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Wani SN, Grewal AK, Khan H, Singh TG. Elucidating the molecular symphony: unweaving the transcriptional & epigenetic pathways underlying neuroplasticity in opioid dependence and withdrawal. Psychopharmacology (Berl) 2024; 241:1955-1981. [PMID: 39254835 DOI: 10.1007/s00213-024-06684-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/11/2024] [Accepted: 09/02/2024] [Indexed: 09/11/2024]
Abstract
The persistent use of opioids leads to profound changes in neuroplasticity of the brain, contributing to the emergence and persistence of addiction. However, chronic opioid use disrupts the delicate balance of the reward system in the brain, leading to neuroadaptations that underlie addiction. Chronic cocaine usage leads to synchronized alterations in gene expression, causing modifications in the Nucleus Accumbens (NAc), a vital part of the reward system of the brain. These modifications assist in the development of maladaptive behaviors that resemble addiction. Neuroplasticity in the context of addiction involves changes in synaptic connectivity, neuronal morphology, and molecular signaling pathways. Drug-evoked neuroplasticity in opioid addiction and withdrawal represents a complicated interaction between environmental, genetic, and epigenetic factors. Identifying specific transcriptional and epigenetic targets that can be modulated to restore normal neuroplasticity without disrupting essential physiological processes is a critical consideration. The discussion in this article focuses on the transcriptional aspects of drug-evoked neuroplasticity, emphasizing the role of key transcription factors, including cAMP response element-binding protein (CREB), ΔFosB, NF-kB, Myocyte-enhancing factor 2 (MEF2), Methyl-CpG binding protein 2 (MeCP2), E2F3a, and FOXO3a. These factors regulate gene expression and lead to the neuroadaptive changes observed in addiction and withdrawal. Epigenetic regulation, which involves modifying gene accessibility by controlling these structures, has been identified as a critical component of addiction development. By unraveling these complex molecular processes, this study provides valuable insights that may pave the way for future therapeutic interventions targeting the mechanisms underlying addiction and withdrawal.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shahid Nazir Wani
- Chitkara College of Pharmacy, Chitkara University, Rajpura, Punjab, 140401, India
- Aman Pharmacy College, Dholakhera, Udaipurwati, Jhunjhunu, Rajasthan, 333307, India
| | - Amarjot Kaur Grewal
- Chitkara College of Pharmacy, Chitkara University, Rajpura, Punjab, 140401, India.
| | - Heena Khan
- Chitkara College of Pharmacy, Chitkara University, Rajpura, Punjab, 140401, India
| | - Thakur Gurjeet Singh
- Chitkara College of Pharmacy, Chitkara University, Rajpura, Punjab, 140401, India
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2
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Herrera-Imbroda J, Flores-López M, Ruiz-Sastre P, Gómez-Sánchez-Lafuente C, Bordallo-Aragón A, Rodríguez de Fonseca F, Mayoral-Cleríes F. The Inflammatory Signals Associated with Psychosis: Impact of Comorbid Drug Abuse. Biomedicines 2023; 11:biomedicines11020454. [PMID: 36830990 PMCID: PMC9953424 DOI: 10.3390/biomedicines11020454] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/29/2022] [Revised: 01/27/2023] [Accepted: 02/01/2023] [Indexed: 02/08/2023] Open
Abstract
Psychosis and substance use disorders are two diagnostic categories whose association has been studied for decades. In addition, both psychosis spectrum disorders and drug abuse have recently been linked to multiple pro-inflammatory changes in the central nervous system. We have carried out a narrative review of the literature through a holistic approach. We used PubMed as our search engine. We included in the review all relevant studies looking at pro-inflammatory changes in psychotic disorders and substance use disorders. We found that there are multiple studies that relate various pro-inflammatory lipids and proteins with psychosis and substance use disorders, with an overlap between the two. The main findings involve inflammatory mediators such as cytokines, chemokines, endocannabinoids, eicosanoids, lysophospholipds and/or bacterial products. Many of these findings are present in different phases of psychosis and in substance use disorders such as cannabis, cocaine, methamphetamines, alcohol and nicotine. Psychosis and substance use disorders may have a common origin in an abnormal neurodevelopment caused, among other factors, by a neuroinflammatory process. A possible convergent pathway is that which interrelates the transcriptional factors NFκB and PPARγ. This may have future clinical implications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jesús Herrera-Imbroda
- Unidad de Gestión Clínica de Salud Mental, Instituto de Investigación Biomédica de Málaga (IBIMA), Hospital Regional Universitario de Málaga, 29010 Málaga, Spain
- Facultad de Medicina, Universidad de Málaga, Andalucía Tech, Campus de Teatinos s/n, 29071 Málaga, Spain
- Departamento de Farmacología y Pediatría, Universidad de Málaga, Andalucía Tech, Campus de Teatinos s/n, 29071 Málaga, Spain
| | - María Flores-López
- Unidad de Gestión Clínica de Salud Mental, Instituto de Investigación Biomédica de Málaga (IBIMA), Hospital Regional Universitario de Málaga, 29010 Málaga, Spain
- Facultad de Psicología, Universidad de Málaga, Andalucía Tech, Campus de Teatinos s/n, 29071 Málaga, Spain
| | - Paloma Ruiz-Sastre
- Unidad de Gestión Clínica de Salud Mental, Instituto de Investigación Biomédica de Málaga (IBIMA), Hospital Regional Universitario de Málaga, 29010 Málaga, Spain
- Facultad de Medicina, Universidad de Málaga, Andalucía Tech, Campus de Teatinos s/n, 29071 Málaga, Spain
- Correspondence: (P.R.-S.); (C.G.-S.-L.)
| | - Carlos Gómez-Sánchez-Lafuente
- Unidad de Gestión Clínica de Salud Mental, Instituto de Investigación Biomédica de Málaga (IBIMA), Hospital Regional Universitario de Málaga, 29010 Málaga, Spain
- Facultad de Psicología, Universidad de Málaga, Andalucía Tech, Campus de Teatinos s/n, 29071 Málaga, Spain
- Correspondence: (P.R.-S.); (C.G.-S.-L.)
| | - Antonio Bordallo-Aragón
- Unidad de Gestión Clínica de Salud Mental, Instituto de Investigación Biomédica de Málaga (IBIMA), Hospital Regional Universitario de Málaga, 29010 Málaga, Spain
| | - Fernando Rodríguez de Fonseca
- Unidad de Gestión Clínica de Salud Mental, Instituto de Investigación Biomédica de Málaga (IBIMA), Hospital Regional Universitario de Málaga, 29010 Málaga, Spain
| | - Fermín Mayoral-Cleríes
- Unidad de Gestión Clínica de Salud Mental, Instituto de Investigación Biomédica de Málaga (IBIMA), Hospital Regional Universitario de Málaga, 29010 Málaga, Spain
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3
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Rosa MLP, Machado CA, Asth L, Toscano ECB, da Silva Oliveira B, Marzano LAS, Ferreira RN, Teixeira AL, Moreira FA, Miranda AS. A three-compartment apparatus alters the brain concentration of cytokines and neurotrophic factors in cocaine-induced CPP in mice. J Neuroimmunol 2022; 369:577914. [PMID: 35717736 DOI: 10.1016/j.jneuroim.2022.577914] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/28/2022] [Revised: 05/31/2022] [Accepted: 06/07/2022] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
Abstract
Cocaine-induced neuroinflammation plays an important role in the pathophysiology of drug addiction. Evidence suggests that the immune response contributes for memory consolidation related to place preference behavior underlying cocaine administration in mice. Conditioned place preference (CPP) is a protocol extensively used to study the rewarding and/or aversive motivational effects of drug abuse in rodents, reproducing cocaine-seeking behavior in humans. Besides the variety of apparatus used in the CPP protocol, whether different types of apparatus are able to induce the same conditioned behavior response and neurobiological changes remains to be fully explored. We hypothesize that the immune response is involved in the cocaine-induced CPP and that the type of apparatus might influence this response. Herein, two- and three-compartment apparatuses were tested using the behavioral model of CPP. Cocaine-induced CPP was demonstrated in both apparatuses. However, mice injected with cocaine had decreased levels of IL-1β, IL-6, IL-10, and GDNF in the pre-frontal cortex, and decreased CX3CL1 in the striatum, in the CPP protocol using three compartments compared to controls. While similar levels were seen in the CPP protocol using two compartments. In conclusion, the current study demonstrated that the type of apparatus might influence the investigation of neurobiological mechanisms associated with cocaine-induced CPP. Our data also suggest that the three compartment-apparatus seems to be a more appropriate model to investigate the neuroinflammatory response related to cocaine addiction.
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Affiliation(s)
- Magda L P Rosa
- Laboratório de Neurobiologia, Departamento de Morfologia, Instituto de Ciências Biológicas, UFMG, Brazil; Programa de Pós-graduação em Neurociências, Instituto de Ciências Biológicas, UFMG, Brazil
| | - Caroline A Machado
- Laboratório de Neurobiologia, Departamento de Morfologia, Instituto de Ciências Biológicas, UFMG, Brazil
| | - Laila Asth
- Departamento de Farmacologia, Instituto de Ciências Biológicas, UFMG, Brazil
| | - Eliana C B Toscano
- Laboratório Integrado de Pesquisas em Patologia, Departamento de Patologia, Faculdade de Medicina, UFJF, Brazil; Laboratório de Fisiopatologia do Envelhecimento, Departamento de Clínica Médica, Faculdade de Medicina, USP, Brazil
| | - Bruna da Silva Oliveira
- Laboratório de Neurobiologia, Departamento de Morfologia, Instituto de Ciências Biológicas, UFMG, Brazil
| | - Lucas A S Marzano
- Laboratório de Neurobiologia, Departamento de Morfologia, Instituto de Ciências Biológicas, UFMG, Brazil
| | - Rodrigo N Ferreira
- Laboratório de Neurobiologia, Departamento de Morfologia, Instituto de Ciências Biológicas, UFMG, Brazil
| | - Antônio L Teixeira
- Programa de Pós-graduação em Neurociências, Instituto de Ciências Biológicas, UFMG, Brazil; Neuropsychiatry Program, Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, McGovern Medical School, University of Texas Health Science Center at Houston, TX, USA
| | - Fabrício A Moreira
- Programa de Pós-graduação em Neurociências, Instituto de Ciências Biológicas, UFMG, Brazil; Departamento de Farmacologia, Instituto de Ciências Biológicas, UFMG, Brazil
| | - Aline S Miranda
- Laboratório de Neurobiologia, Departamento de Morfologia, Instituto de Ciências Biológicas, UFMG, Brazil; Programa de Pós-graduação em Neurociências, Instituto de Ciências Biológicas, UFMG, Brazil.
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4
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Namba MD, Phillips MN, Neisewander JL, Olive MF. Nuclear factor kappa B signaling within the rat nucleus accumbens core sex-dependently regulates cue-induced cocaine seeking and matrix metalloproteinase-9 expression. Brain Behav Immun 2022; 102:252-265. [PMID: 35259426 PMCID: PMC9116481 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbi.2022.03.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/22/2021] [Revised: 02/22/2022] [Accepted: 03/03/2022] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Chronic drug self-administration and withdrawal are associated with distinct neuroimmune adaptations that may increase drug craving and relapse vulnerability in humans. The nuclear factor kappa-B (NF-κB) pathway is a critical regulator of many immune- and addiction-related genes such as the extracellular matrix enzyme matrix metalloproteinase-9 (MMP-9), which is a known modulator of learning, memory, and synaptic plasticity. While some studies suggest striatal NF-κB signaling may regulate drug-conditioned behavior, no studies to date have examined whether NF-κB signaling within the nucleus accumbens core (NAc core) alters downstream neuroimmune function and cue-motivated cocaine seeking following a period of forced abstinence, whether any effects are specific to cocaine over other reinforcers, or whether sex differences exist. Here, we examined whether viral-mediated knockdown of the p65 subunit of NF-κB within the NAc core would alter MMP-9 expression and cue-induced cocaine- and sucrose-seeking behavior following a period of forced abstinence in male and female rats. We demonstrate that NAc core p65 knockdown results in a significant decrease in cue-induced cocaine seeking in males but not females. This effect was specific to cocaine, as p65 knockdown did not significantly affect cue-induced sucrose seeking in either males or females. Moreover, we demonstrate that males express higher levels of MMP-9 within the NAc core and nucleus accumbens shell (NAcSh) compared to females, and that p65 knockdown significantly decreases MMP-9 in the NAc core of males but not females among cocaine cue-exposed animals. Altogether, these results suggest that NAc core NF-κB signaling exerts modulatory control over cue-motivated drug-seeking behavior and downstream neuroimmune function in a sex-specific manner. These findings highlight the need to consider sex as an important biological variable when examining immunomodulatory mechanisms of cocaine seeking.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mark D Namba
- School of Life Science, Arizona State University, Tempe, AZ, USA.
| | - Megan N Phillips
- School of Life Science, Arizona State University, Tempe, AZ, USA
| | | | - M Foster Olive
- Department of Psychology, Arizona State University, Tempe, AZ, USA
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5
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Teague CD, Nestler EJ. Key transcription factors mediating cocaine-induced plasticity in the nucleus accumbens. Mol Psychiatry 2022; 27:687-709. [PMID: 34079067 PMCID: PMC8636523 DOI: 10.1038/s41380-021-01163-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 19.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/06/2021] [Revised: 04/29/2021] [Accepted: 05/06/2021] [Indexed: 02/01/2023]
Abstract
Repeated cocaine use induces coordinated changes in gene expression that drive plasticity in the nucleus accumbens (NAc), an important component of the brain's reward circuitry, and promote the development of maladaptive, addiction-like behaviors. Studies on the molecular basis of cocaine action identify transcription factors, a class of proteins that bind to specific DNA sequences and regulate transcription, as critical mediators of this cocaine-induced plasticity. Early methods to identify and study transcription factors involved in addiction pathophysiology primarily relied on quantifying the expression of candidate genes in bulk brain tissue after chronic cocaine treatment, as well as conventional overexpression and knockdown techniques. More recently, advances in next generation sequencing, bioinformatics, cell-type-specific targeting, and locus-specific neuroepigenomic editing offer a more powerful, unbiased toolbox to identify the most important transcription factors that drive drug-induced plasticity and to causally define their downstream molecular mechanisms. Here, we synthesize the literature on transcription factors mediating cocaine action in the NAc, discuss the advancements and remaining limitations of current experimental approaches, and emphasize recent work leveraging bioinformatic tools and neuroepigenomic editing to study transcription factors involved in cocaine addiction.
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Sharma N, Shin EJ, Pham DT, Sharma G, Dang DK, Duong CX, Kang SW, Nah SY, Jang CG, Lei XG, Nabeshima T, Bing G, Jeong JH, Kim HC. GPx-1-encoded adenoviral vector attenuates dopaminergic impairments induced by methamphetamine in GPx-1 knockout mice through modulation of NF-κB transcription factor. Food Chem Toxicol 2021; 154:112313. [PMID: 34082047 DOI: 10.1016/j.fct.2021.112313] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/06/2021] [Revised: 05/24/2021] [Accepted: 05/27/2021] [Indexed: 01/10/2023]
Abstract
We suggested that selenium-dependent glutathione peroxidase (GPx) plays a protective role against methamphetamine (MA)-induced dopaminergic toxicity. We focused on GPx-1, a major selenium-dependent enzyme and constructed a GPx-1 gene-encoded adenoviral vector (Ad-GPx-1) to delineate the role of GPx-1 in MA-induced dopaminergic neurotoxicity. Exposure to Ad-GPx-1 significantly induced GPx activity and GPx-1 protein levels in GPx-1-knockout (GPx-1-KO) mice. MA-induced dopaminergic impairments [i.e., hyperthermia; increased nuclear factor kappa-light-chain-enhancer of activated B cells (NF-κB) DNA-binding activity; and decreased dopamine levels, TH activity, and behavioral activity] were more pronounced in GPx-1-KO mice than in WT mice. In contrast, exposure to Ad-GPx-1 significantly attenuated MA-induced dopaminergic loss in GPx-1-KO mice. The protective effect exerted by Ad-GPx-1 was comparable to that exerted by pyrrolidine dithiocarbamate (PDTC), an NF-κB inhibitor against MA insult. Consistently, GPx-1 overexpression significantly attenuated MA dopaminergic toxicity in mice. PDTC did not significantly impact the protective effect of GPx-1 overexpression, suggesting that interaction between NF-κB and GPx-1 is critical for dopaminergic protection. Thus, NF-κB is a potential therapeutic target for GPx-1-mediated dopaminergic protective activity. This study for the first time demonstrated that Ad-GPx-1 rescued dopaminergic toxicity in vivo following MA insult. Furthermore, GPx-1-associated therapeutic interventions may be important against dopaminergic toxicity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Naveen Sharma
- Neuropsychopharmacology and Toxicology Program, College of Pharmacy, Kangwon National University, Chunchon, 24341, South Korea; Department of Global Innovative Drugs, Graduate School of Chung-Ang University, College of Medicine, Chung-Ang University, Seoul, 06974, Republic of Korea
| | - Eun-Joo Shin
- Neuropsychopharmacology and Toxicology Program, College of Pharmacy, Kangwon National University, Chunchon, 24341, South Korea
| | - Duc Toan Pham
- Neuropsychopharmacology and Toxicology Program, College of Pharmacy, Kangwon National University, Chunchon, 24341, South Korea
| | - Garima Sharma
- Neuropsychopharmacology and Toxicology Program, College of Pharmacy, Kangwon National University, Chunchon, 24341, South Korea
| | - Duy-Khanh Dang
- Pharmacy Faculty, Can Tho University of Medicine and Pharmacy, Can Tho City, 900000, Viet Nam
| | - Chu Xuan Duong
- Pharmacy Faculty, Can Tho University of Medicine and Pharmacy, Can Tho City, 900000, Viet Nam
| | - Sang Won Kang
- Department of Life Science, College of Natural Science, Ewha Womans University, Seoul, 03760, Republic of Korea
| | - Seung-Yeol Nah
- Ginsentology Research Laboratory and Department of Physiology, College of Veterinary Medicine and Bio/Molecular Informatics Center, Konkuk University, Seoul, 05029, Republic of Korea
| | - Choon-Gon Jang
- Department of Pharmacology, School of Pharmacy, Sungkyunkwan University, Suwon, 440-746, Republic of Korea
| | - Xin Gen Lei
- Department of Animal Science, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY, 14853, USA
| | - Toshitaka Nabeshima
- Advanced Diagnostic System Research Laboratory, Fujita Health University Graduate School of Health Science, Toyoake, 470-1192, Japan
| | - Guoying Bing
- Anatomy and Neurobiology, University of Kentucky Medical Center, Medical Center MN208 800 Rose Strees, Lexington, KY, 40536, USA
| | - Ji Hoon Jeong
- Department of Global Innovative Drugs, Graduate School of Chung-Ang University, College of Medicine, Chung-Ang University, Seoul, 06974, Republic of Korea.
| | - Hyoung-Chun Kim
- Neuropsychopharmacology and Toxicology Program, College of Pharmacy, Kangwon National University, Chunchon, 24341, South Korea.
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GIPSON CD, BIMONTE-NELSON HA. Interactions between reproductive transitions during aging and addiction: promoting translational crosstalk between different fields of research. Behav Pharmacol 2021; 32:112-122. [PMID: 32960852 PMCID: PMC7965232 DOI: 10.1097/fbp.0000000000000591] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/14/2023]
Abstract
Discovery of neural mechanisms underlying neuropsychiatric disorders within the aging and addiction fields has been a main focus of the National Institutes of Health. However, there is a dearth of knowledge regarding the biological interactions of aging and addiction, which may have important influences on progression of disease and treatment outcomes in aging individuals with a history of chronic drug use. Thus, there is a large gap in these fields of research, which has slowed progress in understanding and treating substance use disorders (SUDs) as well as age-related diseases, specifically in women who experience precipitous reproductive cycle transitions during aging. The goal of this review is to highlight overlap of SUDs and age-related processes with a specific focus on menopause and smoking, and identify critical gaps. We have narrowed the focus of the review to smoking, as the majority of findings on hormonal and aging influences on drug use have come from this area of research. Further, we highlight female-specific issues such as transitional menopause and exogenous estrogen use. These issues may impact drug use cessation as well as outcomes with aging and age-related neurodegenerative diseases in women. We first review clinical studies for smoking, normal aging, and pathological aging, and discuss the few aging-related studies taking smoking history into account. Conversely, we highlight the dearth of clinical smoking studies taking age as a biological variable into account. Preclinical and clinical literature show that aging, age-related pathological brain disease, and addiction engage overlapping neural mechanisms. We hypothesize that these putative drivers interact in meaningful ways that may exacerbate disease and hinder successful treatment outcomes in such comorbid populations. We highlight areas where preclinical studies are needed to uncover neural mechanisms in aging and addiction processes. Collectively, this review highlights the need for crosstalk between different fields of research to address medical complexities of older adults, and specifically women, who smoke.
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Affiliation(s)
- Cassandra D. GIPSON
- Department of Family and Community Medicine, University of Kentucky, Lexington, KY
- Arizona Alzheimer’s Consortium
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8
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Gipson CD, Rawls S, Scofield MD, Siemsen BM, Bondy EO, Maher EE. Interactions of neuroimmune signaling and glutamate plasticity in addiction. J Neuroinflammation 2021; 18:56. [PMID: 33612110 PMCID: PMC7897396 DOI: 10.1186/s12974-021-02072-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/10/2020] [Accepted: 01/05/2021] [Indexed: 02/28/2023] Open
Abstract
Chronic use of drugs of abuse affects neuroimmune signaling; however, there are still many open questions regarding the interactions between neuroimmune mechanisms and substance use disorders (SUDs). Further, chronic use of drugs of abuse can induce glutamatergic changes in the brain, but the relationship between the glutamate system and neuroimmune signaling in addiction is not well understood. Therefore, the purpose of this review is to bring into focus the role of neuroimmune signaling and its interactions with the glutamate system following chronic drug use, and how this may guide pharmacotherapeutic treatment strategies for SUDs. In this review, we first describe neuroimmune mechanisms that may be linked to aberrant glutamate signaling in addiction. We focus specifically on the nuclear factor-kappa B (NF-κB) pathway, a potentially important neuroimmune mechanism that may be a key player in driving drug-seeking behavior. We highlight the importance of astroglial-microglial crosstalk, and how this interacts with known glutamatergic dysregulations in addiction. Then, we describe the importance of studying non-neuronal cells with unprecedented precision because understanding structure-function relationships in these cells is critical in understanding their role in addiction neurobiology. Here we propose a working model of neuroimmune-glutamate interactions that underlie drug use motivation, which we argue may aid strategies for small molecule drug development to treat substance use disorders. Together, the synthesis of this review shows that interactions between glutamate and neuroimmune signaling may play an important and understudied role in addiction processes and may be critical in developing more efficacious pharmacotherapies to treat SUDs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Cassandra D Gipson
- Department of Family and Community Medicine, University of Kentucky, 741 S. Limestone, BBSRB, Room 363, Lexington, KY, 40536-0509, USA.
| | - Scott Rawls
- Department of Pharmacology, Lewis Katz School of Medicine, Temple University, Philadelphia, USA
| | - Michael D Scofield
- Department of Anesthesiology, Medical University of South Carolina, Charleston, USA
- Department of Neuroscience, Medical University of South Carolina, Charleston, USA
| | - Benjamin M Siemsen
- Department of Anesthesiology, Medical University of South Carolina, Charleston, USA
| | - Emma O Bondy
- Department of Family and Community Medicine, University of Kentucky, 741 S. Limestone, BBSRB, Room 363, Lexington, KY, 40536-0509, USA
| | - Erin E Maher
- Department of Family and Community Medicine, University of Kentucky, 741 S. Limestone, BBSRB, Room 363, Lexington, KY, 40536-0509, USA
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9
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Ketharanathan T, Pereira A, Reets U, Walker D, Sundram S. Brain changes in NF-κB1 and epidermal growth factor system markers at peri-pubescence in the spiny mouse following maternal immune activation. Psychiatry Res 2021; 295:113564. [PMID: 33229121 DOI: 10.1016/j.psychres.2020.113564] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/09/2020] [Accepted: 11/05/2020] [Indexed: 10/23/2022]
Abstract
Environmental risk factors that operate at foetal or neonatal levels increase the vulnerability to schizophrenia, plausibly via stress-immune activation that perturbs the epidermal growth factor (EGF) system, a system critical for neurodevelopment. We investigated potential associations between environmental insults and immune and EGF system changes through a maternal immune activation (MIA) model, using the precocial spiny mice (Acomys cahirinus). After mid-gestation MIA prepubescent offspring showed elevated NF-κB1 protein in nucleus accumbens, decreased EGFR in caudate putamen and a trend for increased PI3K-110δ in ventral hippocampus. Thus, prenatal stress may cause a heightened NF-κB1-mediated immune attenuation of EGF system signalling.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tharini Ketharanathan
- The Florey Institute of Neuroscience and Mental Health, University of Melbourne, Parkville, VIC 3052, Australia.
| | - Avril Pereira
- The Florey Institute of Neuroscience and Mental Health, University of Melbourne, Parkville, VIC 3052, Australia; Department of Psychiatry, University of Melbourne, Parkville, VIC 3052, Australia
| | - Udani Reets
- Faculty of Medicine, Nursing and Health Sciences, Monash University, Clayton, VIC 3168, Australia
| | - David Walker
- School of Health & Biomedical Sciences, RMIT University, Melbourne, VIC 3083, Australia
| | - Suresh Sundram
- Department of Psychiatry, Monash University, Clayton, VIC 3168, Australia
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Martin M, Gutiérrez-Martos M, Cabrera R, Langohr K, Maldonado R, Farre M, de la Torre R. Daidzein modulates cocaine-reinforcing effects and cue-induced cocaine reinstatement in CD-1 male mice. Psychopharmacology (Berl) 2021; 238:1923-1936. [PMID: 33839903 PMCID: PMC8233246 DOI: 10.1007/s00213-021-05820-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/02/2020] [Accepted: 03/08/2021] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
RATIONALE Cocaine addiction is a chronic relapsing disorder that lacks of an effective treatment. Isoflavones are a family of compounds present in different plants and vegetables like soybeans that share a common chemical structure. Previous studies have described that synthetic derivatives from the natural isoflavone daidzin can modulate cocaine addiction, by a mechanism suggested to involve aldehyde-dehydrogenase (ALDH) activities. OBJECTIVES Based on these previous studies, we investigated the effects of three natural isoflavones, daidzin, daidzein, and genistein, on the modulation of the cocaine reinforcing effects and on cue-induced reinstatement in an operant mouse model of cocaine self-administration. RESULTS Chronic treatment with daidzein or genistein decreased operant responding to obtain cocaine intravenous infusions. On the other hand, daidzein and daidzin, but not genistein, were effective in decreasing cue-induced cocaine reinstatement. Complementary studies revealed that daidzein effects on cocaine reinforcement were mediated through a mechanism that involved dopamine type-2/3 receptors (DA-D2/3) activities. CONCLUSIONS Our results suggest that these natural compounds alone or in combination can be a potential therapeutic approach for cocaine addiction. Further clinical studies are required in order to ascertain their potential therapeutic use.
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Affiliation(s)
- Miquel Martin
- Integrative Pharmacology and Systems Neuroscience Research Group, Hospital del Mar Medical Research Institute (IMIM), Parc de Recerca Biomedica de Barcelona (PRBB), C/Dr. Aiguader 88, 08003 Barcelona, Spain ,Laboratory of Neuropharmacology, Parc de Recerca Biomedica de Barcelona (PRBB), Universitat Pompeu Fabra, C/Dr. Aiguader 88, 08003 Barcelona, Spain
| | - Miriam Gutiérrez-Martos
- Laboratory of Neuropharmacology, Parc de Recerca Biomedica de Barcelona (PRBB), Universitat Pompeu Fabra, C/Dr. Aiguader 88, 08003 Barcelona, Spain
| | - Roberto Cabrera
- Laboratory of Neuropharmacology, Parc de Recerca Biomedica de Barcelona (PRBB), Universitat Pompeu Fabra, C/Dr. Aiguader 88, 08003 Barcelona, Spain
| | - Klaus Langohr
- Integrative Pharmacology and Systems Neuroscience Research Group, Hospital del Mar Medical Research Institute (IMIM), Parc de Recerca Biomedica de Barcelona (PRBB), C/Dr. Aiguader 88, 08003 Barcelona, Spain ,Department of Statistics and Operations Research, Universitat Politècnica de Cataluña (UPC)/BarcelonaTech, Jordi Girona 1-3, 08034 Barcelona, Spain
| | - Rafael Maldonado
- Laboratory of Neuropharmacology, Parc de Recerca Biomedica de Barcelona (PRBB), Universitat Pompeu Fabra, C/Dr. Aiguader 88, 08003 Barcelona, Spain ,Universitat Pompeu Fabra (CEXS-UPF), C/Dr. Aiguader 88, 08003 Barcelona, Spain
| | - Magi Farre
- Integrative Pharmacology and Systems Neuroscience Research Group, Hospital del Mar Medical Research Institute (IMIM), Parc de Recerca Biomedica de Barcelona (PRBB), C/Dr. Aiguader 88, 08003 Barcelona, Spain ,Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona (UDIMAS-UAB), C/Dr. Aiguader 88, 08003 Barcelona, Spain ,Clinical Pharmacology Unit, Hospital Universitari Germans Trias i Pujol (IGTP), Carretera de Canyet s/n, 08916 Badalona, Spain
| | - Rafael de la Torre
- Integrative Pharmacology and Systems Neuroscience Research Group, Hospital del Mar Medical Research Institute (IMIM), Parc de Recerca Biomedica de Barcelona (PRBB), C/Dr. Aiguader 88, 08003, Barcelona, Spain. .,Universitat Pompeu Fabra (CEXS-UPF), C/Dr. Aiguader 88, 08003, Barcelona, Spain. .,CIBER Fisiopatologia de la Obesidad y la Nutrición (CIBERobn), Choupana s, /n 15706, Santiago de Compostela, Spain.
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11
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Critical role of TLR4 in uncovering the increased rewarding effects of cocaine and ethanol induced by social defeat in male mice. Neuropharmacology 2020; 182:108368. [PMID: 33132187 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuropharm.2020.108368] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/26/2020] [Revised: 10/16/2020] [Accepted: 10/18/2020] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Substance use disorders and social stress are currently associated with changes in the immune system response by which they induce a proinflammatory state in neurons and glial cells that eventually modulates the reward system. AIMS The aim of the present work was to assess the role of the immune TLR4 (Toll-like receptors 4) and its signaling response in the increased contextual reinforcing effects of cocaine and reinforcing effects of ethanol (EtOH) induced by social defeat (SD) stress. METHODS Adult male C57BL/6 J wild-type (WT) mice and mice deficient in TLR4 (TLR4-KO) were assigned to experimental groups according to stress condition (exploration or SD). Three weeks after the last SD, conditioned place preference (CPP) was induced by a subthreshold cocaine dose (1 mg/kg), while another set underwent EtOH 6% operant self-administration (SA). Several inflammatory molecules were analyzed in the hippocampus and the striatum. RESULTS SD induced higher vulnerability to the conditioned rewarding effects of cocaine only in defeated WT mice. Similarly, defeated WT mice exhibited higher 6% EtOH consumption, an effect that was not observed in the defeated TLR4-KO group. However, the motivation to obtain the drug was observed in both genotypes of defeated animals. Notably, a significant upregulation of the protein proinflammatory markers NFkBp-p65, IL-1β, IL-17 A and COX-2 were observed only in the defeated WT mice, but not in their defeated TLR4-KO counterparts. CONCLUSIONS These results suggest that TLR4 receptors mediate the neuroinflammatory response underlying the increase in the rewarding effects of cocaine and EtOH induced by social stress.
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12
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Abstract
Drugs of abuse can modify gene expression in brain reward and motivation centers,
which contribute to the structural and functional remodeling of these circuits that
impacts the emergence of a state of addiction. Our understanding of how addictive drugs
induce transcriptomic plasticity in addiction-relevant brain regions, particularly in
the striatum, has increased dramatically in recent years. Intracellular signaling
machineries, transcription factors, chromatin modifications, and regulatory noncoding
RNAs have all been implicated in the mechanisms through which addictive drugs act in the
brain. Here, we briefly summarize some of the molecular mechanisms through which drugs
of abuse can exert their transcriptional effects in the brain region, with an emphasis
on the role for microRNAs in this process.
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Affiliation(s)
- Purva Bali
- Nash Family Department of Neuroscience, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY, USA
| | - Paul J Kenny
- Nash Family Department of Neuroscience, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY, USA
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13
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Kokane SS, Perrotti LI. Sex Differences and the Role of Estradiol in Mesolimbic Reward Circuits and Vulnerability to Cocaine and Opiate Addiction. Front Behav Neurosci 2020; 14:74. [PMID: 32508605 PMCID: PMC7251038 DOI: 10.3389/fnbeh.2020.00074] [Citation(s) in RCA: 54] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/04/2019] [Accepted: 04/22/2020] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
Although both men and women become addicted to drugs of abuse, women transition to addiction faster, experience greater difficulties remaining abstinent, and relapse more often than men. In both humans and rodents, hormonal cycles are associated with females' faster progression to addiction. Higher concentrations and fluctuating levels of ovarian hormones in females modulate the mesolimbic reward system and influence reward-directed behavior. For example, in female rodents, estradiol (E2) influences dopamine activity within the mesolimbic reward system such that drug-directed behaviors that are normally rewarding and reinforcing become enhanced when circulating levels of E2 are high. Therefore, neuroendocrine interactions, in part, explain sex differences in behaviors motivated by drug reward. Here, we review sex differences in the physiology and function of the mesolimbic reward system in order to explore the notion that sex differences in response to drugs of abuse, specifically cocaine and opiates, are the result of molecular neuroadaptations that differentially develop depending upon the hormonal state of the animal. We also reconsider the notion that ovarian hormones, specifically estrogen/estradiol, sensitize target neurons thereby increasing responsivity when under the influence of either cocaine or opiates or in response to exposure to drug-associated cues. These adaptations may ultimately serve to guide the motivational behaviors that underlie the factors that cause women to be more vulnerable to cocaine and opiate addiction than men.
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Affiliation(s)
- Saurabh S Kokane
- Department of Psychology, University of Texas at Arlington, Arlington, TX, United States
| | - Linda I Perrotti
- Department of Psychology, University of Texas at Arlington, Arlington, TX, United States
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14
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Bharwani A, West C, Champagne-Jorgensen K, McVey Neufeld KA, Ruberto J, Kunze WA, Bienenstock J, Forsythe P. The vagus nerve is necessary for the rapid and widespread neuronal activation in the brain following oral administration of psychoactive bacteria. Neuropharmacology 2020; 170:108067. [PMID: 32224131 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuropharm.2020.108067] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/10/2019] [Revised: 03/08/2020] [Accepted: 03/22/2020] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Abstract
There is accumulating evidence that certain gut microbes modulate brain chemistry and have antidepressant-like behavioural effects. However, it is unclear which brain regions respond to bacteria-derived signals or how signals are transmitted to distinct regions. We investigated the role of the vagus in mediating neuronal activation following oral treatment with Lactobacillus rhamnosus (JB-1). Male Balb/c mice were orally administered a single dose of saline or a live or heat-killed preparation of a physiologically active bacterial strain, Lactobacillus rhamnosus (JB-1). 165 min later, c-Fos immunoreactivity in the brain was mapped, and mesenteric vagal afferent fibre firing was recorded. Mice also underwent sub-diaphragmatic vagotomy to investigate whether severing the vagus prevented JB-1-induced c-Fos expression. Finally, we examined the ΔFosB response following acute versus chronic bacterial treatment. While a single exposure to live and heat-killed bacteria altered vagal activity, only live treatment induced rapid neural activation in widespread but distinct brain regions, as assessed by c-Fos expression. Sub-diaphragmatic vagotomy abolished c-Fos immunoreactivity in most, but not all, previously responsive regions. Chronic, but not acute treatment induced a distinct pattern of ΔFosB expression, including in previously unresponsive brain regions. These data identify that specific brain regions respond rapidly to gut microbes via vagal-dependent and independent pathways, and demonstrate that acute versus long-term exposure is associated with differential responses in distinct brain regions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Aadil Bharwani
- Department of Pathology & Molecular Medicine, McMaster University, Hamilton, Canada; McMaster Brain-Body Institute, St. Joseph's Healthcare, Hamilton, Canada; Michael G. DeGroote School of Medicine, McMaster University, Hamilton, Canada
| | - Christine West
- McMaster Brain-Body Institute, St. Joseph's Healthcare, Hamilton, Canada
| | | | - Karen-Anne McVey Neufeld
- Department of Pathology & Molecular Medicine, McMaster University, Hamilton, Canada; McMaster Brain-Body Institute, St. Joseph's Healthcare, Hamilton, Canada
| | - Joseph Ruberto
- McMaster Brain-Body Institute, St. Joseph's Healthcare, Hamilton, Canada
| | - Wolfgang A Kunze
- McMaster Brain-Body Institute, St. Joseph's Healthcare, Hamilton, Canada
| | - John Bienenstock
- Department of Pathology & Molecular Medicine, McMaster University, Hamilton, Canada; McMaster Brain-Body Institute, St. Joseph's Healthcare, Hamilton, Canada
| | - Paul Forsythe
- McMaster Brain-Body Institute, St. Joseph's Healthcare, Hamilton, Canada; Department of Medicine, McMaster University, Hamilton, Canada; Firestone Institute for Respiratory Health, McMaster University, Hamilton, Canada.
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15
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Correia C, Romieu P, Olmstead MC, Befort K. Can cocaine-induced neuroinflammation explain maladaptive cocaine-associated memories? Neurosci Biobehav Rev 2020; 111:69-83. [PMID: 31935376 DOI: 10.1016/j.neubiorev.2020.01.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/02/2019] [Revised: 12/20/2019] [Accepted: 01/01/2020] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Abstract
Persistent and intrusive memories define a number of psychiatric disorders, including posttraumatic stress disorder and substance use disorder. In the latter, memory for drug-paired cues plays a critical role in sustaining compulsive drug use as these are potent triggers of relapse. As with many drugs, cocaine-cue associated memory is strengthened across presentations as cues become reliable predictors of drug availability. Recently, the targeting of cocaine-associated memory through disruption of the reconsolidation process has emerged as a potential therapeutic strategy; reconsolidation reflects the active process by which memory is re-stabilized after retrieval. In addition, a separate line of work reveals that neuroinflammatory markers, regulated by cocaine intake, play a role in memory processes. Our review brings these two literatures together by summarizing recent findings on cocaine-associated reconsolidation and cocaine-induced neuroinflammation. We discuss the interactions between reconsolidation processes and neuroinflammation following cocaine use, concluding with a new perspective on treatment to decrease risk of relapse to cocaine use.
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Affiliation(s)
- Caroline Correia
- Université de Strasbourg, Laboratoire de Neurosciences Cognitives et Adaptatives (LNCA), Centre de la Recherche Nationale Scientifique, UMR 7364, Faculté de Psychologie, 12 rue Goethe, F-67000, Strasbourg, France
| | - Pascal Romieu
- Université de Strasbourg, Laboratoire de Neurosciences Cognitives et Adaptatives (LNCA), Centre de la Recherche Nationale Scientifique, UMR 7364, Faculté de Psychologie, 12 rue Goethe, F-67000, Strasbourg, France
| | - Mary C Olmstead
- Dept. Psychology, Centre for Neuroscience Studies, Queen's University, Kingston ON, K7L 3N6, Canada
| | - Katia Befort
- Université de Strasbourg, Laboratoire de Neurosciences Cognitives et Adaptatives (LNCA), Centre de la Recherche Nationale Scientifique, UMR 7364, Faculté de Psychologie, 12 rue Goethe, F-67000, Strasbourg, France.
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Mai HN, Chung YH, Shin EJ, Kim DJ, Sharma N, Lee YJ, Jeong JH, Nah SY, Jang CG, Kim HC. Glutathione peroxidase-1 overexpressing transgenic mice are protected from cocaine-induced drug dependence. Neurochem Int 2019; 124:264-273. [DOI: 10.1016/j.neuint.2019.01.018] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/04/2018] [Revised: 01/13/2019] [Accepted: 01/22/2019] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
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17
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Mai HN, Nguyen LTT, Shin EJ, Kim DJ, Jeong JH, Chung YH, Lei XG, Sharma N, Jang CG, Nabeshima T, Kim HC. Astrocytic mobilization of glutathione peroxidase-1 contributes to the protective potential against cocaine kindling behaviors in mice via activation of JAK2/STAT3 signaling. Free Radic Biol Med 2019; 131:408-431. [PMID: 30592974 DOI: 10.1016/j.freeradbiomed.2018.12.027] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/18/2018] [Revised: 12/13/2018] [Accepted: 12/21/2018] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
Compelling evidence indicates that oxidative stress contributes to cocaine neurotoxicity. The present study was performed to elucidate the role of the glutathione peroxidase-1 (GPx-1) in cocaine-induced kindling (convulsive) behaviors in mice. Cocaine-induced convulsive behaviors significantly increased GPx-1, p-IkB, and p-JAK2/STAT3 expression, and oxidative burdens in the hippocampus of mice. There was no significant difference in cocaine-induced p-IkB expression between non-transgenic (non-TG) and GPx-1 overexpressing transgenic (GPx-1 TG) mice, but significant differences were observed in cocaine-induced p-JAK2/STAT3 expression and oxidative stress between non-TG and GPx-1 TG mice. Cocaine-induced glial fibrillary acidic protein (GFAP)-labeled astrocytic level was significantly higher in the hippocampus of GPx-1 TG mice. Triple-labeling immunocytochemistry indicated that GPx-1-, p-STAT3-, and GFAP-immunoreactivities were co-localized in the same cells. AG490, a JAK2/STAT3 inhibitor, but not pyrrolidone dithiocarbamate, an NFκB inhibitor, significantly counteracted GPx-1-mediated protective potentials (i.e., anticonvulsant-, antioxidant-, antiapoptotic-effects). Genetic overexpression of GPx-1 significantly attenuated proliferation of Iba-1-labeled microglia induced by cocaine in mice. However, AG490 or astrocytic inhibition (by GFAP antisense oligonucleotide and α-aminoadipate) significantly increased Iba-1-labeled microglial activity and M1 phenotype microglial mRNA levels, reflecting that proinflammatory potentials were mediated by AG490 or astrocytic inhibition. This microglial activation was less pronounced in GPx-1 TG than in non-TG mice. Furthermore, either AG490 or astrocytic inhibition significantly counteracted GPx-1-mediated protective potentials. Therefore, our results suggest that astrocytic modulation between GPx-1 and JAK2/STAT3 might be one of the underlying mechanisms for protecting against convulsive neurotoxicity induced by cocaine.
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Affiliation(s)
- Huynh Nhu Mai
- Neuropsychopharmacology and Toxicology Program, College of Pharmacy, Kangwon National University, Chunchon 24341, Republic of Korea
| | - Lan Thuy Ty Nguyen
- Neuropsychopharmacology and Toxicology Program, College of Pharmacy, Kangwon National University, Chunchon 24341, Republic of Korea
| | - Eun-Joo Shin
- Neuropsychopharmacology and Toxicology Program, College of Pharmacy, Kangwon National University, Chunchon 24341, Republic of Korea.
| | - Dae-Joong Kim
- Department of Anatomy and Cell Biology, Medical School, Kangwon National University, Chunchon 24341, Republic of Korea
| | - Ji Hoon Jeong
- Department of Pharmacology, College of Medicine, Chung-Ang University, Seoul 06974, Republic of Korea
| | - Yoon Hee Chung
- Department of Anatomy, College of Medicine, Chung-Ang University, Seoul 06974, Republic of Korea
| | - Xin Gen Lei
- Department of Animal Science, Cornell University, Ithaca, New York 14853, USA
| | - Naveen Sharma
- Neuropsychopharmacology and Toxicology Program, College of Pharmacy, Kangwon National University, Chunchon 24341, Republic of Korea
| | - Choon-Gon Jang
- Department of Pharmacology, School of Pharmacy, Sungkyunkwan University, Suwon 16419, Republic of Korea
| | - Toshitaka Nabeshima
- Advanced Diagnostic System Research Laboratory, Fujita Health University Graduate School of Health Science, Aichi 470-1192, Japan; Aino University, Ibaraki 576-0012, Japan; Japanese Drug Organization of Appropriate and Research, Nagoya 468-0069, Japan
| | - Hyoung-Chun Kim
- Neuropsychopharmacology and Toxicology Program, College of Pharmacy, Kangwon National University, Chunchon 24341, Republic of Korea.
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18
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Impact of neuroimmune activation induced by alcohol or drug abuse on adolescent brain development. Int J Dev Neurosci 2018; 77:89-98. [PMID: 30468786 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijdevneu.2018.11.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 47] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/29/2018] [Revised: 10/19/2018] [Accepted: 11/19/2018] [Indexed: 12/27/2022] Open
Abstract
Evidence obtained in recent decades has demonstrated that the brain still matures in adolescence. Changes in neural connectivity occur in different regions, including cortical and subcortical structures, which undergo modifications in white and gray matter densities. These alterations concomitantly occur in some neurotransmitter systems and hormone secretion, which markedly influence the refinement of certain brain areas and neural circuits. The immaturity of the adolescent brain makes it more vulnerable to the effects of alcohol and drug abuse, whose use can trigger long-term behavioral dysfunction. This article reviews the action of alcohol and drug abuse (cannabis, cocaine, opioids, amphetamines, anabolic androgenic steroids) in the adolescent brain, and their impact on both cognition and behavioral dysfunction, including predisposition to drug abuse in later life. It also discusses recent evidence that indicates the role of the neuroimmune system response and neuroinflammation as mechanisms that participate in many actions of ethanol and drug abuse in adolescence, including the neurotoxicity and alterations in neurocircuitry that contribute to the dysfunctional behaviors associated with addiction. The new data suggest the therapeutic potential of anti-inflammatory targets to prevent the long-term consequences of drug abuse in adolescence.
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19
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Décarie-Spain L, Sharma S, Hryhorczuk C, Issa-Garcia V, Barker PA, Arbour N, Alquier T, Fulton S. Nucleus accumbens inflammation mediates anxiodepressive behavior and compulsive sucrose seeking elicited by saturated dietary fat. Mol Metab 2018; 10:1-13. [PMID: 29454579 PMCID: PMC5985233 DOI: 10.1016/j.molmet.2018.01.018] [Citation(s) in RCA: 67] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/21/2017] [Revised: 01/09/2018] [Accepted: 01/20/2018] [Indexed: 12/23/2022] Open
Abstract
OBJECTIVE The incidence of depression is significantly compounded by obesity. Obesity arising from excessive intake of high-fat food provokes anxiodepressive behavior and elicits molecular adaptations in the nucleus accumbens (NAc), a region well-implicated in the hedonic deficits associated with depression and in the control of food-motivated behavior. To determine the etiology of diet-induced depression, we studied the impact of different dietary lipids on anxiodepressive behavior and metabolic and immune outcomes and the contribution of NAc immune activity. METHODS Adult C57Bl/6 mice were subjected to isocaloric high-fat/high-sucrose diets (HFD), enriched in either saturated or monounsaturated fat, or a control low-fat diet (LFD). Metabolic responses, anxiodepressive behavior, and plasma and NAc inflammatory markers were assessed after 12 weeks. In separate experiments, an adenoviral construct inhibiting IKKβ, an upstream component of the nuclear factor kappa-b (NFkB) pathway, was a priori injected into the NAc. RESULTS Both HFDs resulted in obesity and hyperleptinemia; however, the saturated HFD uniquely triggered anxiety-like behavior, behavioral despair, hyperinsulinemia, glucose intolerance, peripheral inflammation, and multiple pro-inflammatory signs in the NAc, including reactive gliosis, increased expression of cytokines, antigen-presenting markers and NFкB transcriptional activity. Selective NAc IKKβ inhibition reversed the upregulated expression of inflammatory markers, prevented anxiodepressive behavior and blunted compulsive sucrose-seeking in mice fed the saturated HFD. CONCLUSIONS Metabolic inflammation and NFкB-mediated neuroinflammatory responses in the NAc contribute to the expression of anxiodepressive behavior and heightened food cravings caused by a diet high in saturated fat and sugar.
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Affiliation(s)
- Léa Décarie-Spain
- Centre de Recherche du CHUM, Université de Montréal, Quebec, Canada; Montreal Diabetes Research Centre, Université de Montréal, Quebec, Canada; Department of Neuroscience, Université de Montréal, Quebec, Canada
| | - Sandeep Sharma
- Centre de Recherche du CHUM, Université de Montréal, Quebec, Canada; Montreal Diabetes Research Centre, Université de Montréal, Quebec, Canada; Department of Nutrition, Université de Montréal, Quebec, Canada
| | - Cécile Hryhorczuk
- Centre de Recherche du CHUM, Université de Montréal, Quebec, Canada; Montreal Diabetes Research Centre, Université de Montréal, Quebec, Canada
| | - Victor Issa-Garcia
- Centre de Recherche du CHUM, Université de Montréal, Quebec, Canada; Montreal Diabetes Research Centre, Université de Montréal, Quebec, Canada
| | - Philip A Barker
- Department of Biology, University of British Columbia, BC, Canada
| | - Nathalie Arbour
- Centre de Recherche du CHUM, Université de Montréal, Quebec, Canada; Department of Neuroscience, Université de Montréal, Quebec, Canada
| | - Thierry Alquier
- Centre de Recherche du CHUM, Université de Montréal, Quebec, Canada; Montreal Diabetes Research Centre, Université de Montréal, Quebec, Canada; Department of Medicine, Université de Montréal, Quebec, Canada
| | - Stephanie Fulton
- Centre de Recherche du CHUM, Université de Montréal, Quebec, Canada; Montreal Diabetes Research Centre, Université de Montréal, Quebec, Canada; Department of Nutrition, Université de Montréal, Quebec, Canada.
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20
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Zhu R, Bu Q, Fu D, Shao X, Jiang L, Guo W, Chen B, Liu B, Hu Z, Tian J, Zhao Y, Cen X. Toll-like receptor 3 modulates the behavioral effects of cocaine in mice. J Neuroinflammation 2018; 15:93. [PMID: 29571298 PMCID: PMC5865345 DOI: 10.1186/s12974-018-1130-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/28/2017] [Accepted: 03/13/2018] [Indexed: 02/05/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND The nucleus accumbens in the midbrain dopamine limbic system plays a key role in cocaine addiction. Toll-like receptors (TLRs) are important pattern-recognition receptors (PPRs) in the innate immune system that are also involved in drug dependence; however, the detailed mechanism is largely unknown. METHODS The present study was designed to investigate the potential role of TLR3 in cocaine addiction. Cocaine-induced conditioned place preference (CPP), locomotor activity, and self-administration were used to determine the effects of TLR3 in the rewarding properties of cocaine. Lentivirus-mediated re-expression of Tlr3 (LV-TLR3) was applied to determine if restoration of TLR3 expression in the NAc is sufficient to restore the cocaine effect in TLR3-/- mice. The protein levels of phospho-NF-κB p65, IKKβ, and p-IκBα both in the cytoplasm and nucleus of cocaine-induced CPP mice were detected by Western blot. RESULTS We showed that both TLR3 deficiency and intra-NAc injection of TLR3 inhibitors significantly attenuated cocaine-induced CPP, locomotor activity, and self-administration in mice. Importantly, the TLR3-/- mice that received intra-NAc injection of LV-TLR3 displayed significant increases in cocaine-induced CPP and locomotor activity. Finally, we found that TLR3 inhibitor reverted cocaine-induced upregulation of phospho-NF-κB p65, IKKβ, and p-IκBα. CONCLUSIONS Taken together, our results describe that TLR3 modulates cocaine-induced behaviors and provide further evidence supporting a role for central pro-inflammatory immune signaling in drug reward. We propose that TLR3 blockade could be a novel approach to treat cocaine addiction.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ruiming Zhu
- National Chengdu Center for Safety Evaluation of Drugs, State Key Lab of Biotherapy/Collaborative Innovation Center of Biotherapy, West China Hospital, West China Medical School, Sichuan University, #28 Gaopeng Street, High Technological Development Zone, Chengdu, 610041, China
| | - Qian Bu
- National Chengdu Center for Safety Evaluation of Drugs, State Key Lab of Biotherapy/Collaborative Innovation Center of Biotherapy, West China Hospital, West China Medical School, Sichuan University, #28 Gaopeng Street, High Technological Development Zone, Chengdu, 610041, China.,Healthy Food Evaluation Research Center, Department of Food Science and Technology, College of Light Industry, Textile and Food Engineering, Sichuan University, Chengdu, 610065, China
| | - Dengqi Fu
- National Chengdu Center for Safety Evaluation of Drugs, State Key Lab of Biotherapy/Collaborative Innovation Center of Biotherapy, West China Hospital, West China Medical School, Sichuan University, #28 Gaopeng Street, High Technological Development Zone, Chengdu, 610041, China
| | - Xue Shao
- National Chengdu Center for Safety Evaluation of Drugs, State Key Lab of Biotherapy/Collaborative Innovation Center of Biotherapy, West China Hospital, West China Medical School, Sichuan University, #28 Gaopeng Street, High Technological Development Zone, Chengdu, 610041, China
| | - Linhong Jiang
- National Chengdu Center for Safety Evaluation of Drugs, State Key Lab of Biotherapy/Collaborative Innovation Center of Biotherapy, West China Hospital, West China Medical School, Sichuan University, #28 Gaopeng Street, High Technological Development Zone, Chengdu, 610041, China
| | - Wei Guo
- National Chengdu Center for Safety Evaluation of Drugs, State Key Lab of Biotherapy/Collaborative Innovation Center of Biotherapy, West China Hospital, West China Medical School, Sichuan University, #28 Gaopeng Street, High Technological Development Zone, Chengdu, 610041, China.,School of Pharmacy, Key Laboratory of Molecular Pharmacology and Drug Evaluation (Yantai University), Ministry of Education, Collaborative Innovation Center of Advanced Drug Delivery System and Biotech Drugs in Universities of Shandong, Yantai University, Yantai, 264005, China
| | - Bo Chen
- National Chengdu Center for Safety Evaluation of Drugs, State Key Lab of Biotherapy/Collaborative Innovation Center of Biotherapy, West China Hospital, West China Medical School, Sichuan University, #28 Gaopeng Street, High Technological Development Zone, Chengdu, 610041, China
| | - Bin Liu
- National Chengdu Center for Safety Evaluation of Drugs, State Key Lab of Biotherapy/Collaborative Innovation Center of Biotherapy, West China Hospital, West China Medical School, Sichuan University, #28 Gaopeng Street, High Technological Development Zone, Chengdu, 610041, China
| | - Zhengtao Hu
- National Chengdu Center for Safety Evaluation of Drugs, State Key Lab of Biotherapy/Collaborative Innovation Center of Biotherapy, West China Hospital, West China Medical School, Sichuan University, #28 Gaopeng Street, High Technological Development Zone, Chengdu, 610041, China
| | - Jingwei Tian
- School of Pharmacy, Key Laboratory of Molecular Pharmacology and Drug Evaluation (Yantai University), Ministry of Education, Collaborative Innovation Center of Advanced Drug Delivery System and Biotech Drugs in Universities of Shandong, Yantai University, Yantai, 264005, China
| | - Yinglan Zhao
- National Chengdu Center for Safety Evaluation of Drugs, State Key Lab of Biotherapy/Collaborative Innovation Center of Biotherapy, West China Hospital, West China Medical School, Sichuan University, #28 Gaopeng Street, High Technological Development Zone, Chengdu, 610041, China
| | - Xiaobo Cen
- National Chengdu Center for Safety Evaluation of Drugs, State Key Lab of Biotherapy/Collaborative Innovation Center of Biotherapy, West China Hospital, West China Medical School, Sichuan University, #28 Gaopeng Street, High Technological Development Zone, Chengdu, 610041, China.
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Fu K, Miyamoto Y, Otake K, Sumi K, Saika E, Matsumura S, Sato N, Ueno Y, Seo S, Uno K, Muramatsu SI, Nitta A. Involvement of the accumbal osteopontin-interacting transmembrane protein 168 in methamphetamine-induced place preference and hyperlocomotion in mice. Sci Rep 2017; 7:13084. [PMID: 29026117 PMCID: PMC5638853 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-017-13289-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/08/2017] [Accepted: 09/19/2017] [Indexed: 12/26/2022] Open
Abstract
Chronic exposure to methamphetamine causes adaptive changes in brain, which underlie dependence symptoms. We have found that the transmembrane protein 168 (TMEM168) is overexpressed in the nucleus accumbens of mice upon repeated methamphetamine administration. Here, we firstly demonstrate the inhibitory effect of TMEM168 on methamphetamine-induced behavioral changes in mice, and attempt to elucidate the mechanism of this inhibition. We overexpressed TMEM168 in the nucleus accumbens of mice by using an adeno-associated virus vector (NAc-TMEM mice). Methamphetamine-induced hyperlocomotion and conditioned place preference were attenuated in NAc-TMEM mice. Additionally, methamphetamine-induced extracellular dopamine elevation was suppressed in the nucleus accumbens of NAc-TMEM mice. Next, we identified extracellular matrix protein osteopontin as an interacting partner of TMEM168, by conducting immunoprecipitation in cultured COS-7 cells. TMEM168 overexpression in COS-7 cells induced the enhancement of extracellular and intracellular osteopontin. Similarly, osteopontin enhancement was also observed in the nucleus accumbens of NAc-TMEM mice, in in vivo studies. Furthermore, the infusion of osteopontin proteins into the nucleus accumbens of mice was found to inhibit methamphetamine-induced hyperlocomotion and conditioned place preference. Our studies suggest that the TMEM168-regulated osteopontin system is a novel target pathway for the therapy of methamphetamine dependence, via regulating the dopaminergic function in the nucleus accumbens.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kequan Fu
- Department of Pharmaceutical Therapy and Neuropharmacology, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences Graduate School of Medicine and Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Toyama, Toyama, 930-0194, Japan
| | - Yoshiaki Miyamoto
- Department of Pharmaceutical Therapy and Neuropharmacology, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences Graduate School of Medicine and Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Toyama, Toyama, 930-0194, Japan
| | - Kazuya Otake
- Department of Pharmaceutical Therapy and Neuropharmacology, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences Graduate School of Medicine and Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Toyama, Toyama, 930-0194, Japan
| | - Kazuyuki Sumi
- Department of Pharmaceutical Therapy and Neuropharmacology, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences Graduate School of Medicine and Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Toyama, Toyama, 930-0194, Japan
| | - Eriko Saika
- Department of Pharmaceutical Therapy and Neuropharmacology, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences Graduate School of Medicine and Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Toyama, Toyama, 930-0194, Japan
| | - Shohei Matsumura
- Department of Pharmaceutical Therapy and Neuropharmacology, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences Graduate School of Medicine and Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Toyama, Toyama, 930-0194, Japan
| | - Naoki Sato
- Department of Pharmaceutical Therapy and Neuropharmacology, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences Graduate School of Medicine and Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Toyama, Toyama, 930-0194, Japan
| | - Yuka Ueno
- Department of Pharmaceutical Therapy and Neuropharmacology, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences Graduate School of Medicine and Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Toyama, Toyama, 930-0194, Japan
| | - Seunghee Seo
- Department of Pharmaceutical Therapy and Neuropharmacology, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences Graduate School of Medicine and Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Toyama, Toyama, 930-0194, Japan
| | - Kyosuke Uno
- Department of Pharmaceutical Therapy and Neuropharmacology, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences Graduate School of Medicine and Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Toyama, Toyama, 930-0194, Japan
| | - Shin-Ichi Muramatsu
- Division of Neurology, Department of Medicine, Jichi Medical University, Shimotsuke, 329-0498, Japan.,Center for Gene & Cell Therapy, Institute of Medical Science, The University of Tokyo, Tokyo, 113-8654, Japan
| | - Atsumi Nitta
- Department of Pharmaceutical Therapy and Neuropharmacology, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences Graduate School of Medicine and Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Toyama, Toyama, 930-0194, Japan.
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22
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Nennig SE, Schank JR. The Role of NFkB in Drug Addiction: Beyond Inflammation. Alcohol Alcohol 2017; 52:172-179. [PMID: 28043969 DOI: 10.1093/alcalc/agw098] [Citation(s) in RCA: 130] [Impact Index Per Article: 18.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/19/2016] [Indexed: 12/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Aims Nuclear factor kappa light chain enhancer of activated B cells (NFkB) is a ubiquitous transcription factor well known for its role in the innate immune response. As such, NFkB is a transcriptional activator of inflammatory mediators such as cytokines. It has recently been demonstrated that alcohol and other drugs of abuse can induce NFkB activity and cytokine expression in the brain. A number of reviews have been published highlighting this effect of alcohol, and have linked increased NFkB function to neuroimmune-stimulated toxicity. However, in this review we focus on the potentially non-immune functions of NFkB as possible links between NFkB and addiction. Methods An extensive review of the literature via Pubmed searches was used to assess the current state of the field. Results NFkB can induce the expression of a diverse set of gene targets besides inflammatory mediators, some of which are involved in addictive processes, such as opioid receptors and neuropeptides. NFkB mediates complex behaviors including learning and memory, stress responses, anhedonia and drug reward, processes that may lie outside the role of NFkB in the classic neuroimmune response. Conclusions Future studies should focus on these non-immune functions of NFkB signaling and their association with addiction-related processes.
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Affiliation(s)
- S E Nennig
- Department of Physiology and Pharmacology, University of Georgia, 501 D.W. Brooks Drive, Athens, GA 30602, USA
| | - J R Schank
- Department of Physiology and Pharmacology, University of Georgia, 501 D.W. Brooks Drive, Athens, GA 30602, USA
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23
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Bekhbat M, Rowson SA, Neigh GN. Checks and balances: The glucocorticoid receptor and NFĸB in good times and bad. Front Neuroendocrinol 2017; 46:15-31. [PMID: 28502781 PMCID: PMC5523465 DOI: 10.1016/j.yfrne.2017.05.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 84] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/16/2017] [Revised: 04/21/2017] [Accepted: 05/09/2017] [Indexed: 01/23/2023]
Abstract
Mutual regulation and balance between the endocrine and immune systems facilitate an organism's stress response and are impaired following chronic stress or prolonged immune activation. Concurrent alterations in stress physiology and immunity are increasingly recognized as contributing factors to several stress-linked neuropsychiatric disorders including depression, anxiety, and post-traumatic stress disorder. Accumulating evidence suggests that impaired balance and crosstalk between the glucocorticoid receptor (GR) and nuclear factor kappa-light-chain-enhancer of activated B cells (NFκB) - effectors of the stress and immune axes, respectively - may play a key role in mediating the harmful effects of chronic stress on mood and behavior. Here, we first review the molecular mechanisms of GR and NFκB interactions in health, then describe potential shifts in the GR-NFκB dynamics in chronic stress conditions within the context of brain circuitry relevant to neuropsychiatric diseases. Furthermore, we discuss developmental influences and sex differences in the regulation of these two transcription factors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mandakh Bekhbat
- Emory University, Graduate Division of Biological Sciences, Neuroscience Graduate Program, United States
| | - Sydney A Rowson
- Emory University, Graduate Division of Biological Sciences, Molecular and Systems Pharmacology Graduate Studies Program, United States
| | - Gretchen N Neigh
- Virginia Commonwealth University, Department of Anatomy & Neurobiology, United States.
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24
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Crews FT, Walter TJ, Coleman LG, Vetreno RP. Toll-like receptor signaling and stages of addiction. Psychopharmacology (Berl) 2017; 234:1483-1498. [PMID: 28210782 PMCID: PMC5420377 DOI: 10.1007/s00213-017-4560-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 103] [Impact Index Per Article: 14.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/19/2016] [Accepted: 02/03/2017] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Athina Markou and her colleagues discovered persistent changes in adult behavior following adolescent exposure to ethanol or nicotine consistent with increased risk for developing addiction. Building on Dr. Markou's important work and that of others in the field, researchers at the Bowles Center for Alcohol Studies have found that persistent changes in behavior following adolescent stress or alcohol exposure may be linked to induction of immune signaling in brain. AIM This study aims to illuminate the critical interrelationship of the innate immune system (e.g., toll-like receptors [TLRs], high-mobility group box 1 [HMGB1]) in the neurobiology of addiction. METHOD This study reviews the relevant research regarding the relationship between the innate immune system and addiction. CONCLUSION Emerging evidence indicates that TLRs in brain, particularly those on microglia, respond to endogenous innate immune agonists such as HMGB1 and microRNAs (miRNAs). Multiple TLRs, HMGB1, and miRNAs are induced in the brain by stress, alcohol, and other drugs of abuse and are increased in the postmortem human alcoholic brain. Enhanced TLR-innate immune signaling in brain leads to epigenetic modifications, alterations in synaptic plasticity, and loss of neuronal cell populations, which contribute to cognitive and emotive dysfunctions. Addiction involves progressive stages of drug binges and intoxication, withdrawal-negative affect, and ultimately compulsive drug use and abuse. Toll-like receptor signaling within cortical-limbic circuits is modified by alcohol and stress in a manner consistent with promoting progression through the stages of addiction.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fulton T Crews
- Bowles Center for Alcohol Studies, School of Medicine, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, NC, 27599, USA.
| | - T Jordan Walter
- Bowles Center for Alcohol Studies, School of Medicine, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, NC, 27599, USA
| | - Leon G Coleman
- Bowles Center for Alcohol Studies, School of Medicine, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, NC, 27599, USA
| | - Ryan P Vetreno
- Bowles Center for Alcohol Studies, School of Medicine, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, NC, 27599, USA
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25
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Salles A, Krawczyk MDC, Blake M, Romano A, Boccia MM, Freudenthal R. Requirement of NF-kappa B Activation in Different Mice Brain Areas during Long-Term Memory Consolidation in Two Contextual One-Trial Tasks with Opposing Valences. Front Mol Neurosci 2017; 10:104. [PMID: 28439227 PMCID: PMC5383659 DOI: 10.3389/fnmol.2017.00104] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/12/2016] [Accepted: 03/24/2017] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
NF-kappa B is a transcription factor whose activation has been shown to be necessary for long-term memory consolidation in several species. NF-kappa B is activated and translocates to the nucleus of cells in a specific temporal window during consolidation. Our work focuses on a one trial learning tasks associated to the inhibitory avoidance (IA) setting. Mice were trained either receiving or not a footshock when entering a dark compartment (aversive vs. appetitive learning). Regardless of training condition (appetitive or aversive), latencies to step-through during testing were significantly different to those measured during training. Additionally, these testing latencies were also different from those of a control group that only received a shock unrelated to context. Moreover, nuclear NF-kappa B DNA-binding activity was augmented in the aversive and the appetitive tasks when compared with control and naïve animals. NF-kappa B inhibition by Sulfasalazine injected either in the Hippocampus, Amygdala or Nucleus accumbens immediately after training was able to impair retention in both training versions. Our results suggest that NF-kappa B is a critical molecular step, in different brain areas on memory consolidation. This was the case for both the IA task and also the modified version of the same task where the footshock was omitted during training. This work aims to further investigate how appetitive and aversive memories are consolidated.
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Affiliation(s)
- Angeles Salles
- Laboratorio de Neurobiología de la Memoria, Departamento de Fisiología y Biología Molecular y Celular, Facultad de Ciencias Exactas y Naturales, Universidad de Buenos AiresBuenos Aires, Argentina.,Instituto de Fisiología, Biología Molecular y Neurociencias (IFIBYNE), CONICET-Universidad de Buenos AiresBuenos Aires, Argentina
| | - Maria Del C Krawczyk
- Laboratorio de Neurofarmacología de los Procesos de Memoria, Cátedra de Farmacología, Fac. Farmacia y Bioquímica, Universidad de Buenos Aires/CONICETBuenos Aires, Argentina
| | - Mariano Blake
- Departamento de Fisiología, Instituto de Fisiología y Biofísica Bernardo Houssay (IFIBIO), Facultad de Medicina, Universidad de Buenos Aires, CONICETBuenos Aires, Argentina
| | - Arturo Romano
- Laboratorio de Neurobiología de la Memoria, Departamento de Fisiología y Biología Molecular y Celular, Facultad de Ciencias Exactas y Naturales, Universidad de Buenos AiresBuenos Aires, Argentina.,Instituto de Fisiología, Biología Molecular y Neurociencias (IFIBYNE), CONICET-Universidad de Buenos AiresBuenos Aires, Argentina
| | - Mariano M Boccia
- Laboratorio de Neurofarmacología de los Procesos de Memoria, Cátedra de Farmacología, Fac. Farmacia y Bioquímica, Universidad de Buenos Aires/CONICETBuenos Aires, Argentina
| | - Ramiro Freudenthal
- Laboratorio de Neurobiología de la Memoria, Departamento de Fisiología y Biología Molecular y Celular, Facultad de Ciencias Exactas y Naturales, Universidad de Buenos AiresBuenos Aires, Argentina.,Instituto de Fisiología, Biología Molecular y Neurociencias (IFIBYNE), CONICET-Universidad de Buenos AiresBuenos Aires, Argentina
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26
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The role of neuroimmune signaling in alcoholism. Neuropharmacology 2017; 122:56-73. [PMID: 28159648 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuropharm.2017.01.031] [Citation(s) in RCA: 211] [Impact Index Per Article: 30.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/14/2016] [Revised: 01/24/2017] [Accepted: 01/29/2017] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
Alcohol consumption and stress increase brain levels of known innate immune signaling molecules. Microglia, the innate immune cells of the brain, and neurons respond to alcohol, signaling through Toll-like receptors (TLRs), high-mobility group box 1 (HMGB1), miRNAs, pro-inflammatory cytokines and their associated receptors involved in signaling between microglia, other glia and neurons. Repeated cycles of alcohol and stress cause a progressive, persistent induction of HMGB1, miRNA and TLR receptors in brain that appear to underlie the progressive and persistent loss of behavioral control, increased impulsivity and anxiety, as well as craving, coupled with increasing ventral striatal responses that promote reward seeking behavior and increase risk of developing alcohol use disorders. Studies employing anti-oxidant, anti-inflammatory, anti-depressant, and innate immune antagonists further link innate immune gene expression to addiction-like behaviors. Innate immune molecules are novel targets for addiction and affective disorders therapies. This article is part of the Special Issue entitled "Alcoholism".
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27
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Harricharan R, Abboussi O, Daniels WM. Addiction: A dysregulation of satiety and inflammatory processes. PROGRESS IN BRAIN RESEARCH 2017; 235:65-91. [DOI: 10.1016/bs.pbr.2017.07.012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/07/2023]
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28
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Barger SW. Gene regulation and genetics in neurochemistry, past to future. J Neurochem 2016; 139 Suppl 2:24-57. [PMID: 27747882 DOI: 10.1111/jnc.13629] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/27/2015] [Revised: 03/01/2016] [Accepted: 03/30/2016] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
Ask any neuroscientist to name the most profound discoveries in the field in the past 60 years, and at or near the top of the list will be a phenomenon or technique related to genes and their expression. Indeed, our understanding of genetics and gene regulation has ushered in whole new systems of knowledge and new empirical approaches, many of which could not have even been imagined prior to the molecular biology boon of recent decades. Neurochemistry, in the classic sense, intersects with these concepts in the manifestation of neuropeptides, obviously dependent upon the central dogma (the established rules by which DNA sequence is eventually converted into protein primary structure) not only for their conformation but also for their levels and locales of expression. But, expanding these considerations to non-peptide neurotransmitters illustrates how gene regulatory events impact neurochemistry in a much broader sense, extending beyond the neurochemicals that translate electrical signals into chemical ones in the synapse, to also include every aspect of neural development, structure, function, and pathology. From the beginning, the mutability - yet relative stability - of genes and their expression patterns were recognized as potential substrates for some of the most intriguing phenomena in neurobiology - those instances of plasticity required for learning and memory. Near-heretical speculation was offered in the idea that perhaps the very sequence of the genome was altered to encode memories. A fascinating component of the intervening progress includes evidence that the central dogma is not nearly as rigid and consistent as we once thought. And this mutability extends to the potential to manipulate that code for both experimental and clinical purposes. Astonishing progress has been made in the molecular biology of neurochemistry during the 60 years since this journal debuted. Many of the gains in conceptual understanding have been driven by methodological progress, from automated high-throughput sequencing instruments to recombinant-DNA vectors that can convey color-coded genetic modifications in the chromosomes of live adult animals. This review covers the highlights of these advances, both theoretical and technological, along with a brief window into the promising science ahead. This article is part of the 60th Anniversary special issue.
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Affiliation(s)
- Steven W Barger
- Department of Geriatrics, Department of Neurobiology and Developmental Sciences, University of Arkansas for Medical Sciences, Little Rock, Arkansas, USA. .,Geriatric Research Education and Clinical Center, Central Arkansas Veterans Healthcare System, Little Rock, Arkansas, USA.
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29
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Arredondo C, González M, Andrés ME, Gysling K. Opposite effects of acute and chronic amphetamine on Nurr1 and NF-κB p65 in the rat ventral tegmental area. Brain Res 2016; 1652:14-20. [PMID: 27687740 DOI: 10.1016/j.brainres.2016.09.031] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/11/2016] [Revised: 09/20/2016] [Accepted: 09/21/2016] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
Dopamine neurons are overstimulated by drugs of abuse and suffer molecular alterations that lead to addiction behavior. Nurr1 is a transcription factor crucial for dopamine neurons survival and dopamine production, activating the transcription of key genes like tyrosine hydroxylase (TH). Interestingly, nuclear factor-kappa B (NF-κB) has emerged as a new Nurr1 partner in response to inflammatory stimulus. In this study we evaluated the effects of single and repeated amphetamine administration in the expression of Nurr1 and the NF-κB p65 subunit in the rat ventral tegmental area (VTA). We found that acute amphetamine treatment increased Nurr1, p65 and TH protein levels in the VTA. On the other hand, chronic amphetamine treatment decreased Nurr1 and p65 protein levels, but TH was unchanged. Mammalian reporter assays in cell lines showed that p65 represses Nurr1 transcriptional activity in an artificial promoter driven by Nurr1 response elements and in the native rat TH promoter. These results indicate that Nurr1 and NF-κB p65 factors are involved in the adaptive response of dopamine neurons to psychostimulants and that both transcription factors could be regulating Nurr1-dependent transactivation in the VTA.
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Affiliation(s)
- Cristian Arredondo
- Department of Cellular and Molecular Biology, Faculty of Biological Sciences, Pontificia Universidad Católica de Chile, 8331150 Santiago, Chile
| | - Marcela González
- Department of Cellular and Molecular Biology, Faculty of Biological Sciences, Pontificia Universidad Católica de Chile, 8331150 Santiago, Chile
| | - María Estela Andrés
- Department of Cellular and Molecular Biology, Faculty of Biological Sciences, Pontificia Universidad Católica de Chile, 8331150 Santiago, Chile.
| | - Katia Gysling
- Department of Cellular and Molecular Biology, Faculty of Biological Sciences, Pontificia Universidad Católica de Chile, 8331150 Santiago, Chile.
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30
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Abstract
UNLABELLED The hippocampus (HPC) is known to play an important role in learning, a process dependent on synaptic plasticity; however, the molecular mechanisms underlying this are poorly understood. ΔFosB is a transcription factor that is induced throughout the brain by chronic exposure to drugs, stress, and variety of other stimuli and regulates synaptic plasticity and behavior in other brain regions, including the nucleus accumbens. We show here that ΔFosB is also induced in HPC CA1 and DG subfields by spatial learning and novel environmental exposure. The goal of the current study was to examine the role of ΔFosB in hippocampal-dependent learning and memory and the structural plasticity of HPC synapses. Using viral-mediated gene transfer to silence ΔFosB transcriptional activity by expressing ΔJunD (a negative modulator of ΔFosB transcriptional function) or to overexpress ΔFosB, we demonstrate that HPC ΔFosB regulates learning and memory. Specifically, ΔJunD expression in HPC impaired learning and memory on a battery of hippocampal-dependent tasks in mice. Similarly, general ΔFosB overexpression also impaired learning. ΔJunD expression in HPC did not affect anxiety or natural reward, but ΔFosB overexpression induced anxiogenic behaviors, suggesting that ΔFosB may mediate attentional gating in addition to learning. Finally, we found that overexpression of ΔFosB increases immature dendritic spines on CA1 pyramidal cells, whereas ΔJunD reduced the number of immature and mature spine types, indicating that ΔFosB may exert its behavioral effects through modulation of HPC synaptic function. Together, these results suggest collectively that ΔFosB plays a significant role in HPC cellular morphology and HPC-dependent learning and memory. SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT Consolidation of our explicit memories occurs within the hippocampus, and it is in this brain region that the molecular and cellular processes of learning have been most closely studied. We know that connections between hippocampal neurons are formed, eliminated, enhanced, and weakened during learning, and we know that some stages of this process involve alterations in the transcription of specific genes. However, the specific transcription factors involved in this process are not fully understood. Here, we demonstrate that the transcription factor ΔFosB is induced in the hippocampus by learning, regulates the shape of hippocampal synapses, and is required for memory formation, opening up a host of new possibilities for hippocampal transcriptional regulation.
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31
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Parekh PK, McClung CA. Circadian Mechanisms Underlying Reward-Related Neurophysiology and Synaptic Plasticity. Front Psychiatry 2016; 6:187. [PMID: 26793129 PMCID: PMC4709415 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyt.2015.00187] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/30/2015] [Accepted: 12/21/2015] [Indexed: 12/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Evidence from clinical and preclinical research provides an undeniable link between disruptions in the circadian clock and the development of psychiatric diseases, including mood and substance abuse disorders. The molecular clock, which controls daily patterns of physiological and behavioral activity in living organisms, when desynchronized, may exacerbate or precipitate symptoms of psychiatric illness. One of the outstanding questions remaining in this field is that of cause and effect in the relationship between circadian rhythm disruption and psychiatric disease. Focus has recently turned to uncovering the role of circadian proteins beyond the maintenance of homeostatic systems and outside of the suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN), the master pacemaker region of the brain. In this regard, several groups, including our own, have sought to understand how circadian proteins regulate mechanisms of synaptic plasticity and neurotransmitter signaling in mesocorticolimbic brain regions, which are known to be critically involved in reward processing and mood. This regulation can come in the form of direct transcriptional control of genes central to mood and reward, including those associated with dopaminergic activity in the midbrain. It can also be seen at the circuit level through indirect connections of mesocorticolimbic regions with the SCN. Circadian misalignment paradigms as well as genetic models of circadian disruption have helped to elucidate some of the complex interactions between these systems and neural activity influencing behavior. In this review, we explore findings that link circadian protein function with synaptic adaptations underlying plasticity as it may contribute to the development of mood disorders and addiction. In light of recent advances in technology and sophisticated methods for molecular and circuit-level interrogation, we propose future directions aimed at teasing apart mechanisms through which the circadian system modulates mood and reward-related behavior.
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Affiliation(s)
- Puja K. Parekh
- Department of Psychiatry, University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine, Pittsburgh, PA, USA
| | - Colleen A. McClung
- Department of Psychiatry, University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine, Pittsburgh, PA, USA
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32
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Radwan B, Liu H, Chaudhury D. Regulation and Modulation of Depression-Related Behaviours: Role of Dopaminergic Neurons. DOPAMINE AND SLEEP 2016:147-190. [DOI: 10.1007/978-3-319-46437-4_8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 07/19/2023]
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33
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Tyagi M, Weber J, Bukrinsky M, Simon GL. The effects of cocaine on HIV transcription. J Neurovirol 2015; 22:261-74. [PMID: 26572787 DOI: 10.1007/s13365-015-0398-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/18/2015] [Revised: 10/01/2015] [Accepted: 10/21/2015] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
Illicit drug users are a high-risk population for infection with the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV). A strong correlation exists between prohibited drug use and an increased rate of HIV transmission. Cocaine stands out as one of the most frequently abused illicit drugs, and its use is correlated with HIV infection and disease progression. The central nervous system (CNS) is a common target for both drugs of abuse and HIV, and cocaine intake further accelerates neuronal injury in HIV patients. Although the high incidence of HIV infection in illicit drug abusers is primarily due to high-risk activities such as needle sharing and unprotected sex, several studies have demonstrated that cocaine enhances the rate of HIV gene expression and replication by activating various signal transduction pathways and downstream transcription factors. In order to generate mature HIV genomic transcript, HIV gene expression has to pass through both the initiation and elongation phases of transcription, which requires discrete transcription factors. In this review, we will provide a detailed analysis of the molecular mechanisms that regulate HIV transcription and discuss how cocaine modulates those mechanisms to upregulate HIV transcription and eventually HIV replication.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mudit Tyagi
- Division of Infectious Diseases, Department of Medicine, The George Washington University, 2300 Eye Street, N.W., Washington, DC, 20037, USA. .,Department of Microbiology, Immunology and Tropical Medicine, The George Washington University, Washington, DC, 20037, USA.
| | - Jaime Weber
- Division of Infectious Diseases, Department of Medicine, The George Washington University, 2300 Eye Street, N.W., Washington, DC, 20037, USA
| | - Michael Bukrinsky
- Department of Microbiology, Immunology and Tropical Medicine, The George Washington University, Washington, DC, 20037, USA
| | - Gary L Simon
- Division of Infectious Diseases, Department of Medicine, The George Washington University, 2300 Eye Street, N.W., Washington, DC, 20037, USA
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34
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Brown AN, Vied C, Dennis JH, Bhide PG. Nucleosome Repositioning: A Novel Mechanism for Nicotine- and Cocaine-Induced Epigenetic Changes. PLoS One 2015; 10:e0139103. [PMID: 26414157 PMCID: PMC4586372 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0139103] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/25/2014] [Accepted: 09/09/2015] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Drugs of abuse modify behavior by altering gene expression in the brain. Gene expression can be regulated by changes in DNA methylation as well as by histone modifications, which alter chromatin structure, DNA compaction and DNA accessibility. In order to better understand the molecular mechanisms directing drug-induced changes in chromatin structure, we examined DNA-nucleosome interactions within promoter regions of 858 genes in human neuroblastoma cells (SH-SY5Y) exposed to nicotine or cocaine. Widespread, drug- and time-resolved repositioning of nucleosomes was identified at the transcription start site and promoter region of multiple genes. Nicotine and cocaine produced unique and shared changes in terms of the numbers and types of genes affected, as well as repositioning of nucleosomes at sites which could increase or decrease the probability of gene expression based on DNA accessibility. Half of the drug-induced nucleosome positions approximated a theoretical model of nucleosome occupancy based on physical and chemical characteristics of the DNA sequence, whereas the basal or drug naïve positions were generally DNA sequence independent. Thus we suggest that nucleosome repositioning represents an initial dynamic genome-wide alteration of the transcriptional landscape preceding more selective downstream transcriptional reprogramming, which ultimately characterizes the cell- and tissue-specific responses to drugs of abuse.
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Affiliation(s)
- Amber N. Brown
- Center for Brain Repair, Department of Biomedical Sciences, Florida State University College of Medicine, Tallahassee, FL, United States of America
| | - Cynthia Vied
- Center for Brain Repair, Department of Biomedical Sciences, Florida State University College of Medicine, Tallahassee, FL, United States of America
| | - Jonathan H. Dennis
- Department of Biological Sciences, Florida State University, Tallahassee, Florida, United States of America
| | - Pradeep G. Bhide
- Center for Brain Repair, Department of Biomedical Sciences, Florida State University College of Medicine, Tallahassee, FL, United States of America
- * E-mail:
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Role of the Brain's Reward Circuitry in Depression: Transcriptional Mechanisms. INTERNATIONAL REVIEW OF NEUROBIOLOGY 2015; 124:151-70. [PMID: 26472529 DOI: 10.1016/bs.irn.2015.07.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 74] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/06/2022]
Abstract
Increasing evidence supports an important role for the brain's reward circuitry in controlling mood under normal conditions and contributing importantly to the pathophysiology and symptomatology of a range of mood disorders, such as depression. Here we focus on the nucleus accumbens (NAc), a critical component of the brain's reward circuitry, in depression and other stress-related disorders. The prominence of anhedonia, reduced motivation, and decreased energy level in most individuals with depression supports the involvement of the NAc in these conditions. We concentrate on several transcription factors (CREB, ΔFosB, SRF, NFκB, and β-catenin), which are altered in the NAc in rodent depression models--and in some cases in the NAc of depressed humans, and which produce robust depression- or antidepressant-like effects when manipulated in the NAc in animal models. These studies of the NAc have established novel approaches toward modeling key symptoms of depression in animals and could enable the development of antidepressant medications with fundamentally new mechanisms of action.
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López-Pedrajas R, Ramírez-Lamelas DT, Muriach B, Sánchez-Villarejo MV, Almansa I, Vidal-Gil L, Romero FJ, Barcia JM, Muriach M. Cocaine promotes oxidative stress and microglial-macrophage activation in rat cerebellum. Front Cell Neurosci 2015; 9:279. [PMID: 26283916 PMCID: PMC4516895 DOI: 10.3389/fncel.2015.00279] [Citation(s) in RCA: 42] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/15/2015] [Accepted: 07/09/2015] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Different mechanisms have been suggested for cocaine neurotoxicity, including oxidative stress alterations. Nuclear factor kappa B (NF-κB), considered a sensor of oxidative stress and inflammation, is involved in drug toxicity and addiction. NF-κB is a key mediator for immune responses that induces microglial/macrophage activation under inflammatory processes and neuronal injury/degeneration. Although cerebellum is commonly associated to motor control, muscular tone, and balance. Its relation with addiction is getting relevance, being associated to compulsive and perseverative behaviors. Some reports indicate that cerebellar microglial activation induced by cannabis or ethanol, promote cerebellar alterations and these alterations could be associated to addictive-related behaviors. After considering the effects of some drugs on cerebellum, the aim of the present work analyzes pro-inflammatory changes after cocaine exposure. Rats received daily 15 mg/kg cocaine i.p., for 18 days. Reduced and oxidized forms of glutathione (GSH) and oxidized glutathione (GSSG), glutathione peroxidase (GPx) activity and glutamate were determined in cerebellar homogenates. NF-κB activity, CD68, and GFAP expression were determined. Cerebellar GPx activity and GSH/GSSG ratio are significantly decreased after cocaine exposure. A significant increase of glutamate concentration is also observed. Interestingly, increased NF-κB activity is also accompanied by an increased expression of the lysosomal mononuclear phagocytic marker ED1 without GFAP alterations. Current trends in addiction biology are focusing on the role of cerebellum on addictive behaviors. Cocaine-induced cerebellar changes described herein fit with previosus data showing cerebellar alterations on addict subjects and support the proposed role of cerebelum in addiction.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rosa López-Pedrajas
- Instituto de Ciencias Biomédicas, Departamento de Ciencias Biomédicas, Universidad CEU Cardenal Herrera Moncada, Valencia, Spain
| | - Dolores T Ramírez-Lamelas
- Instituto de Ciencias Biomédicas, Departamento de Ciencias Biomédicas, Universidad CEU Cardenal Herrera Moncada, Valencia, Spain
| | - Borja Muriach
- Instituto de Ciencias Biomédicas, Departamento de Ciencias Biomédicas, Universidad CEU Cardenal Herrera Moncada, Valencia, Spain
| | - María V Sánchez-Villarejo
- Instituto de Ciencias Biomédicas, Departamento de Ciencias Biomédicas, Universidad CEU Cardenal Herrera Moncada, Valencia, Spain
| | - Inmaculada Almansa
- Instituto de Ciencias Biomédicas, Departamento de Ciencias Biomédicas, Universidad CEU Cardenal Herrera Moncada, Valencia, Spain
| | - Lorena Vidal-Gil
- Structure and Function of the Human Body, Facultad de Medicina y Odontología, Universidad Católica de Valencia 'San Vicente Mártir,' Valencia Spain
| | - Francisco J Romero
- Structure and Function of the Human Body, Facultad de Medicina y Odontología, Universidad Católica de Valencia 'San Vicente Mártir,' Valencia Spain
| | - Jorge M Barcia
- Structure and Function of the Human Body, Facultad de Medicina y Odontología, Universidad Católica de Valencia 'San Vicente Mártir,' Valencia Spain
| | - María Muriach
- UP Medicina, Facultad de Ciencias de la Salud, Universitat Jaume I, Castellón Spain
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Pereira RB, Andrade PB, Valentão P. A Comprehensive View of the Neurotoxicity Mechanisms of Cocaine and Ethanol. Neurotox Res 2015; 28:253-67. [PMID: 26105693 DOI: 10.1007/s12640-015-9536-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 52] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/24/2015] [Revised: 06/09/2015] [Accepted: 06/16/2015] [Indexed: 01/17/2023]
Abstract
Substance use disorder is an emerging problem concerning to human health, causing severe side effects, including neurotoxicity. The use of illegal drugs and the misuse of prescription or over-the-counter drugs are growing in this century, being one of the major public health problems. Ethanol and cocaine are one of the most frequently used drugs and, according to the National Institute on Drug Abuse, their concurrent consumption is one of the major causes for emergency hospital room visits. These molecules act in the brain through different mechanisms, altering the nervous system function. Researchers have focused the attention not just in the mechanism of action of these drugs, but also in the mechanism by which they damage the nervous tissue (neurotoxicity). Therefore, the goal of the present review is to provide a global perspective about the mechanisms of the neurotoxicity of cocaine and ethanol.
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Affiliation(s)
- Renato B Pereira
- REQUIMTE/LAQV, Laboratório de Farmacognosia, Departamento de Química, Faculdade de Farmácia, Universidade do Porto, Rua de Jorge Viterbo Ferreira, nº 228, 4050-313, Porto, Portugal
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38
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Sahu G, Farley K, El-Hage N, Aiamkitsumrit B, Fassnacht R, Kashanchi F, Ochem A, Simon GL, Karn J, Hauser KF, Tyagi M. Cocaine promotes both initiation and elongation phase of HIV-1 transcription by activating NF-κB and MSK1 and inducing selective epigenetic modifications at HIV-1 LTR. Virology 2015; 483:185-202. [PMID: 25980739 DOI: 10.1016/j.virol.2015.03.036] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/24/2014] [Revised: 03/17/2015] [Accepted: 03/18/2015] [Indexed: 10/23/2022]
Abstract
Cocaine accelerates human immunodeficiency virus (HIV-1) replication by altering specific cell-signaling and epigenetic pathways. We have elucidated the underlying molecular mechanisms through which cocaine exerts its effect in myeloid cells, a major target of HIV-1 in central nervous system (CNS). We demonstrate that cocaine treatment promotes HIV-1 gene expression by activating both nuclear factor-kappa B (NF-ĸB) and mitogen- and stress-activated kinase 1 (MSK1). MSK1 subsequently catalyzes the phosphorylation of histone H3 at serine 10, and p65 subunit of NF-ĸB at 276th serine residue. These modifications enhance the interaction of NF-ĸB with P300 and promote the recruitment of the positive transcription elongation factor b (P-TEFb) to the HIV-1 LTR, supporting the development of an open/relaxed chromatin configuration, and facilitating the initiation and elongation phases of HIV-1 transcription. Results are also confirmed in primary monocyte derived macrophages (MDM). Overall, our study provides detailed insights into cocaine-driven HIV-1 transcription and replication.
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Affiliation(s)
- Geetaram Sahu
- Division of Infectious Diseases, Department of Medicine, George Washington University, Washington, DC, United States
| | - Kalamo Farley
- Division of Infectious Diseases, Department of Medicine, George Washington University, Washington, DC, United States
| | - Nazira El-Hage
- Virginia Commonwealth University, Richmond, VA, United States
| | - Benjamas Aiamkitsumrit
- Division of Infectious Diseases, Department of Medicine, George Washington University, Washington, DC, United States
| | - Ryan Fassnacht
- Division of Infectious Diseases, Department of Medicine, George Washington University, Washington, DC, United States
| | | | - Alex Ochem
- ICGEB, Wernher and Beit Building, Anzio Road, Observatory, 7925 Cape Town, South Africa
| | - Gary L Simon
- Division of Infectious Diseases, Department of Medicine, George Washington University, Washington, DC, United States
| | - Jonathan Karn
- Case Western Reserve University, Cleveland, OH, United States
| | - Kurt F Hauser
- Virginia Commonwealth University, Richmond, VA, United States
| | - Mudit Tyagi
- Division of Infectious Diseases, Department of Medicine, George Washington University, Washington, DC, United States; Department of Microbiology, Immunology and Tropical Medicine, George Washington University, Washington, DC 20037, United States.
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Ruffle JK. Molecular neurobiology of addiction: what's all the (Δ)FosB about? THE AMERICAN JOURNAL OF DRUG AND ALCOHOL ABUSE 2014; 40:428-37. [PMID: 25083822 DOI: 10.3109/00952990.2014.933840] [Citation(s) in RCA: 53] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/13/2023]
Abstract
The transcription factor ΔFosB is upregulated in numerous brain regions following repeated drug exposure. This induction is likely to, at least in part, be responsible for the mechanisms underlying addiction, a disorder in which the regulation of gene expression is thought to be essential. In this review, we describe and discuss the proposed role of ΔFosB as well as the implications of recent findings. The expression of ΔFosB displays variability dependent on the administered substance, showing region-specificity for different drug stimuli. This transcription factor is understood to act via interaction with Jun family proteins and the formation of activator protein-1 (AP-1) complexes. Once AP-1 complexes are formed, a multitude of molecular pathways are initiated, causing genetic, molecular and structural alterations. Many of these molecular changes identified are now directly linked to the physiological and behavioral changes observed following chronic drug exposure. In addition, ΔFosB induction is being considered as a biomarker for the evaluation of potential therapeutic interventions for addiction.
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Affiliation(s)
- James K Ruffle
- Centre for Neuroscience and Trauma, Blizard Institute, Barts and The London School of Medicine and Dentistry, Queen Mary University of London , London , UK
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40
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ΔFosB induction in prefrontal cortex by antipsychotic drugs is associated with negative behavioral outcomes. Neuropsychopharmacology 2014; 39:538-44. [PMID: 24067299 PMCID: PMC3895248 DOI: 10.1038/npp.2013.255] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/13/2013] [Revised: 08/31/2013] [Accepted: 09/18/2013] [Indexed: 01/12/2023]
Abstract
ΔFosB, a FosB gene product, is induced in the prefrontal cortex (PFC) by repeated exposure to several stimuli including antipsychotic drugs such as haloperidol. However, the functional consequences of increased ΔFosB expression following antipsychotic treatment have not been explored. Here, we assessed whether ΔFosB induction by haloperidol mediates the positive or negative consequences or clinical-related actions of antipsychotic treatment. We show that individuals with schizophrenia who were medicated with antipsychotic drugs at their time of death display increased ΔFosB levels in the PFC, an effect that is replicated in rats treated chronically with haloperidol. In contrast, individuals with schizophrenia who were medication-free did not exhibit this effect. Viral-mediated overexpression of ΔFosB in the PFC of rodents induced cognitive deficits as measured by inhibitory avoidance, increased startle responses in prepulse inhibition tasks, and increased MK-801-induced anxiety-like behaviors. Together, these results suggest that ΔFosB induction in the PFC by antipsychotic treatment contributes to the deleterious effects of these drugs and not to their therapeutic actions.
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Bough KJ, Amur S, Lao G, Hemby SE, Tannu NS, Kampman KM, Schmitz JM, Martinez D, Merchant KM, Green C, Sharma J, Dougherty AH, Moeller FG. Biomarkers for the development of new medications for cocaine dependence. Neuropsychopharmacology 2014; 39:202-19. [PMID: 23979119 PMCID: PMC3857653 DOI: 10.1038/npp.2013.210] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/05/2013] [Revised: 06/19/2013] [Accepted: 07/01/2013] [Indexed: 01/20/2023]
Abstract
There has been significant progress in personalized drug development. In large part, this has taken place in the oncology field and been due to the ability of researchers/clinicians to discover and develop novel drug development tools (DDTs), such as biomarkers. In cancer treatment research, biomarkers have permitted a more accurate pathophysiological characterization of an individual patient, and have enabled practitioners to target mechanistically the right drug, to the right patient, at the right time. Similar to cancer, patients with substance use disorders (SUDs) present clinically with heterogeneous symptomatology and respond variably to therapeutic interventions. If comparable biomarkers could be identified and developed for SUDs, significant diagnostic and therapeutic advances could be made. In this review, we highlight current opportunities and difficulties pertaining to the identification and development of biomarkers for SUDs. We focus on cocaine dependence as an example. Putative diagnostic, pharmacodynamic (PD), and predictive biomarkers for cocaine dependence are discussed across a range of methodological approaches. A possible cocaine-dependent clinical outcome assessment (COA)--another type of defined DDT--is also discussed. At present, biomarkers for cocaine dependence are in their infancy. Much additional research will be needed to identify, validate, and qualify these putative tools prior to their potential use for medications development and/or application to clinical practice. However, with a large unmet medical need and an estimated market size of several hundred million dollars per year, if developed, biomarkers for cocaine dependence will hold tremendous value to both industry and public health.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kristopher J Bough
- Division of Basic Neuroscience and Behavioral Research, National Institute on Drug Abuse, Bethesda, MD, USA
| | - Shashi Amur
- Center for Drug Evaluation and Research, US Food and Drug Administration, Silver Spring, MD, USA
| | - Guifang Lao
- Division of Pharmacotherapies and Medical Consequences, National Institute on Drug Abuse, Bethesda, MD, USA
| | - Scott E Hemby
- Department of Physiology & Pharmacology, Wake Forest University, Winston-Salem, NC, USA
| | - Nilesh S Tannu
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, University of Texas—Houston Medical School, Houston, TX, USA
| | - Kyle M Kampman
- Department of Psychiatry, University of Pennsylvania—School of Medicine, Philadelphia, PA, USA
| | - Joy M Schmitz
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, University of Texas—Houston Medical School, Houston, TX, USA
| | - Diana Martinez
- Department of Psychiatry, Columbia University/New York State University, New York, NY, USA
| | | | - Charles Green
- Department of Pediatrics, University of Texas—Houston Medical School, Houston, TX, USA
| | - Jyoti Sharma
- Department of Cardiovascular Medicine, University of Texas—Houston Medical School, Houston, TX, USA
| | - Anne H Dougherty
- Department of Cardiovascular Medicine, University of Texas—Houston Medical School, Houston, TX, USA
| | - F Gerard Moeller
- Department of Psychiatry and Pharmacology and Toxicology, Virginia Commonwealth University Medical School, Richmond, VA, USA
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Zhou Z, Enoch MA, Goldman D. Gene expression in the addicted brain. INTERNATIONAL REVIEW OF NEUROBIOLOGY 2014; 116:251-73. [PMID: 25172478 DOI: 10.1016/b978-0-12-801105-8.00010-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Abstract
Addiction is due to changes in the structure and function of the brain, including neuronal networks and the cells that comprise them. Within cells, gene expression changes can track and help explain their altered function. Transcriptional changes induced by addictive agents are dynamic and divergent and range from signal pathway-specific perturbations to widespread molecular and cellular dysregulation that can be measured by "omic" methods and that can be used to identify new pathways. The molecular effects of addiction depend on timing of exposure or withdrawal, the stage of adaptation, the brain region, and the behavioral model, there being many models of addiction. However, the molecular neural adaptations across different drug exposures, conditions, and regions are to some extent shared and can reflect common actions on pathways relevant to addiction. Epigenetic studies of DNA methylation and histone modifications and studies of regulatory RNA networks have been informative for elucidating the mechanisms of transcriptional change in the addicted brain.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zhifeng Zhou
- Laboratory of Neurogenetics, National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, Maryland, USA.
| | - Mary-Anne Enoch
- Laboratory of Neurogenetics, National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, Maryland, USA
| | - David Goldman
- Laboratory of Neurogenetics, National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, Maryland, USA
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Volkow ND, Baler RD. Addiction science: Uncovering neurobiological complexity. Neuropharmacology 2014; 76 Pt B:235-49. [PMID: 23688927 PMCID: PMC3818510 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuropharm.2013.05.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 123] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/01/2013] [Revised: 05/01/2013] [Accepted: 05/06/2013] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Until very recently addiction-research was limited by existing tools and strategies that were inadequate for studying the inherent complexity at each of the different phenomenological levels. However, powerful new tools (e.g., optogenetics and designer drug receptors) and high throughput protocols are starting to give researchers the potential to systematically interrogate "all" genes, epigenetic marks, and neuronal circuits. These advances, combined with imaging technologies (both for preclinical and clinical studies) and a paradigm shift toward open access have spurred an unlimited growth of datasets transforming the way we investigate the neurobiology of substance use disorders (SUD) and the factors that modulate risk and resilience. This article is part of a Special Issue entitled 'NIDA 40th Anniversary Issue'.
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Affiliation(s)
- N D Volkow
- National Institute on Drug Abuse, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD 20892, USA.
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Planeta CS, Lepsch LB, Alves R, Scavone C. Influence of the dopaminergic system, CREB, and transcription factor-κB on cocaine neurotoxicity. Braz J Med Biol Res 2013; 46:909-915. [PMID: 24141554 PMCID: PMC3854330 DOI: 10.1590/1414-431x20133379] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/21/2013] [Accepted: 08/19/2013] [Indexed: 01/04/2023] Open
Abstract
Cocaine is a widely used drug and its abuse is associated with physical, psychiatric
and social problems. Abnormalities in newborns have been demonstrated to be due to
the toxic effects of cocaine during fetal development. The mechanism by which cocaine
causes neurological damage is complex and involves interactions of the drug with
several neurotransmitter systems, such as the increase of extracellular levels of
dopamine and free radicals, and modulation of transcription factors. The aim of this
review was to evaluate the importance of the dopaminergic system and the
participation of inflammatory signaling in cocaine neurotoxicity. Our study showed
that cocaine activates the transcription factors NF-κB and CREB, which regulate genes
involved in cellular death. GBR 12909 (an inhibitor of dopamine reuptake), lidocaine
(a local anesthetic), and dopamine did not activate NF-κB in the same way as cocaine.
However, the attenuation of NF-κB activity after the pretreatment of the cells with
SCH 23390, a D1 receptor antagonist, suggests that the activation of NF-κB by cocaine
is, at least partially, due to activation of D1 receptors. NF-κB seems to have a
protective role in these cells because its inhibition increased cellular death caused
by cocaine. The increase in BDNF (brain-derived neurotrophic factor) mRNA can also be
related to the protective role of both CREB and NF-κB transcription factors. An
understanding of the mechanisms by which cocaine induces cell death in the brain will
contribute to the development of new therapies for drug abusers, which can help to
slow down the progress of degenerative processes.
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Affiliation(s)
- C S Planeta
- Universidade Estadual Paulista, Laboratório de Neuropsicofarmacologia, Faculdade de Ciências Farmacêuticas, AraraquaraSP, Brasil
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Role of the major glutamate transporter GLT1 in nucleus accumbens core versus shell in cue-induced cocaine-seeking behavior. J Neurosci 2013; 33:9319-27. [PMID: 23719800 DOI: 10.1523/jneurosci.3278-12.2013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 73] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Relapse to cocaine-seeking behavior requires an increase in nucleus accumbens (NAc) core glutamate transmission. Decreased expression of glutamate type I transporter (GLT1), which is responsible for >90% of glutamate clearance, occurs in the core of rats withdrawn from cocaine self-administration, while treatment with ceftriaxone, a β-lactam antibiotic previously shown to increase GLT1 expression and function in rodents, upregulates GLT1 and attenuates cue-induced cocaine reinstatement. Here, we tested the effects of increasing GLT1 expression on cue-induced cocaine seeking in rats exposed to either limited (2 h/d) or extended (6 h/d) cocaine access followed by short (2 d) or long (45 d) withdrawal periods. Treatment with ceftriaxone (200 mg/kg, i.p.) upregulated core GLT1 expression and attenuated cue-induced cocaine-seeking behavior only in rats exposed to long withdrawal periods, with a greater effect in the extended-access condition. Pearson's correlation revealed GLT1 expression in core to be inversely correlated with cue-induced cocaine-seeking behavior. To localize the effects of GLT1 upregulation within NAc, we tested the hypothesis that blockade of GLT1 in NAc core, but not shell, would reverse the ceftriaxone-mediated effect. Rats withdrawn from cocaine self-administration were treated with the same dose of ceftriaxone followed by intracore or intrashell infusions of one of two GLT1 blockers, dihydrokainic acid (500 μM) or DL-threo-β-benzyloxyaspartate (250 μM), or saline. Our results reveal that the ceftriaxone-mediated attenuation of cue-induced cocaine reinstatement is reversed by GLT1 blockade in core, but not shell, and further implicate core GLT1 as a potential therapeutic target for cocaine relapse.
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46
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Leão RM, Cruz FC, Carneiro-de-Oliveira PE, Rossetto DB, Valentini SR, Zanelli CF, Planeta CS. Enhanced nicotine-seeking behavior following pre-exposure to repeated cocaine is accompanied by changes in BDNF in the nucleus accumbens of rats. Pharmacol Biochem Behav 2013; 104:169-76. [DOI: 10.1016/j.pbb.2013.01.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/13/2012] [Revised: 12/26/2012] [Accepted: 01/10/2013] [Indexed: 01/10/2023]
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Jonkman S, Kenny PJ. Molecular, cellular, and structural mechanisms of cocaine addiction: a key role for microRNAs. Neuropsychopharmacology 2013; 38:198-211. [PMID: 22968819 PMCID: PMC3521966 DOI: 10.1038/npp.2012.120] [Citation(s) in RCA: 46] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/19/2023]
Abstract
The rewarding properties of cocaine play a key role in establishing and maintaining the drug-taking habit. However, as exposure to cocaine increases, drug use can transition from controlled to compulsive. Importantly, very little is known about the neurobiological mechanisms that control this switch in drug use that defines addiction. MicroRNAs (miRNAs) are small non-protein coding RNA transcripts that can regulate the expression of messenger RNAs that code for proteins. Because of their highly pleiotropic nature, each miRNA has the potential to regulate hundreds or even thousands of protein-coding RNA transcripts. This property of miRNAs has generated considerable interest in their potential involvement in complex psychiatric disorders such as addiction, as each miRNA could potentially influence the many different molecular and cellular adaptations that arise in response to drug use that are hypothesized to drive the emergence of addiction. Here, we review recent evidence supporting a key role for miRNAs in the ventral striatum in regulating the rewarding and reinforcing properties of cocaine in animals with limited exposure to the drug. Moreover, we discuss evidence suggesting that miRNAs in the dorsal striatum control the escalation of drug intake in rats with extended cocaine access. These findings highlight the central role for miRNAs in drug-induced neuroplasticity in brain reward systems that drive the emergence of compulsive-like drug use in animals, and suggest that a better understanding of how miRNAs control drug intake will provide new insights into the neurobiology of drug addiction.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sietse Jonkman
- Laboratory of Behavioral and Molecular Neuroscience, Departments of Molecular Therapeutics and Neuroscience, The Scripps Research Institute–Florida, Jupiter, FL, USA
| | - Paul J Kenny
- Laboratory of Behavioral and Molecular Neuroscience, Departments of Molecular Therapeutics and Neuroscience, The Scripps Research Institute–Florida, Jupiter, FL, USA,Laboratory of Behavioral and Molecular Neuroscience, Department of Molecular Therapeutics, The Scripps Research Institute—Florida, 130 Scripps Way, Jupiter, FL 33458, USA, Tel: +1 561 228 2231, Fax: +1 561 799 8961, E-mail:
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49
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Nestler EJ. Transcriptional mechanisms of drug addiction. CLINICAL PSYCHOPHARMACOLOGY AND NEUROSCIENCE 2012; 10:136-43. [PMID: 23430970 PMCID: PMC3569166 DOI: 10.9758/cpn.2012.10.3.136] [Citation(s) in RCA: 99] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/15/2012] [Accepted: 07/18/2012] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
Abstract
Regulation of gene expression is considered a plausible mechanism of drug addiction given the stability of behavioral abnormalities that define an addicted state. Numerous transcription factors, proteins that bind to regulatory regions of specific genes and thereby control levels of their expression, have been implicated in the addiction process over the past decade or two. Here we review the growing evidence for the role played by several prominent transcription factors, including a Fos family protein (ΔFosB), cAMP response element binding protein (CREB), and nuclear factor kappa B (NFκB), among several others, in drug addiction. As will be seen, each factor displays very different regulation by drugs of abuse within the brain's reward circuitry, and in turn mediates distinct aspects of the addiction phenotype. Current efforts are geared toward understanding the range of target genes through which these transcription factors produce their functional effects and the underlying molecular mechanisms involved. This work promises to reveal fundamentally new insight into the molecular basis of addiction, which will contribute to improved diagnostic tests and therapeutics for addictive disorders.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eric J Nestler
- Fishberg Department of Neuroscience and Friedman Brain Institute, Mount Sinai School of Medicine, New York, USA
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50
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Pharmacotherapeutics directed at deficiencies associated with cocaine dependence: focus on dopamine, norepinephrine and glutamate. Pharmacol Ther 2012; 134:260-77. [PMID: 22327234 DOI: 10.1016/j.pharmthera.2012.01.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/17/2012] [Accepted: 01/19/2012] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
Much effort has been devoted to research focused on pharmacotherapies for cocaine dependence yet there are no FDA-approved medications for this brain disease. Preclinical models have been essential to defining the central and peripheral effects produced by cocaine. Recent evidence suggests that cocaine exerts its reinforcing effects by acting on multiple neurotransmitter systems within mesocorticolimibic circuitry. Imaging studies in cocaine-dependent individuals have identified deficiencies in dopaminergic signaling primarily localized to corticolimbic areas. In addition to dysregulated striatal dopamine, norepinephrine and glutamate are also altered in cocaine dependence. In this review, we present these brain abnormalities as therapeutic targets for the treatment of cocaine dependence. We then survey promising medications that exert their therapeutic effects by presumably ameliorating these brain deficiencies. Correcting neurochemical deficits in cocaine-dependent individuals improves memory and impulse control, and reduces drug craving that may decrease cocaine use. We hypothesize that using medications aimed at reversing known neurochemical imbalances is likely to be more productive than current approaches. This view is also consistent with treatment paradigms used in neuropsychiatry and general medicine.
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