RJ, Zucca FA, Duyn JH, Crichton RR, Zecca L. The role of iron in brain ageing and neurodegenerative disorders. Lancet Neurol 2014; 13:1045-60. [PMID: 25231526 DOI: 10.1016/s1474-4422(14)70117-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1115] [Impact Index Per Article: 111.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
SUMMARY In the CNS, iron in several proteins is involved in many important processes such as oxygen transportation, oxidative phosphorylation, myelin production, and the synthesis and metabolism of neurotransmitters. Abnormal iron homoeostasis can induce cellular damage through hydroxyl radical production, which can cause the oxidation and modification of lipids, proteins, carbohydrates, and DNA. During ageing, different iron complexes accumulate in brain regions associated with motor and cognitive impairment. In various neurodegenerative diseases, such as Alzheimer's disease and Parkinson's disease, changes in iron homoeostasis result in altered cellular iron distribution and accumulation. MRI can often identify these changes, thus providing a potential diagnostic biomarker of neurodegenerative diseases. An important avenue to reduce iron accumulation is the use of iron chelators that are able to cross the blood-brain barrier, penetrate cells, and reduce excessive iron accumulation, thereby affording neuroprotection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Roberta J Ward
- Centre for Neuroinflammation and Neurodegeneration, Department of Medicine, Hammersmith Hospital Campus, Imperial College London, London, UK; Faculte de Science, Université Catholique de Louvain, Louvain-la-Neuve, Belgium
| | - Fabio A Zucca
- Institute of Biomedical Technologies, National Research Council of Italy, Segrate, Milan, Italy
| | - Jeff H Duyn
- Advanced MRI Section, Laboratory of Functional and Molecular Imaging, National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD, USA
| | - Robert R Crichton
- Faculte de Science, Université Catholique de Louvain, Louvain-la-Neuve, Belgium
| | - Luigi Zecca
- Institute of Biomedical Technologies, National Research Council of Italy, Segrate, Milan, Italy.
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Hascalovici JR, Song W, Liberman A, Vaya J, Khatib S, Holcroft C, Laferla F, Schipper HM. Neural HO-1/sterol interactions in vivo: implications for Alzheimer's disease. Neuroscience 2014; 280:40-9. [PMID: 25218961 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuroscience.2014.09.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/11/2014] [Revised: 08/29/2014] [Accepted: 09/02/2014] [Indexed: 10/24/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Up-regulation of heme oxygenase-1 (HO-1) and altered cholesterol (CH) metabolism are characteristic of Alzheimer-diseased (AD) neural tissues. We previously provided evidence of significant HO-1/sterol interactions in vitro (cultured rat astroglia) and in post-mortem human AD brain (Religious Orders Study). METHODS The current experiments were designed to further delineate these interactions in vivo by comparing the behavior of HO-1/sterol interactions in two mouse models; (1) a novel HO-1 transgenic mouse (GFAP.HMOX1) engineered to selectively express human HO-1 in the astrocytic compartment and (2) the previously described triple transgenic AD mouse (3xTg-AD). In samples of frontal cortex, total CH, CH precursors and relevant oxysterols were quantified by gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS) and HO-1 protein expression was assessed by ELISA. The relationships of HO-1 expression to total CH, CH precursors and total oxysterols were determined for both mouse models using linear regression analysis. RESULTS HO-1 expression is increased in GFAP.HMOX1 mice relative to wild type and in 11-12-month-old 3xTg-AD mice (with AD-like phenotype) relative to control mice and 5-6-month-old 3xTg-AD mice (no AD-like phenotype). Total oxysterols significantly decreased as HO-1 expression increased in GFAP.HMOX1 mice expressing high levels of HO-1, whereas total oxysterols increased as HO-1 expression increased in aged 3xTg-AD mice. Total CH and total CH precursors increased as HO-1 protein expression increased in 11-12-month-old 3xTg-AD mice relative to 5-6-month old 3xTg-AD mice. CONCLUSIONS Our findings indicate a differential impact of HO-1 on patterns of brain sterol and redox homeostasis that is contingent on the presence or absence of AD-like neuropathology. These data provide fresh insight concerning the regulation of sterol homeostasis within the aging and degenerating CNS which may inform the development of novel therapeutic and preventive strategies for the management of AD and related conditions.
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Affiliation(s)
- J R Hascalovici
- Lady Davis Institute for Medical Research, Jewish General Hospital, 3755 Cote Sainte Catherine Road, Montreal, Quebec H3T 1E2, Canada; Department of Neurology and Neurosurgery, McGill University, Jewish General Hospital, 3755 Cote Sainte Catherine Road, Montreal, Quebec H3T 1E2, Canada
| | - W Song
- Lady Davis Institute for Medical Research, Jewish General Hospital, 3755 Cote Sainte Catherine Road, Montreal, Quebec H3T 1E2, Canada
| | - A Liberman
- Lady Davis Institute for Medical Research, Jewish General Hospital, 3755 Cote Sainte Catherine Road, Montreal, Quebec H3T 1E2, Canada
| | - J Vaya
- Laboratory of Natural Medicinal Compounds, Migal-Galilee Technological Center and Tel Hai College, Kiryat-Shmona 11016, Israel
| | - S Khatib
- Laboratory of Natural Medicinal Compounds, Migal-Galilee Technological Center and Tel Hai College, Kiryat-Shmona 11016, Israel
| | - C Holcroft
- Centre for Clinical Epidemiology and Community Studies, Jewish General Hospital, 3755 Cote Sainte Catherine Road, Montreal, Quebec H3T 1E2, Canada
| | - F Laferla
- Department of Neurobiology and Behavior and Institute for Brain Aging and Dementia, University of California, Irvine, Irvine, CA 92697-4545, USA
| | - H M Schipper
- Lady Davis Institute for Medical Research, Jewish General Hospital, 3755 Cote Sainte Catherine Road, Montreal, Quebec H3T 1E2, Canada; Department of Neurology and Neurosurgery, McGill University, Jewish General Hospital, 3755 Cote Sainte Catherine Road, Montreal, Quebec H3T 1E2, Canada.
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Gill AJ, Kovacsics CE, Cross SA, Vance PJ, Kolson LL, Jordan-Sciutto KL, Gelman BB, Kolson DL. Heme oxygenase-1 deficiency accompanies neuropathogenesis of HIV-associated neurocognitive disorders. J Clin Invest 2014; 124:4459-72. [PMID: 25202977 DOI: 10.1172/jci72279] [Citation(s) in RCA: 54] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/23/2013] [Accepted: 08/04/2014] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Heme oxygenase-1 (HO-1) is an inducible, detoxifying enzyme that is critical for limiting oxidative stress, inflammation, and cellular injury within the CNS and other tissues. Here, we demonstrate a deficiency of HO-1 expression in the brains of HIV-infected individuals. This HO-1 deficiency correlated with cognitive dysfunction, HIV replication in the CNS, and neuroimmune activation. In vitro analysis of HO-1 expression in HIV-infected macrophages, a primary CNS HIV reservoir along with microglia, demonstrated a decrease in HO-1 as HIV replication increased. HO-1 deficiency correlated with increased culture supernatant glutamate and neurotoxicity, suggesting a link among HIV infection, macrophage HO-1 deficiency, and neurodegeneration. HO-1 siRNA knockdown and HO enzymatic inhibition in HIV-infected macrophages increased supernatant glutamate and neurotoxicity. In contrast, increasing HO-1 expression through siRNA derepression or with nonselective pharmacologic inducers, including the CNS-penetrating drug dimethyl fumarate (DMF), decreased supernatant glutamate and neurotoxicity. Furthermore, IFN-γ, which is increased in CNS HIV infection, reduced HO-1 expression in cultured human astrocytes and macrophages. These findings indicate that HO-1 is a protective host factor against HIV-mediated neurodegeneration and suggest that HO-1 deficiency contributes to this degeneration. Furthermore, these results suggest that HO-1 induction in the CNS of HIV-infected patients on antiretroviral therapy could potentially protect against neurodegeneration and associated cognitive dysfunction.
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Nicholas JA, Boster AL, Imitola J, O'Connell C, Racke MK. Design of oral agents for the management of multiple sclerosis: benefit and risk assessment for dimethyl fumarate. Drug Des Devel Ther 2014; 8:897-908. [PMID: 25045248 PMCID: PMC4094574 DOI: 10.2147/dddt.s50962] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/23/2022] Open
Abstract
Dimethyl fumarate (DMF) is the most recent oral disease-modifying therapy approved by the US Food and Drug Administration and is indicated for the treatment of relapsing forms of multiple sclerosis (MS). Prior to approval for use in MS, DMF and its active metabolite, monomethyl fumarate, had been used for decades as two of the fumaric acid esters in Fumaderm, a medication used in Europe for the treatment of psoriasis. The unique mechanism of action of DMF remains under evaluation; however, it has been shown to act through multiple pathways leading to shifts away from the Th1 proinflammatory response to the less inflammatory Th2 response. Preliminary data suggest that DMF may induce neuroprotective effects in central nervous system white matter, although further studies are needed to demonstrate these effects on inflammatory demyelination. The DMF Phase III clinical trials demonstrated its efficacy with regard to a reduction in the annualized relapse rate and reductions in new or enlarging T2 lesions and numbers of gadolinium-enhancing lesions on magnetic resonance imaging. DMF has a well-defined safety profile, given the experience with its use in the treatment of psoriasis, and more recently from the DMF clinical trials program and post-marketing era for treatment of MS. The safety profile and oral mode of administration of DMF place it as an attractive first-line therapy option for the treatment of relapsing forms of MS. Long-term observational studies will be needed to determine the effects of DMF on progression of disability in MS.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jacqueline Ann Nicholas
- Department of Neurology and Multiple Sclerosis Center, The Ohio State University, Columbus, OH, USA
| | - Aaron Lee Boster
- Department of Neurology and Multiple Sclerosis Center, The Ohio State University, Columbus, OH, USA
| | - Jaime Imitola
- Department of Neurology and Multiple Sclerosis Center, The Ohio State University, Columbus, OH, USA ; Department of Neuroscience, The Ohio State University, Columbus, OH, USA
| | - Colleen O'Connell
- Department of Neurology and Multiple Sclerosis Center, The Ohio State University, Columbus, OH, USA
| | - Michael Karl Racke
- Department of Neurology and Multiple Sclerosis Center, The Ohio State University, Columbus, OH, USA ; Department of Neuroscience, The Ohio State University, Columbus, OH, USA
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Abstract
Histochemical and MRI studies have demonstrated that MS (multiple sclerosis) patients have abnormal deposition of iron in both gray and white matter structures. Data is emerging indicating that this iron could partake in pathogenesis by various mechanisms, e.g., promoting the production of reactive oxygen species and enhancing the production of proinflammatory cytokines. Iron chelation therapy could be a viable strategy to block iron-related pathological events or it can confer cellular protection by stabilizing hypoxia inducible factor 1α, a transcription factor that normally responds to hypoxic conditions. Iron chelation has been shown to protect against disease progression and/or limit iron accumulation in some neurological disorders or their experimental models. Data from studies that administered a chelator to animals with experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis, a model of MS, support the rationale for examining this treatment approach in MS. Preliminary clinical studies have been performed in MS patients using deferoxamine. Although some side effects were observed, the large majority of patients were able to tolerate the arduous administration regimen, i.e., 6-8 h of subcutaneous infusion, and all side effects resolved upon discontinuation of treatment. Importantly, these preliminary studies did not identify a disqualifying event for this experimental approach. More recently developed chelators, deferasirox and deferiprone, are more desirable for possible use in MS given their oral administration, and importantly, deferiprone can cross the blood-brain barrier. However, experiences from other conditions indicate that the potential for adverse events during chelation therapy necessitates close patient monitoring and a carefully considered administration regimen.
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Kitamura A, Nishida K, Komiyama T, Doi H, Kadota Y, Yoshida A, Ozaki T. Increased level of heme oxygenase-1 in rheumatoid arthritis synovial fluid. Mod Rheumatol 2014. [DOI: 10.3109/s10165-010-0372-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022]
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33
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Ljubisavljevic S, Stojanovic I, Vojinovic S, Milojkovic M, Dunjic O, Stojanov D, Pavlovic D. Association of serum bilirubin and uric acid levels changes during neuroinflammation in patients with initial and relapsed demyelination attacks. Metab Brain Dis 2013; 28:629-38. [PMID: 23606133 DOI: 10.1007/s11011-013-9409-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/24/2013] [Accepted: 04/11/2013] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Abstract
In order to examine the endogenous antioxidants values in the earliest phase of demyelination, we have determined bilirubin and uric acid (UA) serum values in the patients with clinically isolated syndrome (CIS) and relapsing remitting multiple sclerosis (RRMS), regarding their clinical disability, measured by Extended Disability Status Scale (EDSS), Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI), disease duration, gender and other parameters. The bilirubin and UA levels were lower in CIS and RRMS patients than in control group, whether male or female (p < 0.05). The bilirubin and UA levels were decreased in RRMS compared to CIS patients (p < 0.05). Regarding EDSS, MRI and disease duration, obtained values of bilirubin and UA were higher in both study groups in patients with lower EDSS, lower MRI lesion number and shorter disease duration (p < 0.05). The greatest significance in decreased bilirubin and UA levels was observed in female compared to male patients, in both study groups (p < 0.05). The results suggest negative linear correlation between bilirubin and UA levels and disease duration, EDSS and MRI in CIS (p < 0.01), with the same correlation between bilirubin and UA levels and disease duration in RRMS patients (p < 0.01). There was also significant correlation between bilirubin level and MRI findings and UA levels and EDSS in RRMS patients (p < 0.01). The obtained results point to the importance of endogenous antioxidants in the outbreak and course of neuroinflammation. This could be favorable for the new pathogenetically conditioned neuroinflammatory therapy concepts which do not initially rely only on immunomodulatory, but also on the antioxidative effects.
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Affiliation(s)
- Srdjan Ljubisavljevic
- Clinic of Neurology, Clinical Centre Nis, Bul. Dr Zorana Djindjica 48, 18000, Nis, Serbia,
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Fagone P, Patti F, Mangano K, Mammana S, Coco M, Touil-Boukoffa C, Chikovani T, Di Marco R, Nicoletti F. Heme oxygenase-1 expression in peripheral blood mononuclear cells correlates with disease activity in multiple sclerosis. J Neuroimmunol 2013; 261:82-6. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jneuroim.2013.04.013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/26/2013] [Revised: 04/10/2013] [Accepted: 04/11/2013] [Indexed: 10/26/2022]
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Popescu BFG, Lucchinetti CF. Pathology of demyelinating diseases. ANNUAL REVIEW OF PATHOLOGY-MECHANISMS OF DISEASE 2013; 7:185-217. [PMID: 22313379 DOI: 10.1146/annurev-pathol-011811-132443] [Citation(s) in RCA: 258] [Impact Index Per Article: 23.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
There has been significant progress in our understanding of the pathology and pathogenesis of central nervous system inflammatory demyelinating diseases. Neuropathological studies have provided fundamental new insights into the pathogenesis of these disorders and have led to major advances in our understanding of multiple sclerosis (MS) heterogeneity, the substrate of irreversible progressive disability in MS, the relationship between inflammation and neurodegeneration in MS, the neuroimaging correlates of MS lesions, and the pathogenesis of other central nervous system inflammatory disorders, including neuromyelitis optica, acute disseminated encephalomyelitis, and Balo's concentric sclerosis. Herein, we review the pathological features of these central nervous system inflammatory demyelinating disorders and discuss neuropathological studies that have yielded novel insights into potential mechanisms involved in the formation of the demyelinated lesion.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bogdan F Gh Popescu
- Department of Anatomy and Cell Biology, University of Saskatchewan, Saskatoon, Saskatchewan S7K 0M7, Canada.
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36
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Kostic MS, Rajkovic JS, Floranovic MSP, Dimov ID, Pavlovic DD. Multiple sclerosis and oxidative stress—a clinical perspective. NEUROCHEM J+ 2013. [DOI: 10.1134/s1819712412040083] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
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37
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Schipper HM. Biomarker potential of heme oxygenase-1 in Alzheimer's disease and mild cognitive impairment. Biomark Med 2012; 1:375-85. [PMID: 20477381 DOI: 10.2217/17520363.1.3.375] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
Abstract
The advent of an accessible chemical biological marker that differentiates early, sporadic Alzheimer's disease (AD) from normal aging and other dementing illnesses, and identifies individuals with mild cognitive impairment who are destined to deteriorate to Alzheimer's dementia, would represent a major achievement in the evaluation and management of this common neurodegenerative disorder. Although several candidate biomarkers of sporadic AD have been identified and commercialized, none currently fulfill the criteria for an ideal test. In this article, we review evidence implicating blood heme oxygenase-1 mRNA/protein levels and a recently identified plasma heme oxygenase-1 suppressor factor as potential biomarkers of AD and mild cognitive impairment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hyman M Schipper
- McGill University, Centre for Neurotranslational Research, Lady Davis Institute for Medical Research, Sir Mortimer B Davis Jewish General Hospital, 3755 Cote St Catherine Road, Montreal, Quebec H3T 1E2, Canada.
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38
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Mechanisms of oxidative damage in multiple sclerosis and neurodegenerative diseases: therapeutic modulation via fumaric acid esters. Int J Mol Sci 2012; 13:11783-11803. [PMID: 23109883 PMCID: PMC3472775 DOI: 10.3390/ijms130911783] [Citation(s) in RCA: 104] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/07/2012] [Revised: 09/05/2012] [Accepted: 09/07/2012] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Oxidative stress plays a crucial role in many neurodegenerative conditions such as Alzheimer’s disease, amyotrophic lateral sclerosis and Parkinson’s as well as Huntington’s disease. Inflammation and oxidative stress are also thought to promote tissue damage in multiple sclerosis (MS). Recent data point at an important role of anti-oxidative pathways for tissue protection in chronic-progressive MS, particularly involving the transcription factor nuclear factor (erythroid-derived 2)-related factor 2 (Nrf2). Thus, novel therapeutics enhancing cellular resistance to free radicals could prove useful for MS treatment. Here, fumaric acid esters (FAE) are a new, orally available treatment option which had already been tested in phase II/III MS trials demonstrating beneficial effects on relapse rates and magnetic resonance imaging markers. In vitro, application of dimethylfumarate (DMF) leads to stabilization of Nrf2, activation of Nrf2-dependent transcriptional activity and abundant synthesis of detoxifying proteins. Furthermore, application of FAE involves direct modification of the inhibitor of Nrf2, Kelch-like ECH-associated protein 1. On cellular levels, the application of FAE enhances neuronal survival and protects astrocytes against oxidative stress. Increased levels of Nrf2 are detected in the central nervous system of DMF treated mice suffering from experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis (EAE), an animal model of MS. In EAE, DMF ameliorates the disease course and improves preservation of myelin, axons and neurons. Finally, Nrf2 is also up-regulated in the spinal cord of autopsy specimens from untreated patients with MS, probably as part of a naturally occurring anti-oxidative response. In summary, oxidative stress and anti-oxidative pathways are important players in MS pathophysiology and constitute a promising target for future MS therapies like FAE.
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39
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Correa F, Mallard C, Nilsson M, Sandberg M. Dual TNFα-induced effects on NRF2 mediated antioxidant defence in astrocyte-rich cultures: role of protein kinase activation. Neurochem Res 2012; 37:2842-55. [PMID: 22941452 DOI: 10.1007/s11064-012-0878-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/30/2012] [Revised: 08/18/2012] [Accepted: 08/21/2012] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
Tumor necrosis factor-α (TNFα) is a pleiotropic molecule that can have both protective and detrimental effects in neurodegeneration. Here we have investigated the temporal effects of TNFα on the inducible Nrf2 system in astrocyte-rich cultures by determination of glutathione (GSH) levels, γglutamylcysteine ligase (γGCL) activity, the protein levels of Nrf2, Keap1, the catalytic and modulatory subunit of γGCL (γGCL-C and γGCL-M respectively). Astrocyte-rich cultures were exposed for 24 or 72 h to different concentrations of TNFα. Acute exposure (24 h) of astrocyte-rich cultures to 10 ng/mL of TNFα increased GSH, γGCL activity, the protein levels of γGCL-M, γGCL-C and Nrf2 in parallel with decreased levels of Keap1. Antioxidant responsive element (ARE)-mediated transcription was blocked by inhibitors of ERK1/2, JNK and Akt whereas inactivation of p38 and GSK3β further enhanced transcription. In contrast treatment with TNFα for 72 h decreased components of the Nrf2 system in parallel with an increase of Keap1. Stimulation of the Nrf2 system by tBHQ was intact after 24 h but blocked after 72 h treatment with TNFα. This down-regulation after 72 h correlated with activation of p38 MAPK and GSK3β, since inhibition of these signalling pathways reversed this effect. The upregulation of the Nrf2 system by TNFα (24 h treatment) protected the cells from oxidative stress through elevated γGCL activity whereas the down-regulation (72 h treatment) caused pronounced oxidative toxicity. One of the important implications of the results is that in a situation where Nrf2 is decreased, such as in Alzheimer's disease, the effect of TNFα is detrimental.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fernando Correa
- Department of Medical Biochemistry and Cell Biology, Institute of Biomedicine, University of Gothenburg, PO BOX 420, 405 30 Göteborg, Sweden.
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40
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Bian W, Harter K, Hammond-Rosenbluth KE, Lupo JM, Xu D, Kelley DAC, Vigneron DB, Nelson SJ, Pelletier D. A serial in vivo 7T magnetic resonance phase imaging study of white matter lesions in multiple sclerosis. Mult Scler 2012; 19:69-75. [DOI: 10.1177/1352458512447870] [Citation(s) in RCA: 68] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/25/2023]
Abstract
Background: Magnetic resonance (MR) phase imaging using high field MR scanners has demonstrated excellent contrast in multiple sclerosis (MS) lesions that is thought to be closely correlated to the local iron content. This pilot study acquired serial in vivo MR scans at 7T to track the evolution of phase contrast as MS lesions progress. Methods: Five MS patients with relapsing–remitting MS were serially scanned for about 2.5 years at 7T using a high resolution T2*-weighted gradient-echo sequence. Magnitude and phase images were reconstructed for each scan and co-registered to their baseline study. Results: Five non-enhancing ring and 70 nodular phase lesions were found in the five patients at baseline. None of the baseline phase lesions (including all five ring phase lesions) showed obvious qualitative variation on phase images during the study. Of note, we observed that three magnitude lesions, not initially read as abnormal signal, were either better appreciated using phase contrast imaging (two lesions) or preceded (one lesion) by phase changes. Conclusion: The observation that ring phase lesions remained unchanged over 2.5 years of follow-up challenges the notion that such lesions reveal the presence of acute activated iron-rich macrophages. It suggests that either different phenotypes of macrophages persist longer than previously expected or other mechanisms related to tissue injury contribute to the phase contrast.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wei Bian
- The UC Berkeley & UCSF Graduate Program in Bioengineering, University of California San Francisco, USA
- Department of Radiology and Biomedical Imaging, University of California San Francisco, USA
| | - Kristin Harter
- School of Pharmacy, University of California San Francisco, USA
| | | | - Janine M Lupo
- Department of Radiology and Biomedical Imaging, University of California San Francisco, USA
| | - Duan Xu
- The UC Berkeley & UCSF Graduate Program in Bioengineering, University of California San Francisco, USA
- Department of Radiology and Biomedical Imaging, University of California San Francisco, USA
| | | | - Daniel B Vigneron
- The UC Berkeley & UCSF Graduate Program in Bioengineering, University of California San Francisco, USA
- Department of Radiology and Biomedical Imaging, University of California San Francisco, USA
| | - Sarah J Nelson
- The UC Berkeley & UCSF Graduate Program in Bioengineering, University of California San Francisco, USA
- Department of Radiology and Biomedical Imaging, University of California San Francisco, USA
- Department of Bioengineeing and Therapeutic Sciences, University of California San Francisco, USA
| | - Daniel Pelletier
- Department of Neurology, University of California San Francisco, USA
- Departments of Neurology and Diagnostic Radiology, Yale University, USA
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Abnormal subcortical deep-gray matter susceptibility-weighted imaging filtered phase measurements in patients with multiple sclerosis. Neuroimage 2012; 59:331-9. [DOI: 10.1016/j.neuroimage.2011.07.045] [Citation(s) in RCA: 161] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/29/2011] [Revised: 06/16/2011] [Accepted: 07/15/2011] [Indexed: 01/26/2023] Open
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Williams R, Buchheit CL, Berman NEJ, LeVine SM. Pathogenic implications of iron accumulation in multiple sclerosis. J Neurochem 2011; 120:7-25. [PMID: 22004421 DOI: 10.1111/j.1471-4159.2011.07536.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 112] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
Abstract
Iron, an essential element used for a multitude of biochemical reactions, abnormally accumulates in the CNS of patients with multiple sclerosis (MS). The mechanisms of abnormal iron deposition in MS are not fully understood, nor do we know whether these deposits have adverse consequences, that is, contribute to pathogenesis. With some exceptions, excess levels of iron are represented concomitantly in multiple deep gray matter structures often with bilateral representation, whereas in white matter, pathological iron deposits are usually located at sites of inflammation that are associated with veins. These distinct spatial patterns suggest disparate mechanisms of iron accumulation between these regions. Iron has been postulated to promote disease activity in MS by various means: (i) iron can amplify the activated state of microglia resulting in the increased production of proinflammatory mediators; (ii) excess intracellular iron deposits could promote mitochondria dysfunction; and (iii) improperly managed iron could catalyze the production of damaging reactive oxygen species (ROS). The pathological consequences of abnormal iron deposits may be dependent on the affected brain region and/or accumulation process. Here, we review putative mechanisms of enhanced iron uptake in MS and address the likely roles of iron in the pathogenesis of this disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rachel Williams
- Department of Molecular & Integrative Physiology, University of Kansas Medical Center, Kansas City, Kansas 66160, USA
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43
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The prospects of minocycline in multiple sclerosis. J Neuroimmunol 2011; 235:1-8. [PMID: 21565409 DOI: 10.1016/j.jneuroim.2011.04.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 62] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/15/2011] [Revised: 04/11/2011] [Accepted: 04/12/2011] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
Multiple sclerosis (MS) is the most common inflammatory demyelinating disease of the central nervous system (CNS). Although there are several approved drugs for MS, not all patients respond optimally to these drugs. More effective, well-tolerated therapeutic strategies for MS are necessary, either through the development of new medication or combination of existing ones. Minocycline is a traditional antibiotic with profound anti-inflammatory and neuroprotective effects and good tolerance for long-term use. The encouraging results from the animal model and clinical experiments on minocycline make it a promising candidate for MS treatment whether used alone or combined with other drugs. In this review, we summarized the pharmacological actions of minocycline and focused on its therapeutic effects and safety in experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis (EAE) and MS. The data obtained here showed that minocycline would be an effective and safe therapy for MS.
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44
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Iron and neurodegeneration in multiple sclerosis. Mult Scler Int 2011; 2011:606807. [PMID: 22096640 PMCID: PMC3196218 DOI: 10.1155/2011/606807] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/31/2010] [Revised: 12/26/2010] [Accepted: 01/02/2011] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Increased iron deposition might be implicated in multiple sclerosis (MS). Recent development of MRI enabled to determine brain iron levels in a quantitative manner, which has put more interest on studying the role of iron in MS. Evidence for abnormal iron homeostasis in MS comes also from analyses of iron and iron-related proteins in CSF and blood and postmortem MS brain sections. However, it is not yet clear if iron accumulation is implicated in MS pathology or merely reflects an epiphenomenon. Further interest has been generated by the idea of chronic cerebrospinal venous insufficiency that might be associated with brain iron accumulation due to a reduction in venous outflow, but its existence and etiologic role in MS are currently controversially debated. In future studies, combined approaches applying quantitative MRI together with CSF and serum analyses of iron and iron-related proteins in a clinical followup setting might help to elucidate the implication of iron accumulation in MS.
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van Horssen J, Witte ME, Schreibelt G, de Vries HE. Radical changes in multiple sclerosis pathogenesis. Biochim Biophys Acta Mol Basis Dis 2011; 1812:141-50. [DOI: 10.1016/j.bbadis.2010.06.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 225] [Impact Index Per Article: 17.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/11/2009] [Revised: 06/08/2010] [Accepted: 06/16/2010] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
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Kitamura A, Nishida K, Komiyama T, Doi H, Kadota Y, Yoshida A, Ozaki T. Increased level of heme oxygenase-1 in rheumatoid arthritis synovial fluid. Mod Rheumatol 2010; 21:150-7. [PMID: 21113640 DOI: 10.1007/s10165-010-0372-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/28/2010] [Accepted: 10/13/2010] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
Abstract
We investigated the expression and localization of heme oxygenase-1 (HO-1) in synovial fluid and synovial tissue, and examined the stimulation of HO-1 production in rheumatoid synovial fibroblasts (RASFs). Synovial fluid samples were obtained from knee joints of 20 rheumatoid arthritis (RA) and 20 osteoarthritis (OA) patients, and concentration of HO-1 and matrix metalloproteinase-3 (MMP-3) were measured by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA). Synovial tissues obtained from RA or OA patients during total knee arthroplasty (TKA) were used for immunohistochemical analysis of HO-1. HO-1 production by RASFs in response to various cytokines was examined by ELISA. HO-1 levels in synovial fluid were higher in the RA group than in the OA group with significant difference (P < 0.001), and correlated with serum C-reactive protein (CRP) level (r = 0.80, P < 0.01) in the RA group. Higher levels of HO-1 were seen in the RA-L group (Larsen grade III-V) than in the RA-E (Larsen grade 0-II) group (P < 0.001). There was weak correlation between the levels of HO-1 protein and MMP-3 in synovial fluid in the RA group (r = 0.31, P < 0.01), while no positive correlation was observed in OA. Positive immunoreaction for HO-1 was observed in cells of synovial tissue including synovial fibroblasts and cells in synovial pannus. HO-1 protein levels in cultured media of RASFs were increased by stimulation by interleukin-1β at 6 h and tumor necrosis factor-alpha at 12 h, but suppressed by interferon-gamma at 12 and 24 h. These results indicated that HO-1 expression in synovial tissue might be stimulated by inflammatory cytokines. The correlation of HO-1 concentration in synovial fluid with serum CRP and MMP-3 in joint fluid indicated that HO-1 might be useful as a marker of joint inflammation in RA patients.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ai Kitamura
- Science of Functional Recovery and Reconstruction, Okayama University Graduate School of Medicine, Dentistry and Pharmaceutical Sciences, Okayama, Japan
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Zhang Y, Metz L, Yong V, Mitchell J. 3T deep gray matter T2 hypointensity correlates with disability over time in stable relapsing–remitting multiple sclerosis: A 3-year pilot study. J Neurol Sci 2010; 297:76-81. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jns.2010.07.014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/29/2010] [Revised: 07/19/2010] [Accepted: 07/19/2010] [Indexed: 10/19/2022]
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Izawa T, Yamate J, Franklin RJ, Kuwamura M. Abnormal iron accumulation is involved in the pathogenesis of the demyelinating dmy rat but not in the hypomyelinating mv rat. Brain Res 2010; 1349:105-14. [PMID: 20599839 DOI: 10.1016/j.brainres.2010.06.030] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/27/2010] [Revised: 06/10/2010] [Accepted: 06/10/2010] [Indexed: 10/19/2022]
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Heme oxygenase-1 in Alzheimer disease: a tribute to Moussa Youdim. J Neural Transm (Vienna) 2010; 118:381-7. [DOI: 10.1007/s00702-010-0436-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/19/2010] [Accepted: 06/04/2010] [Indexed: 10/19/2022]
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Sandrow-Feinberg HR, Zhukareva V, Santi L, Miller K, Shumsky JS, Baker DP, Houle JD. PEGylated interferon-beta modulates the acute inflammatory response and recovery when combined with forced exercise following cervical spinal contusion injury. Exp Neurol 2010; 223:439-51. [PMID: 20109445 DOI: 10.1016/j.expneurol.2010.01.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/23/2009] [Revised: 12/31/2009] [Accepted: 01/14/2010] [Indexed: 12/30/2022]
Abstract
Secondary degeneration leads to an expansion of the initial tissue damage sustained during a spinal cord injury (SCI). Dampening the cellular inflammatory response that contributes to this progressive tissue damage is one possible strategy for neuroprotection after acute SCI. We initially examined whether treatment with a PEGylated form of rat interferon-beta (IFN-beta) would modulate the expression of several markers of inflammation and neuroprotection at the site of a unilateral cervical level 5 contusion injury. Adult female Sprague-Dawley rats were injured using the Infinite Horizon Impactor at a force of 200 kdyn (equivalent to a severe injury) and a mean displacement of 1600-1800 mum. A single dose (5x10(6) units) of PEGylated IFN-beta or vehicle was administered 30 min following SCI. Here we demonstrate temporal changes in pro- and anti-inflammatory cytokine levels and the expression of heat shock proteins and iNOS (involved in neuroprotection) at the lesion epicenter and one segment caudally after SCI and PEG IFN-beta treatment. The results suggested a potential therapeutic treatment strategy for modulation of secondary damage after acute SCI. Therefore, we examined whether acute treatment with PEG IFN-beta would improve forelimb function alone or when combined with forced exercise (Ex). Animals began the Ex paradigm 5 days post SCI and continued for 5 days/week over 8 weeks. Locomotion (forelimb locomotor scale [FLS], hindlimb BBB, and TreadScan) and sensorimotor function (grid walking) was tested weekly. Additional outcome measures included lesion size and glial cell reactivity. Significant FLS improvements occurred at 1 week post SCI in the PEGylated IFN-beta-treated group but not at any other time point or with any other treatment approaches. These results suggest that this acute neuroprotective treatment strategy does not translate into long term behavioral recovery even when combined with forced exercise.
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Affiliation(s)
- Harra R Sandrow-Feinberg
- Department of Neurobiology and Anatomy, Drexel University College of Medicine, 2900 Queen Lane, Philadelphia, PA 19129, USA
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