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Gachomba MJM, Esteve-Agraz J, Márquez C. Prosocial behaviors in rodents. Neurosci Biobehav Rev 2024; 163:105776. [PMID: 38909642 DOI: 10.1016/j.neubiorev.2024.105776] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/04/2024] [Revised: 05/21/2024] [Accepted: 06/17/2024] [Indexed: 06/25/2024]
Abstract
Prosocial behaviors (i.e., actions that benefit others) are central for social interactions in humans and other animals, by fostering social bonding and cohesion. To study prosociality in rodents, scientists have developed behavioral paradigms where animals can display actions that benefit conspecifics in distress or need. These paradigms have provided insights into the role of social interactions and transfer of emotional states in the expression of prosociality, and increased knowledge of its neural bases. However, prosociality levels are variable: not all tested animals are prosocial. Such variation has been linked to differences in animals' ability to process another's state as well as to contextual factors. Moreover, evidence suggests that prosocial behaviors involve the orchestrated activity of multiple brain regions and neuromodulators. This review aims to synthesize findings across paradigms both at the level of behavior and neural mechanisms. Growing evidence confirms that these processes can be studied in rodents, and intense research in the past years is rapidly advancing our knowledge. We discuss a strong bias in the field towards the study of these processes in negative valence contexts (e.g., pain, fear, stress), which should be taken as an opportunity to open new venues for future research.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michael J M Gachomba
- School of Psychology, University of Birmingham, Edgbaston, Birmingham, United Kingdom
| | - Joan Esteve-Agraz
- CNC-UC - Center for Neuroscience and Cell Biology, University of Coimbra, Coimbra, Portugal; CIBB - Center for Innovative Biomedicine and Biotechnology, University of Coimbra, Coimbra, Portugal; Instituto de Neurociencias de Alicante, Universidad Miguel Hernández de Elche, Alicante, Spain
| | - Cristina Márquez
- CNC-UC - Center for Neuroscience and Cell Biology, University of Coimbra, Coimbra, Portugal; CIBB - Center for Innovative Biomedicine and Biotechnology, University of Coimbra, Coimbra, Portugal.
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2
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Brooker JS, Webb CE, de Waal FBM, Clay Z. The expression of empathy in human's closest relatives, bonobos and chimpanzees: current and future directions. Biol Rev Camb Philos Soc 2024; 99:1556-1575. [PMID: 38597291 DOI: 10.1111/brv.13080] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/31/2023] [Revised: 03/22/2024] [Accepted: 03/26/2024] [Indexed: 04/11/2024]
Abstract
Empathy is a complex, multi-dimensional capacity that facilitates the sharing and understanding of others' emotions. As our closest living relatives, bonobos (Pan paniscus) and chimpanzees (P. troglodytes) provide an opportunity to explore the origins of hominin social cognition, including empathy. Despite certain assumptions that bonobos and chimpanzees may differ empathically, these species appear to overlap considerably in certain socio-emotional responses related to empathy. However, few studies have systematically tested for species variation in Pan empathic or socio-emotional tendencies. To address this, we synthesise the growing literature on Pan empathy to inform our understanding of the selection pressures that may underlie the evolution of hominin empathy, and its expression in our last common ancestor. As bonobos and chimpanzees show overlaps in their expression of complex socio-emotional phenomena such as empathy, we propose that group comparisons may be as or more meaningful than species comparisons when it comes to understanding the evolutionary pressures for such behaviour. Furthermore, key differences, such as how humans and Pan communicate, appear to distinguish how we experience empathy compared to our closest living relatives.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jake S Brooker
- Department of Psychology, Durham University, South Road, Durham, DH1 3LE, UK
| | - Christine E Webb
- Department of Human Evolutionary Biology, Harvard University, 11 Divinity Avenue, Cambridge, MA, 02138, USA
| | - Frans B M de Waal
- Department of Psychology, Emory University, 36 Eagle Row, Atlanta, GA, 30322, USA
| | - Zanna Clay
- Department of Psychology, Durham University, South Road, Durham, DH1 3LE, UK
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3
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Vonk J. Prosocial or photo preferences? Gorillas' prosocial choices using a touchscreen. Am J Primatol 2024; 86:e23612. [PMID: 38425016 DOI: 10.1002/ajp.23612] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/20/2023] [Revised: 02/11/2024] [Accepted: 02/17/2024] [Indexed: 03/02/2024]
Abstract
Three male Western lowland gorillas (Gorilla gorilla gorilla) were given the opportunity to select their own or conspecific photos on a touchscreen to indicate whether they wished the experimenter to deliver a food reward only to them or to them and the selected conspecific(s). This is only the second symbolic test of prosocial preferences with apes using a touchscreen, and the first with gorillas. The use of self and other photographs as symbols of prosocial choices was intuitive while controlling for the distraction of visible food rewards, and allowing for tests of transfer to further validate apparent prosocial intentions. Gorillas rapidly learned to avoid selecting a photograph of an empty enclosure that resulted in no rewards for any of the gorillas and transferred this learning to a novel photograph. The gorillas did not behave in a consistently self-interested or prosocial manner but they clearly rejected the opportunity to choose spitefully. Their preferences for certain photographs did not necessarily reflect a preference to be prosocial toward that particular individual because these preferences did not transfer to novel photographs of the same individuals. The results call into question whether gorillas recognize themselves and conspecifics in photographs but cannot conclusively speak to whether gorillas have prosocial preferences. They do stress the importance of carefully probing alternative explanations when inferring intentions from observable behaviors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jennifer Vonk
- Department of Psychology, Oakland University, Rochester, Michigan, USA
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Avelino-Silva TJ, Trujillo N, Udeh-Momoh C. Fairness: from the guts to the brain - a critical examination by Atlantic fellows of the Global Brain Health Institute. Front Psychol 2023; 14:1241125. [PMID: 37928589 PMCID: PMC10620796 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyg.2023.1241125] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/25/2023] [Accepted: 10/04/2023] [Indexed: 11/07/2023] Open
Abstract
In January 2023, the Global Brain Health Institute (GBHI) at UCSF hosted an online salon to discuss the relationship between fairness and brain health equity. We aimed to address two primary questions: first, how is fairness perceived by the public, and how does it manifest in societal constructs like equity and justice? Second, what are the neurobiological foundations of fairness, and how do they impact brain health? Drawing from interdisciplinary fields such as philosophy, psychology, and neuroscience, the salon served as a platform for participants to share diverse perspectives on fairness. Fairness is a multifaceted concept encompassing equity, justice, empathy, opportunity, non-discrimination, and the Golden Rule, but by delving into its evolutionary origins, we can verify its deep-rooted presence in both human and animal behaviors. Real-world experiments, such as Frans de Waal's capuchin monkey study, have proven enlightening, elucidating many mechanisms that have shaped our neurobiological responses to fairness. Contemporary cognitive neuroscience research further emphasizes the role of neuroanatomical areas and neurotransmitters in encoding fairness-related processes. We also discussed the critical interconnection between fairness and healthcare equity, particularly its implications for brain health. These values are instrumental in promoting social justice and improving health outcomes. In our polarized social landscape, there are rising concerns about a potential decrease in fairness and prosocial behaviors due to isolated social bubbles. We stress the urgency for interventions that enhance perspective-taking, reasoning, and empathy. Overall, fairness is vital to fostering an equitable society and its subsequent influence on brain health outcomes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Thiago Junqueira Avelino-Silva
- Atlantic Fellowship in Equity in Brain Health, Global Brain Health Institute, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA, United States
- Laboratorio de Investigacao Medica em Envelhecimento LIM66, Servico de Geriatria, Hospital das Clinicas HCFMUSP, Faculdade de Medicina, Universidade de São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Natalia Trujillo
- Atlantic Fellowship in Equity in Brain Health, Global Brain Health Institute, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA, United States
- Mental Health Research Group, National School of Public Health, University of Antioquia-UDEA, Medellin, Colombia
- Stempel College of Public Health and Social Work, Florida International University, Miami, FL, United States
| | - Chinedu Udeh-Momoh
- Atlantic Fellowship in Equity in Brain Health, Global Brain Health Institute, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA, United States
- Ageing Epidemiology Research Unit, School of Public Health, Imperial College London, London, United Kingdom
- Centre for Healthy Brain Aging, Brain and Mind Institute, Aga Khan University, Nairobi, Kenya
- Division of Clinical Geriatrics, Karolinska Institute, Stockholm, Sweden
- Wake Forest University School of Medicine, Winston-Salem, NC, United States
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Sauciuc GA, Persson T. Empirical challenges from the comparative and developmental literature to the Shared Intentionality Theory - a review of alternative data on recursive mind reading, prosociality, imitation and cumulative culture. Front Psychol 2023; 14:1157137. [PMID: 37901066 PMCID: PMC10613111 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyg.2023.1157137] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/02/2023] [Accepted: 09/28/2023] [Indexed: 10/31/2023] Open
Abstract
Humans have an irresistible inclination to coordinate actions with others, leading to species-unique forms of cooperation. According to the highly influential Shared Intentionality Theory (SITh), human cooperation is made possible by shared intentionality (SI), typically defined as a suite of socio-cognitive and motivational traits for sharing psychological states with others, thereby enabling individuals to engage in joint action in the mutually aware pursuit of shared goals. SITh theorises that SI evolved as late as 400,000 years ago, when our ancestors (in particular, Homo heidelbergensis) turned to a kind of food procurement that obligatorily required joint coordinated action. SI is, thus, hypothesized to be absent in other extant species, including our closest genetic relatives, the nonhuman great apes ("apes"). According to SITh, ape psychology is exclusively driven by individualistic motivations, as opposed to human psychology which is uniquely driven by altruistic motivations. The evolutionary scenario proposed by SITh builds on a series of findings from socio-cognitive research with apes and human children, and on the assumption that abilities expressed early in human development are human universals, unlikely to have been shaped by socio-cultural influences. Drawing on the primatological and developmental literature, we provide a systematic - albeit selective - review of SITh-inconsistent findings concerning psychological and behavioural traits theorised to be constitutive of SI. The findings we review pertain to all three thematic clusters typically addressed in SITh: (i) recursive mind reading; (ii) prosociality; (iii) imitation and cumulative culture. We conclude that such alternative data undermine two core SITh claims: the late evolutionary emergence of SI and the radical divide between ape and human psychology. We also discuss several conceptual and methodological limitations that currently hamper reliable comparative research on SI, in particular those engendered by Western-centric biases in the social sciences, where an overreliance on Western samples has promoted the formulation of Western-centric conceptualisations, operationalisations and methodologies.
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Zhang J, Valencia Botto S, Rochat P. Altruism and hyperaltruism in children of three cultures. J Exp Child Psychol 2023; 234:105708. [PMID: 37257371 DOI: 10.1016/j.jecp.2023.105708] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/16/2023] [Revised: 04/30/2023] [Accepted: 05/04/2023] [Indexed: 06/02/2023]
Abstract
Children's inclination to prioritize others' welfare over their own (hyperaltruism) was investigated from a developmental and cross-cultural perspective. The distribution of rewarding or aversive items to self and another child was probed in 3- to 14-year-old children (final sample: N = 158; 87 girls) from urban China (n = 51; Mage = 9.1 years, SD = 1.81; 27 girls), urban United States (n = 55; Mage = 8.89 years, SD = 2.18; 30 girls), and rural Samoa (n = 52; Mage = 8.6 years, SD = 2.61; 30 girls). In two counterbalanced conditions, the children were first asked to split either rewards (stickers or treats) or potentially harmful insects (biting bugs) with another child. In a third condition, children were asked to choose various levels of hypothetical pain to be inflicted on either themselves or another child in exchange for commensurate rewards. Results indicated that in conditions where children distributed rewards, older children were more egalitarian (i.e., gave an equal number of candies to self and other) compared with younger children. However, in conditions where they needed to allocate potential harm, older children displayed more altruism (taking more harm onto themselves so that others could be spared). These results varied by culture, where Chinese children showed more altruism, U.S. children were more egalitarian, and Samoan children showed no clear patterns of either egalitarianism or altruism. The results show that although there are some universal trends toward egalitarian and altruistic ways of sharing, significant group differences exist.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jinyi Zhang
- Department of Psychology, Emory University, Atlanta, GA 30322, USA; Institute of Child Development, University of Minnesota-Twin Cities, Minneapolis, MN 55455, USA.
| | | | - Philippe Rochat
- Department of Psychology, Emory University, Atlanta, GA 30322, USA
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Lalot M, Bourgeois A, Jalme MS, Bovet D. Family first! Influence of parental investment in Guinea pigs (Cavia porcellus) prosocial choices. Anim Cogn 2023; 26:1713-1732. [PMID: 37526859 DOI: 10.1007/s10071-023-01813-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/21/2022] [Revised: 07/13/2023] [Accepted: 07/17/2023] [Indexed: 08/02/2023]
Abstract
Literature often assumed that prosocial behaviours (behaviours that benefit others with or without a cost for the actor) would have evolved many species to improve the effectiveness of parental care (Decety and Cowell 2014). While this hypothesis is rarely questioned at a phylogenetic scale, it was never tested at an individual scale to the best of our knowledge. Therefore, we chose to study the impact of effective parental care on prosociality by comparing the prosocial tendencies of Guinea pigs before mating, during mating and after parturition. We conducted Prosocial Choice Tests on three groups of Guinea pigs (males, multiparous females, and nulliparous females). Subjects had to choose between three options: a prosocial option (subject and recipient being rewarded), a selfish option (only subject was rewarded), and a null option (no reward). Our results showed high prosociality towards their mating partner and their young both in male and in female subjects. Males became selfish towards other males after parturition. Among other interesting results, we found a direct reciprocity phenomenon. We also highlighted an ability in our subjects to consider both the identity and relationship shared with the recipient, such as tolerance (enhancing prosociality), dominance rank (being tested with a dominant recipient increasing selfish responses), and its behaviour (begging calls eliciting prosociality, while threatening ones decreasing it), to choose an option. These findings suggested that prosociality could be modulated by many factors and that the constraints and stakes induced by breeding would highly influence prosocial strategies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mathilde Lalot
- Laboratoire Ethologie Cognition Développement, UPL, Université Paris Nanterre, 92000, Nanterre, France.
| | - Aude Bourgeois
- Ménagerie du Jardin des Plantes, Muséum National d'Histoire Naturelle, Paris, France
| | - Michel Saint Jalme
- Ménagerie du Jardin des Plantes, Muséum National d'Histoire Naturelle, Paris, France
| | - Dalila Bovet
- Laboratoire Ethologie Cognition Développement, UPL, Université Paris Nanterre, 92000, Nanterre, France
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Nafcha O, Vilker D, Shamay-Tsoory S, Gabay S. Prosocial behavior in competitive fish: the case of the archerfish. Commun Biol 2023; 6:822. [PMID: 37553518 PMCID: PMC10409803 DOI: 10.1038/s42003-023-05195-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/16/2022] [Accepted: 07/31/2023] [Indexed: 08/10/2023] Open
Abstract
Humans are social creatures, demonstrate prosocial behaviors, and are sensitive to the actions and consequent payoff of others. This social sensitivity has also been found in many other species, though not in all. Research has suggested that prosocial tendencies are more pronounced in naturally cooperative species whose social structure requires a high level of interdependence and allomaternal care. The present study challenges this assumption by demonstrating, in a laboratory setting, that archerfish, competitive by nature, preferred targets rewarding both themselves and their tankmates, but only when the payoff was equal. With no tankmate on the other side of the partition, they exhibited no obvious preference. Finding evidence for prosocial behavior and negative responses to unequal distribution of reward to the advantage of the other fish suggests that in a competitive social environment, being prosocial may be the most adaptive strategy for personal survival, even if it benefits others as well.
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Affiliation(s)
- Orit Nafcha
- School of Psychological Science, University of Haifa, Haifa, Israel.
- The Institute of Information Processing and Decision Making (IIPDM), Haifa, Israel.
| | - Dana Vilker
- School of Psychological Science, University of Haifa, Haifa, Israel
- The Institute of Information Processing and Decision Making (IIPDM), Haifa, Israel
| | | | - Shai Gabay
- School of Psychological Science, University of Haifa, Haifa, Israel
- The Institute of Information Processing and Decision Making (IIPDM), Haifa, Israel
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Lalot M, Bovet D. Prosociality and reciprocity according to parental status, communication, and personality in domestic canaries (Serinus canaria). Behav Processes 2023; 205:104818. [PMID: 36584962 DOI: 10.1016/j.beproc.2022.104818] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/20/2022] [Revised: 12/23/2022] [Accepted: 12/26/2022] [Indexed: 12/29/2022]
Abstract
Prosociality (behaviours that benefit to a recipient without necessarily involving a cost to the actor) has recently been shown to exist in various taxa, including birds. Studies on prosociality in primates found that prosocial tendencies of the subject could be related to sex and parental care, communication from the recipient, cognitive abilities and personality. To investigate the existence of such associations on birds, we conducted a Prosocial Choice Task with domestic canaries (Serinus canaria). In our experiment, the subject could choose between three options: a prosocial, a selfish, and a null option (with no cost for the subject). We also conducted a food sharing experiment and measured several personality traits. Our results highlighted high levels of prosociality and a tendency to reciprocity among reproductive mates. We found a higher propensity to be prosocial in nulliparous individuals than in individuals that have previously been parents, but better sharing abilities in parents than in nulliparous individuals. When they were recipient, parents also used communication more efficiently than nulliparous subjects. Data suggest that parental expertise could enhance subjects' skills in eliciting prosociality. We also highlighted some interaction between prosociality, learning abilities, and some personality traits, proactive individuals being fast learners and more prosocial, while reactive individuals being slow learners and more reciprocal. Our results suggest that prosociality and reciprocity could be linked to personality and cognitive abilities, and that it might be interesting to consider them as parts of individual's cognitive style.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mathilde Lalot
- Laboratoire Ethologie Cognition Développement, UPL, Université Paris Nanterre, F92000 Nanterre, France.
| | - Dalila Bovet
- Laboratoire Ethologie Cognition Développement, UPL, Université Paris Nanterre, F92000 Nanterre, France
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Nolte S, Sterck EHM, van Leeuwen EJC. Does tolerance allow bonobos to outperform chimpanzees on a cooperative task? A conceptual replication of Hare et al., 2007. ROYAL SOCIETY OPEN SCIENCE 2023; 10:220194. [PMID: 36686553 PMCID: PMC9810421 DOI: 10.1098/rsos.220194] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/15/2022] [Accepted: 12/02/2022] [Indexed: 06/17/2023]
Abstract
Across various taxa, social tolerance is thought to facilitate cooperation, and many species are treated as having species-specific patterns of social tolerance. Yet studies that assess wild and captive bonobos and chimpanzees result in contrasting findings. By replicating a cornerstone experimental study on tolerance and cooperation in bonobos and chimpanzees (Hare et al. 2007 Cur. Biol. 17, 619-623 (doi:10.1016/j.cub.2007.02.040)), we aim to further our understanding of current discrepant findings. We tested bonobos and chimpanzees housed at the same facility in a co-feeding and cooperation task. Food was placed on dishes located on both ends or in the middle of a platform. In the co-feeding task, the tray was simply made available to the ape duos, whereas in the cooperation task the apes had to simultaneously pull at both ends of a rope attached to the platform to retrieve the food. By contrast to the published findings, bonobos and chimpanzees co-fed to a similar degree, indicating a similar level of tolerance. However, bonobos cooperated more than chimpanzees when the food was monopolizable, which replicates the original study. Our findings call into question the interpretation that at the species level bonobos cooperate to a higher degree because they are inherently more tolerant.
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Affiliation(s)
- Suska Nolte
- Animal Behaviour and Cognition, Department of Biology, University Utrecht, Utrecht, The Netherlands
- Department of Comparative Cultural Psychology, Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology, Leipzig, Germany
| | - Elisabeth H. M. Sterck
- Animal Behaviour and Cognition, Department of Biology, University Utrecht, Utrecht, The Netherlands
- Animal Science Department, Biomedical Primate Research Centre, Rijswijk, The Netherlands
| | - Edwin J. C. van Leeuwen
- Animal Behaviour and Cognition, Department of Biology, University Utrecht, Utrecht, The Netherlands
- Department of Comparative Cultural Psychology, Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology, Leipzig, Germany
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Chen YQ, Han S, Yin B. Why help others? Insights from rodent to human early childhood research. Front Behav Neurosci 2023; 17:1058352. [PMID: 37025110 PMCID: PMC10070705 DOI: 10.3389/fnbeh.2023.1058352] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/30/2022] [Accepted: 03/06/2023] [Indexed: 04/08/2023] Open
Abstract
Helping behavior are actions aiming at assisting another individual in need or to relieve their distress. The occurrence of this behavior not only depends on automated physiological mechanisms, such as imitation or emotional contagion, that is, the individual's emotion and physiological state matching with others, but also needs motivation to sustain. From a comparative and developmental perspective, we discover that the motivation for helping behavior has a deep foundation both phylogenetically and ontogenetically. For example, empathic concern for others, relieving personal distress and the desire for social contact are universal motivations across rodents, non-human primates and human early childhoods. Therefore, a circle-layered model integrating evidences for motivation for helping behavior from rodent to human early childhood research is proposed: the inner circle contains the emotional-behavioral system and the outer circle contains the affective-cognitive system. The application of this model has significance for both behavioral neuroscience research and cultivating prosocial behavior in human society.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ya-Qin Chen
- Laboratory of Learning and Behavioral Sciences, School of Psychology, Fujian Normal University, Fuzhou, Fujian, China
| | - Shu Han
- Laboratory of Learning and Behavioral Sciences, School of Psychology, Fujian Normal University, Fuzhou, Fujian, China
| | - Bin Yin
- Laboratory of Learning and Behavioral Sciences, School of Psychology, Fujian Normal University, Fuzhou, Fujian, China
- Department of Applied Psychology, School of Psychology, Fujian Normal University, Fuzhou, Fujian, China
- *Correspondence: Bin Yin,
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Gachomba MJM, Esteve-Agraz J, Caref K, Maroto AS, Bortolozzo-Gleich MH, Laplagne DA, Márquez C. Multimodal cues displayed by submissive rats promote prosocial choices by dominants. Curr Biol 2022; 32:3288-3301.e8. [PMID: 35803272 DOI: 10.1016/j.cub.2022.06.026] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/24/2021] [Revised: 04/25/2022] [Accepted: 06/09/2022] [Indexed: 12/30/2022]
Abstract
Animals often display prosocial behaviors, performing actions that benefit others. Although prosociality is essential for social bonding and cooperation, we still know little about how animals integrate behavioral cues from those in need to make decisions that increase their well-being. To address this question, we used a two-choice task where rats can provide rewards to a conspecific in the absence of self-benefit and investigated which conditions promote prosociality by manipulating the social context of the interacting animals. Although sex or degree of familiarity did not affect prosocial choices in rats, social hierarchy revealed to be a potent modulator, with dominant decision-makers showing faster emergence and higher levels of prosocial choices toward their submissive cage mates. Leveraging quantitative analysis of multimodal social dynamics prior to choice, we identified that pairs with dominant decision-makers exhibited more proximal interactions. Interestingly, these closer interactions were driven by submissive animals that modulated their position and movement following their dominants and whose 50-kHz vocalization rate correlated with dominants' prosociality. Moreover, Granger causality revealed stronger bidirectional influences in pairs with dominant focals and submissive recipients, indicating increased behavioral coordination. Finally, multivariate analysis highlighted body language as the main information dominants use on a trial-by-trial basis to learn that their actions have effects on others. Our results provide a refined understanding of the behavioral dynamics that rats use for action-selection upon perception of socially relevant cues and navigate social decision-making.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michael Joe Munyua Gachomba
- Neural Circuits of Social Behaviour Laboratory, Instituto de Neurociencias, Universidad Miguel Hernández-Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas (UMH-CSIC), Sant Joan d'Alacant, Alicante, Spain
| | - Joan Esteve-Agraz
- Neural Circuits of Social Behaviour Laboratory, Instituto de Neurociencias, Universidad Miguel Hernández-Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas (UMH-CSIC), Sant Joan d'Alacant, Alicante, Spain
| | - Kevin Caref
- Neural Circuits of Social Behaviour Laboratory, Instituto de Neurociencias, Universidad Miguel Hernández-Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas (UMH-CSIC), Sant Joan d'Alacant, Alicante, Spain
| | - Aroa Sanz Maroto
- Neural Circuits of Social Behaviour Laboratory, Instituto de Neurociencias, Universidad Miguel Hernández-Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas (UMH-CSIC), Sant Joan d'Alacant, Alicante, Spain
| | - Maria Helena Bortolozzo-Gleich
- Neural Circuits of Social Behaviour Laboratory, Instituto de Neurociencias, Universidad Miguel Hernández-Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas (UMH-CSIC), Sant Joan d'Alacant, Alicante, Spain
| | - Diego Andrés Laplagne
- Laboratory of Behavioural Neurophysiology, Brain Institute, Federal University of Rio Grande do Norte, Natal, Brazil
| | - Cristina Márquez
- Neural Circuits of Social Behaviour Laboratory, Instituto de Neurociencias, Universidad Miguel Hernández-Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas (UMH-CSIC), Sant Joan d'Alacant, Alicante, Spain.
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Verspeek J, van Leeuwen EJC, Laméris DW, Staes N, Stevens JMG. Adult bonobos show no prosociality in both prosocial choice task and group service paradigm. PeerJ 2022; 10:e12849. [PMID: 35178297 PMCID: PMC8815371 DOI: 10.7717/peerj.12849] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/07/2021] [Accepted: 01/07/2022] [Indexed: 01/10/2023] Open
Abstract
Previous studies reported contrasting conclusions concerning bonobo prosociality, which are likely due to differences in the experimental design, the social dynamics among subjects and characteristics of the subjects themselves. Two hypotheses have been proposed to explain the occurrence of prosociality in animals: the cooperative breeding hypothesis and the self-domestication hypothesis. While the former predicts low levels of prosociality in bonobos because they are non-cooperative breeders, the latter predicts high levels of prosociality because self-domestication has been proposed to select for high levels of tolerance in this species. Here, we presented a group of thirteen bonobos with two platform food-provisioning tasks: the prosocial choice task (PCT) and the group service paradigm (GSP). The latter has so far never been applied to bonobos. To allow for free choice of participation and partner, we implemented both tasks in a group setting. Like in previous PCT studies, bonobos did not choose the prosocial option more often when a group member could benefit vs not benefit. In the GSP, where food provisioning is costly, only subadult bonobos showed a limited amount of food provisioning, which was much lower than what was previously reported for chimpanzees. In both experiments, adult subjects were highly motivated to obtain rewards for themselves, suggesting that bonobos behaved indifferently to the gains of group members. We suggest that previous positive food-provisioning prosociality results in bonobos are mainly driven by the behaviour of subadult subjects. The lack of prosociality in this study corresponds to the hypothesis that proactive food provisioning co-occurs with cooperative breeding and suggests that proactive prosociality might not be part of the self-domestication syndrome in bonobos.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jonas Verspeek
- Centre for Research and Conservation, Royal Zoological Society of Antwerp, Antwerp, Belgium,Behavioural Ecology and Ecophysiology Group, Department of Biology, University of Antwerp, Wilrijk, Belgium
| | - Edwin J. C. van Leeuwen
- Centre for Research and Conservation, Royal Zoological Society of Antwerp, Antwerp, Belgium,Behavioural Ecology and Ecophysiology Group, Department of Biology, University of Antwerp, Wilrijk, Belgium
| | - Daan W. Laméris
- Centre for Research and Conservation, Royal Zoological Society of Antwerp, Antwerp, Belgium,Behavioural Ecology and Ecophysiology Group, Department of Biology, University of Antwerp, Wilrijk, Belgium
| | - Nicky Staes
- Centre for Research and Conservation, Royal Zoological Society of Antwerp, Antwerp, Belgium,Behavioural Ecology and Ecophysiology Group, Department of Biology, University of Antwerp, Wilrijk, Belgium
| | - Jeroen M. G. Stevens
- Centre for Research and Conservation, Royal Zoological Society of Antwerp, Antwerp, Belgium,Behavioural Ecology and Ecophysiology Group, Department of Biology, University of Antwerp, Wilrijk, Belgium,SALTO, Agro- and Biotechnology, Odisee University College, Brussels, Belgium
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14
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Chajes JR, Grossmann T, Vaish A. Fairness takes time: Development of cooperative decision making in fairness context. J Exp Child Psychol 2022; 216:105344. [PMID: 35030385 PMCID: PMC8851981 DOI: 10.1016/j.jecp.2021.105344] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/29/2021] [Revised: 11/30/2021] [Accepted: 12/02/2021] [Indexed: 01/10/2023]
Abstract
The current study examined the development of fairness behavior and tested whether children's fair choices are fast and intuitive or slow and deliberate. Reaction times were measured while 4- to 9-year-olds (N = 94, 49 girls, 84.6% White) completed a novel social decision-making task contrasting fair choices with selfish choices. Fairness behavior increased during childhood, shifting from predominantly selfish choices among young children to fair choices by 7 years of age. Moreover, young children's fair choices were slow and deliberate, whereas reaction times did not predict older children's choices. These findings contrast with adults' intuitive cooperation and point to protracted development and learning of cooperative decision making in fairness contexts.
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Affiliation(s)
- Johanna R Chajes
- Department of Psychology, University of Virginia, Charlottesville, VA 22904, USA.
| | - Tobias Grossmann
- Department of Psychology, University of Virginia, Charlottesville, VA 22904, USA
| | - Amrisha Vaish
- Department of Psychology, University of Virginia, Charlottesville, VA 22904, USA
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15
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In mixed company: two macaws are self-regarding in a symbolic prosocial choice task. Behav Ecol Sociobiol 2022. [DOI: 10.1007/s00265-021-03123-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/05/2023]
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16
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Laumer IB, Massen JJM, Boehm PM, Boehm A, Geisler A, Auersperg AMI. Individual Goffin´s cockatoos (Cacatua goffiniana) show flexible targeted helping in a tool transfer task. PLoS One 2021; 16:e0253416. [PMID: 34185776 PMCID: PMC8241052 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0253416] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/10/2020] [Accepted: 06/04/2021] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Flexible targeted helping is considered an advanced form of prosocial behavior in hominoids, as it requires the actor to assess different situations that a conspecific may be in, and to subsequently flexibly satisfy different needs of that partner depending on the nature of those situations. So far, apart from humans such behaviour has only been experimentally shown in chimpanzees and in Eurasian jays. Recent studies highlight the prosocial tendencies of several bird species, yet flexible targeted helping remained untested, largely due to methodological issues as such tasks are generally designed around tool-use, and very few bird species are capable of tool-use. Here, we tested Goffin's cockatoos, which proved to be skilled tool innovators in captivity, in a tool transfer task in which an actor had access to four different objects/tools and a partner to one of two different apparatuses that each required one of these tools to retrieve a reward. As expected from this species, we recorded playful object transfers across all conditions. Yet, importantly and similar to apes, three out of eight birds transferred the correct tool more often in the test condition than in a condition that also featured an apparatus but no partner. Furthermore, one of these birds transferred that correct tool first more often before transferring any other object in the test condition than in the no-partner condition, while the other two cockatoos were marginally non-significantly more likely to do so. Additionally, there was no difference in the likelihood of the correct tool being transferred first for either of the two apparatuses, suggesting that these birds flexibly adjusted what to transfer based on their partner´s need. Future studies should focus on explanations for the intra-specific variation of this behaviour, and should test other parrots and other large-brained birds to see how this can be generalized across the class and to investigate the evolutionary history of this trait.
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Affiliation(s)
- I. B. Laumer
- Department of Cognitive Biology, University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria
- Department of Anthropology, University of California, Los Angeles, Los Angeles, California, United States of America
| | - J. J. M. Massen
- Department of Cognitive Biology, University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria
- Animal Behaviour and Cognition, Department of Biology, Utrecht University, Utrecht, the Netherlands
| | - P. M. Boehm
- Department of Cognitive Biology, University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria
| | - A. Boehm
- Department of Cognitive Biology, University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria
| | - A. Geisler
- Department of Cognitive Biology, University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria
| | - A. M. I. Auersperg
- Messerli Research Institute, University of Veterinary Medicine, Vienna, Austria
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17
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Basile BM, Joiner JA, Dal Monte O, Fagan NA, Karaskiewicz CL, Lucas DR, Chang SWC, Murray EA. Autonomic arousal tracks outcome salience not valence in monkeys making social decisions. Behav Neurosci 2021; 135:443-452. [PMID: 34264694 PMCID: PMC8489567 DOI: 10.1037/bne0000424] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
The evolutionary and neural underpinnings of human prosociality are still being identified. A growing body of evidence suggests that some species find the sight of another individual receiving a reward reinforcing, called vicarious reinforcement, and that this capacity is supported by a network of brain areas including the anterior cingulate cortex (ACC) and the amygdala. At the same time, analyses of autonomic arousal have been increasingly used to contextualize and guide neural research, especially for studies of reward processing. Here, we characterized the autonomic pupil response of eight monkeys across two laboratories in two different versions of a vicarious reinforcement paradigm. Monkeys were cued as to whether an upcoming reward would be delivered to them, another monkey, or nobody and could accept or decline the offer. As expected, all monkeys in both laboratories showed a marked preference for juice to the self, together with a reliable prosocial preference for juice to a social partner compared to juice to nobody. However, contrary to our expectations, we found that pupils were widest in anticipation of juice to the self, moderately sized in anticipation of juice to nobody, and narrowest in anticipation of juice to a social partner. This effect was seen across both laboratories and regardless of specific task parameters. The seemingly paradoxical pupil effect can be explained by a model in which pupil size tracks outcome salience, prosocial tendencies track outcome valence, and the relation between salience and valence is U-shaped. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2021 APA, all rights reserved).
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Affiliation(s)
- Benjamin M. Basile
- Section on the Neurobiology of Learning and Memory, Laboratory of Neuropsychology, National Institute of Mental Health, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD, 20892, USA
| | - Jessica A. Joiner
- Department of Psychology, Yale University, New Haven, CT, 06511, USA
| | - Olga Dal Monte
- Department of Psychology, Yale University, New Haven, CT, 06511, USA
- Department of Psychology, University of Turin, Torino, Italy
| | - Nicholas A. Fagan
- Department of Psychology, Yale University, New Haven, CT, 06511, USA
| | - Chloe L. Karaskiewicz
- Section on the Neurobiology of Learning and Memory, Laboratory of Neuropsychology, National Institute of Mental Health, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD, 20892, USA
| | - Daniel R. Lucas
- Section on the Neurobiology of Learning and Memory, Laboratory of Neuropsychology, National Institute of Mental Health, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD, 20892, USA
| | - Steve W. C. Chang
- Department of Psychology, Yale University, New Haven, CT, 06511, USA
- Department of Neuroscience, Yale School of Medicine, New Haven, CT, 06520, USA
- Kavli Institute for Neuroscience, Yale School of Medicine, New Haven, CT, 06520, USA
| | - Elisabeth A. Murray
- Section on the Neurobiology of Learning and Memory, Laboratory of Neuropsychology, National Institute of Mental Health, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD, 20892, USA
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18
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Horn L, Zewald JS, Bugnyar T, Massen JJM. Carrion Crows and Azure-Winged Magpies Show No Prosocial Tendencies When Tested in a Token Transfer Paradigm. Animals (Basel) 2021; 11:1526. [PMID: 34073851 PMCID: PMC8225188 DOI: 10.3390/ani11061526] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/30/2021] [Revised: 05/12/2021] [Accepted: 05/16/2021] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
To study the evolution of humans' cooperative nature, researchers have recently sought comparisons with other species. Studies investigating corvids, for example, showed that carrion crows and azure-winged magpies delivered food to group members when tested in naturalistic or simple experimental paradigms. Here, we investigated whether we could replicate these positive findings when testing the same two species in a token transfer paradigm. After training the birds to exchange tokens with an experimenter for food rewards, we tested whether they would also transfer tokens to other birds, when they did not have the opportunity to exchange the tokens themselves. To control for the effects of motivation, and of social or stimulus enhancement, we tested each individual in three additional control conditions. We witnessed very few attempts and/or successful token transfers, and those few instances did not occur more frequently in the test condition than in the controls, which would suggest that the birds lack prosocial tendencies. Alternatively, we propose that this absence of prosociality may stem from the artificial nature and cognitive complexity of the token transfer task. Consequently, our findings highlight the strong impact of methodology on animals' capability to exhibit prosocial tendencies and stress the importance of comparing multiple experimental paradigms.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lisa Horn
- Department of Behavioral and Cognitive Biology, University of Vienna, Althanstraße 14, 1090 Vienna, Austria; (T.B.); (J.J.M.M.)
| | - Jeroen S. Zewald
- Animal Behavior and Cognition, Department of Biology, Utrecht University, Padualaan 8, 3584 CH Utrecht, The Netherlands;
| | - Thomas Bugnyar
- Department of Behavioral and Cognitive Biology, University of Vienna, Althanstraße 14, 1090 Vienna, Austria; (T.B.); (J.J.M.M.)
| | - Jorg J. M. Massen
- Department of Behavioral and Cognitive Biology, University of Vienna, Althanstraße 14, 1090 Vienna, Austria; (T.B.); (J.J.M.M.)
- Animal Behavior and Cognition, Department of Biology, Utrecht University, Padualaan 8, 3584 CH Utrecht, The Netherlands;
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19
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Prosociality and reciprocity in capybaras (Hydrochoerus hydrochaeris) in a non-reproductive context. Behav Processes 2021; 188:104407. [PMID: 33895253 DOI: 10.1016/j.beproc.2021.104407] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/07/2020] [Revised: 04/16/2021] [Accepted: 04/20/2021] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
Abstract
Prosocial behaviours (providing benefits to a recipient with or without cost for the donor) have been found to be highly influenced by sex and by hierarchy. Rodents, in particular, are good model for studying prosocial responses, as they were found to exhibit intentional prosocial behaviours to reward a conspecific, and are very sensitive to reciprocity. In our study, we conducted a Prosocial Choice Test (PCT) in which four capybaras (Hydrochoerus hydrochaeris) living in a social group could choose between three tokens: choosing the prosocial token rewarded simultaneously the subject and a recipient, while choosing the selfish token only rewarded the subject; and choosing the null token provided no reward to anyone. Dominance within each dyad was also studied, both before and during the PCT experiment. Our results showed an influence of hierarchy: subjects were more prosocial towards the recipient when it was a subordinate than when it was a dominant individual. These results could be interpreted as a desire of strengthening a hierarchical rank regarding the subordinate, of punishing aggressive conspecifics (usually the subject's direct dominant), and of weakening dominant individuals in order to modify the pre-existing hierarchy. Additionally, our results highlighted a direct reciprocity phenomenon, a subject being more likely to be prosocial towards a prosocial recipient. All these findings suggest that prosociality could be well developed in other taxa than Primates and that, in long enough PCT experiments, subtle rules could influence individual prosocial strategies.
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20
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Abstract
Empathy is a complex phenomenon critical for group survival and societal bonds. In addition, there is mounting evidence demonstrating empathic behaviors are dysregulated in a multitude of psychiatric disorders ranging from autism spectrum disorder, substance use disorders, and personality disorders. Therefore, understanding the underlying drive and neurobiology of empathy is paramount for improving the treatment outcomes and quality of life for individuals suffering from these psychiatric disorders. While there is a growing list of human studies, there is still much about empathy to understand, likely due to both its complexity and the inherent limitations of imaging modalities. It is therefore imperative to develop, validate, and utilize rodent models of empathic behaviors as translational tools to explore this complex topic in ways human research cannot. This review outlines some of the more prevailing theories of empathy, lists some of the psychiatric disorders with disrupted empathic processes, describes rat and mouse models of empathic behaviors currently used, and discusses ways in which these models have elucidated social, environmental, and neurobiological factors that may modulate empathy. The research tools afforded to rodent models will provide an increasingly clear translational understanding of empathic processes and consequently result in improvements in care for those diagnosed with any one of the many psychiatric disorders.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stewart S. Cox
- Medical University of South Carolina, Charleston SC, USA
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21
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Satoh S, Bshary R, Shibasaki M, Inaba S, Sogawa S, Hotta T, Awata S, Kohda M. Prosocial and antisocial choices in a monogamous cichlid with biparental care. Nat Commun 2021; 12:1775. [PMID: 33741978 PMCID: PMC7979913 DOI: 10.1038/s41467-021-22075-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/27/2020] [Accepted: 02/12/2021] [Indexed: 01/31/2023] Open
Abstract
Human society is cooperative and characterized by spontaneous prosociality. Comparative studies on endotherm vertebrates suggest that social interdependence causes the evolution of proactive prosociality. To test the generality of this hypothesis, we modify a prosocial choice task for application to the convict cichlid, Amatitlania nigrofasciata, a monogamous fish with biparental care and a strong pair bond. We also affirm that male subjects learn to favor prosocial choices when their mates are the recipients in a neighboring tank. When the neighboring tank is empty, males choose randomly. Furthermore, in the absence of their mates, males behave prosocially toward a stranger female. However, if the mate of the subjects is also visible in the third tank, or if a male is a potential recipient, then subjects make antisocial choices. To conclude, fish may show both spontaneous prosocial and antisocial behaviors according to their social relationships with conspecifics and the overall social context.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shun Satoh
- grid.261445.00000 0001 1009 6411Department of Biology and Geosciences, Graduate School of Science, Osaka City University, Osaka, Japan ,grid.275033.00000 0004 1763 208XDepartment of Evolutionary Studies of Biosystems, The Graduate University for Advanced Studies, Miura, Japan
| | - Redouan Bshary
- grid.10711.360000 0001 2297 7718University of Neuchâtel, Institute of Zoology, Neuchâtel, Switzerland
| | - Momoko Shibasaki
- grid.261445.00000 0001 1009 6411Department of Biology and Geosciences, Graduate School of Science, Osaka City University, Osaka, Japan
| | - Seishiro Inaba
- grid.261445.00000 0001 1009 6411Department of Biology and Geosciences, Graduate School of Science, Osaka City University, Osaka, Japan
| | - Shumpei Sogawa
- grid.261445.00000 0001 1009 6411Department of Biology and Geosciences, Graduate School of Science, Osaka City University, Osaka, Japan
| | - Takashi Hotta
- grid.258799.80000 0004 0372 2033Department of Psychology, Graduate School of Letters, Kyoto University, Kyoto, Japan
| | - Satoshi Awata
- grid.261445.00000 0001 1009 6411Department of Biology and Geosciences, Graduate School of Science, Osaka City University, Osaka, Japan
| | - Masanori Kohda
- grid.261445.00000 0001 1009 6411Department of Biology and Geosciences, Graduate School of Science, Osaka City University, Osaka, Japan
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22
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Lalot M, Delfour F, Mercera B, Bovet D. Prosociality and reciprocity in bottlenose dolphins (Tursiops truncatus). Anim Cogn 2021; 24:1075-1086. [PMID: 33728562 DOI: 10.1007/s10071-021-01499-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/19/2020] [Revised: 02/18/2021] [Accepted: 02/25/2021] [Indexed: 10/21/2022]
Abstract
Some moral behaviours, often regarded as reflecting high cognitive abilities (such as empathy, cooperation, targeted helping) are known to only be present in very few species, like great apes, elephants and cetaceans. Prosocial behaviours (producing a benefit for the recipient without necessarily involving a cost for the actor) have been mostly found in primates and, more recently, in elephants. Despite dolphins' reputation for helping their conspecifics, experimental studies about their prosocial and empathic abilities are rare. We conducted Prosocial Choice Tests in six bottlenose dolphins. The subjects had to choose between three objects: choosing the prosocial object induced the simultaneous rewarding of both the subject and a recipient individual; choosing the selfish object induced a reward only for the subject; choosing the null one did not reward anyone. We found prosociality and direct reciprocity in our subjects, and our results suggested that bottlenose dolphins might be able to modulate their prosocial and reciprocal tendencies according to partner-specific information. Subjects seemed to be more prosocial towards the other sex and more reciprocal towards same-sex recipients. This reciprocity might be underpinned by the same features that rule their behaviours in the wild (cooperating with same sex conspecifics). Moreover, an audience effect was reported, as the presence of the subject's young increased subjects' likelihood of prosocial response. Our findings highlighted that prosociality could appear in taxa other than primates, suggesting a convergent evolutionary phenomenon.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mathilde Lalot
- Laboratoire Ethologie Cognition Développement, Université Paris Nanterre, Nanterre, France.
| | - Fabienne Delfour
- Delphinarium du Parc Astérix, Plailly, France.,Laboratoire Ethologie Expérimentale et Comparée, Université Paris Nord, Villetaneuse, France
| | | | - Dalila Bovet
- Laboratoire Ethologie Cognition Développement, Université Paris Nanterre, Nanterre, France
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23
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Nolte S, Call J. Targeted helping and cooperation in zoo-living chimpanzees and bonobos. ROYAL SOCIETY OPEN SCIENCE 2021; 8:201688. [PMID: 33959333 PMCID: PMC8074889 DOI: 10.1098/rsos.201688] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/26/2020] [Accepted: 02/19/2021] [Indexed: 05/21/2023]
Abstract
Directly comparing the prosocial behaviour of our two closest living relatives, bonobos and chimpanzees, is essential to deepening our understanding of the evolution of human prosociality. We examined whether helpers of six dyads of chimpanzees and bonobos transferred tools to a conspecific. In the experiment 'Helping', transferring a tool did not benefit the helper, while in the experiment 'Cooperation', the helper only obtained a reward by transferring the correct tool. Chimpanzees did not share tools with conspecifics in either experiment, except for a mother-daughter pair, where the mother shared a tool twice in the experiment 'Helping'. By contrast, all female-female bonobo dyads sometimes transferred a tool even without benefit. When helpers received an incentive, we found consistent transfers in all female-female bonobo dyads but none in male-female dyads. Even though reaching by the bonobo receivers increased the likelihood that a transfer occurred, we found no significant species difference in whether receivers reached to obtain tools. Thus, receivers' behaviour did not explain the lack of transfers from chimpanzee helpers. This study supports the notion that bonobos might have a greater ability to understand social problems and the collaborative nature of such tasks.
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Affiliation(s)
- Suska Nolte
- School of Psychology and Neuroscience, University of St Andrews, St Andrews, Fife, UK
- Developmental and Comparative Psychology, Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology, Leipzig, Sachsen, Germany
| | - Josep Call
- School of Psychology and Neuroscience, University of St Andrews, St Andrews, Fife, UK
- Developmental and Comparative Psychology, Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology, Leipzig, Sachsen, Germany
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24
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van Leeuwen EJC, DeTroy SE, Kaufhold SP, Dubois C, Schütte S, Call J, Haun DBM. Chimpanzees behave prosocially in a group-specific manner. SCIENCE ADVANCES 2021; 7:7/9/eabc7982. [PMID: 33627415 PMCID: PMC7904267 DOI: 10.1126/sciadv.abc7982] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/14/2020] [Accepted: 01/14/2021] [Indexed: 05/17/2023]
Abstract
Chimpanzees act cooperatively in the wild, but whether they afford benefits to others, and whether their tendency to act prosocially varies across communities, is unclear. Here, we show that chimpanzees from neighboring communities provide valuable resources to group members at personal cost, and that the magnitude of their prosocial behavior is group specific. Provided with a resource-donation experiment allowing free (partner) choice, we observed an increase in prosocial acts across the study period in most of the chimpanzees. When group members could profit (test condition), chimpanzees provided resources more frequently and for longer durations than when their acts produced inaccessible resources (control condition). Strikingly, chimpanzees' prosocial behavior was group specific, with more socially tolerant groups acting more prosocially. We conclude that chimpanzees may purposely behave prosocially toward group members, and that the notion of group-specific sociality in nonhuman animals should crucially inform discussions on the evolution of prosocial behavior.
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Affiliation(s)
- Edwin J C van Leeuwen
- University of St Andrews, Westburn Lane, KY16 9JP St Andrews, Scotland.
- Behavioral Ecology and Ecophysiology Group, Department of Biology, University of Antwerp, Universiteitsplein 1, 2610 Wilrijk, Belgium
- Centre for Research and Conservation, Royal Zoological Society of Antwerp, K. Astridplein 26, B 2018 Antwerp, Belgium
- Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology, Deutscher Platz 6, 04103 Leipzig, Germany
| | - Sarah E DeTroy
- Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology, Deutscher Platz 6, 04103 Leipzig, Germany
- Leipzig Research Centre for Early Child Development & Department for Early Child Development and Culture, Faculty of Education, Leipzig University, Jahnallee 59 04109, Germany
| | - Stephan P Kaufhold
- Department of Cognitive Science, University of California, San Diego, 9500 Gilman Drive, La Jolla, San Diego, CA 92093, USA
| | - Clara Dubois
- Leipzig Research Centre for Early Child Development & Department for Early Child Development and Culture, Faculty of Education, Leipzig University, Jahnallee 59 04109, Germany
| | - Sebastian Schütte
- Department of Cognitive Science, University of California, San Diego, 9500 Gilman Drive, La Jolla, San Diego, CA 92093, USA
| | - Josep Call
- University of St Andrews, Westburn Lane, KY16 9JP St Andrews, Scotland
| | - Daniel B M Haun
- Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology, Deutscher Platz 6, 04103 Leipzig, Germany
- Leipzig Research Centre for Early Child Development & Department for Early Child Development and Culture, Faculty of Education, Leipzig University, Jahnallee 59 04109, Germany
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25
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Sallet J, Emberton A, Wood J, Rushworth M. Impact of internal and external factors on prosocial choices in rhesus macaques. Philos Trans R Soc Lond B Biol Sci 2021; 376:20190678. [PMID: 33423628 PMCID: PMC7815427 DOI: 10.1098/rstb.2019.0678] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/22/2022] Open
Abstract
While traditional economic models assume that agents are self-interested, humans and most non-human primates are social species. Therefore, many of decisions they make require the integration of information about other social agents. This study asks to what extent information about social status and the social context in which decisions are taken impact on reward-guided decisions in rhesus macaques. We tested 12 monkeys of varying dominance status in several experimental versions of a two-choice task in which reward could be delivered to self only, only another monkey, both the self and another monkey, or neither. Results showed dominant animals were more prone to make prosocial choices than subordinates, but only when the decision was between a reward for self only and a reward for both self and other. If the choice was between a reward for self only and a reward for other only, no animal expressed altruistic behaviour. Finally, prosocial choices were true social decisions as they were strikingly reduced when the social partner was replaced by a non-social object. These results showed that as in humans, rhesus macaques' social decisions are adaptive and modulated by social status and the cost associated with being prosocial. This article is part of the theme issue 'Existence and prevalence of economic behaviours among non-human primates'.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jérôme Sallet
- Wellcome Integrative Neuroimaging Centre, Department of Experimental Psychology, Oxford, OX1 3SR, UK.,Univ Lyon, Université Lyon 1, Inserm, Stem Cell and Brain Research Institute U1208, Bron, France
| | - Andrew Emberton
- Biomedical Sciences Services, University of Oxford, Oxford, OX1 3SR, UK
| | - Jessica Wood
- Biomedical Sciences Services, University of Oxford, Oxford, OX1 3SR, UK
| | - Matthew Rushworth
- Wellcome Integrative Neuroimaging Centre, Department of Experimental Psychology, Oxford, OX1 3SR, UK
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26
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Affiliation(s)
- Susana Monsó
- Unit of Ethics and Human-Animal Studies, Messerli Research Institute, University of Veterinary Medicine, Vienna, Austria
| | - Birte Wrage
- Unit of Ethics and Human-Animal Studies, Messerli Research Institute, University of Veterinary Medicine, Vienna, Austria
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van Gurp S, Hoog J, Kalenscher T, van Wingerden M. Vicarious reward unblocks associative learning about novel cues in male rats. eLife 2020; 9:60755. [PMID: 33001030 PMCID: PMC7529453 DOI: 10.7554/elife.60755] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/06/2020] [Accepted: 09/14/2020] [Indexed: 01/13/2023] Open
Abstract
Many species, including rats, are sensitive to social signals and their valuation is important in social learning. Here we introduce a task that investigates if mutual reward delivery in male rats can drive associative learning. We found that when actor rats have fully learned a stimulus-self-reward association, adding a cue that predicted additional reward to a partner unblocked associative learning about this cue. By contrast, additional cues that did not predict partner reward remained blocked from acquiring positive associative value. Importantly, this social unblocking effect was still present when controlling for secondary reinforcement but absent when social information exchange was impeded, when mutual reward outcomes were disadvantageously unequal to the actor or when the added cue predicted reward delivery to an empty chamber. Taken together, these results suggest that mutual rewards can drive associative learning in rats and is dependent on vicariously experienced social and food-related cues.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sander van Gurp
- Social Rodent Lab, Institute of Experimental Psychology, Heinrich-Heine-University, Düsseldorf, Germany
| | - Jochen Hoog
- Social Rodent Lab, Institute of Experimental Psychology, Heinrich-Heine-University, Düsseldorf, Germany.,Comparative Psychology, Institute of Experimental Psychology, Heinrich-Heine-University, Düsseldorf, Germany
| | - Tobias Kalenscher
- Comparative Psychology, Institute of Experimental Psychology, Heinrich-Heine-University, Düsseldorf, Germany
| | - Marijn van Wingerden
- Social Rodent Lab, Institute of Experimental Psychology, Heinrich-Heine-University, Düsseldorf, Germany.,Department of Cognitive Science and Artificial Intelligence, Tilburg School of Humanities and Digital Sciences, Tilburg University, Tilburg, Netherlands
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Azure-winged magpies' decisions to share food are contingent on the presence or absence of food for the recipient. Sci Rep 2020; 10:16147. [PMID: 32999416 PMCID: PMC7528063 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-020-73256-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/08/2019] [Accepted: 09/14/2020] [Indexed: 12/31/2022] Open
Abstract
Helping others is a key feature of human behavior. However, recent studies render this feature not uniquely human, and describe discoveries of prosocial behavior in non-human primates, other social mammals, and most recently in some bird species. Nevertheless, the cognitive underpinnings of this prosociality; i.e., whether animals take others’ need for help into account, often remain obscured. In this study, we take a first step in investigating prosociality in azure-winged magpies by presenting them with the opportunity to share highly desired food with their conspecifics i) in a situation in which these conspecifics had no such food, ii) in a situation in which they too had access to that highly desired food, and iii) in an open, base-line, situation where all had equal access to the same food and could move around freely. We find that azure-winged magpies regularly share high-value food items, preferably with, but not restricted to, members of the opposite sex. Most notably, we find that these birds, and specifically the females, seem to differentiate between whether others have food or do not have food, and subsequently cater to that lack. Begging calls by those without food seem to function as cues that elicit the food-sharing, but the response to that begging is condition-dependent. Moreover, analyses on a restricted dataset that excluded those events in which there was begging showed exactly the same patterns, raising the possibility that the azure-winged magpies might truly notice when others have access to fewer resources (even in the absence of vocal cues). This sharing behavior could indicate a high level of social awareness and prosociality that should be further investigated. Further studies are needed to establish the order of intentionality at play in this system, and whether azure-winged magpies might be able to attribute desire states to their conspecifics.
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Festucci F, Buccheri C, Cerniglia L, Paciello M, Cimino S, Curcio G, Adriani W. A new paradigm for Prosocial Behavior and Reciprocity, assessed in WT and HET rats for the DAT gene. Behav Brain Res 2020; 393:112746. [PMID: 32502514 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbr.2020.112746] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/04/2020] [Revised: 04/06/2020] [Accepted: 05/28/2020] [Indexed: 10/24/2022]
Abstract
Most behavioral studies on animals focus on observation of individual subjects. Current paradigms of sociability set aside the social-operant dimension, i.e. acting in favor of another conspecific. We focused on prosocial behavior and reciprocity of male, adult Wild-Type (WT) and Heterozygous (HET) rats for the dopamine-transporter (DAT) gene. METHOD: The experiment consisted of 24 rats, of WT (n = 12) and HET (n = 12) genotypes. During training, rats were daily introduced, individually, into an apparatus hosting a suspended syringe, which they learnt to push in order to obtain food therein. Then, twice daily along several weeks, we introduced two rats separated by a grid in the same structure: by syringe-pushing, each subject had the opportunity to donate and receive donations of food. We tested pairs with similar versus different genotype. Eventually, we replaced food reward with polystyrene pieces, to understand if they pushed for actual reward or like a habit. RESULTS: In general, WT rats had better performance, regardless of reward type, than HET ones. When we crossed partner rats' genotype (WT-HET pairs), WT rats pushed at peak levels, regardless of food pellet received back (in fact, HET companions pushed less). Couples of WT rats achieved better results than HET ones even when polystyrene, instead of food, was used. Thus,WT rats seem to be a better model for altruistic behavior than HET ones. For this reason, HET rats could represent a model for studies on altered prosocial behavior, to understand the role of DAT gene for impaired social mechanisms.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fabiana Festucci
- Center for Behavioural Sciences and Mental Health, Istituto Superiore di Sanità, Viale Regina Elena 299, Rome, Italy; Department of Biotechnological and Applied Clinical Sciences, University of L'Aquila, Piazzale Salvatore Tommasi 1, L'Aquila, Italy.
| | - Clelia Buccheri
- Center for Behavioural Sciences and Mental Health, Istituto Superiore di Sanità, Viale Regina Elena 299, Rome, Italy; Department of Biological Sciences, Tor Vergata University, Via della Ricerca Scientifica 1, Rome, Italy.
| | - Luca Cerniglia
- Faculty of Psychology, International Telematic University Uninettuno, Rome, Italy.
| | - Marinella Paciello
- Faculty of Psychology, International Telematic University Uninettuno, Rome, Italy
| | - Silvia Cimino
- Department of Dynamic and Clinical Psychology, Faculty of Psychology, Sapienza University of Rome, Rome, Italy.
| | - Giuseppe Curcio
- Department of Biotechnological and Applied Clinical Sciences, University of L'Aquila, Piazzale Salvatore Tommasi 1, L'Aquila, Italy.
| | - Walter Adriani
- Center for Behavioural Sciences and Mental Health, Istituto Superiore di Sanità, Viale Regina Elena 299, Rome, Italy; Faculty of Psychology, International Telematic University Uninettuno, Rome, Italy.
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Kentrop J, Kalamari A, Danesi CH, Kentrop JJ, van IJzendoorn MH, Bakermans-Kranenburg MJ, Joëls M, van der Veen R. Pro-social preference in an automated operant two-choice reward task under different housing conditions: Exploratory studies on pro-social decision making. Dev Cogn Neurosci 2020; 45:100827. [PMID: 32739841 PMCID: PMC7393525 DOI: 10.1016/j.dcn.2020.100827] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/21/2020] [Revised: 07/10/2020] [Accepted: 07/16/2020] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
In this study, we aimed to develop a behavioral task that measures pro-social decision making in rats. A fully automated, operant pro-social two-choice task is introduced that quantifies pro-social preferences for a mutual food reward in a set-up with tightly controlled task contingencies. Pairs of same-sex adult Wistar rats were placed in an operant chamber divided into two compartments (one rat per compartment), separated by a transparent barrier with holes that allowed the rats to see, hear, smell, but not touch each other. Test rats could earn a sucrose pellet either for themselves (own reward) or for themselves and the partner (both reward) by means of lever pressing. On average, male rats showed a 60 % preference for the lever that yielded a food reward for both themselves and their partner. In contrast, females did not show lever preference, regardless of the estrous cycle phase. Next, the impact of juvenile environmental factors on male rat social decision making was studied. Males were group-housed from postnatal day 26 onwards in complex housing Marlau™ cages that provided social and physical enrichment and stimulation in the form of novelty. Complex housed males did not show a preference for the pro-social lever.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jiska Kentrop
- Dept. Translational Neuroscience, Brain Center Rudolf Magnus, University Medical Center Utrecht, Utrecht University, Utrecht, the Netherlands
| | - Aikaterini Kalamari
- Dept. Translational Neuroscience, Brain Center Rudolf Magnus, University Medical Center Utrecht, Utrecht University, Utrecht, the Netherlands
| | - Chiara Hinna Danesi
- Dept. Translational Neuroscience, Brain Center Rudolf Magnus, University Medical Center Utrecht, Utrecht University, Utrecht, the Netherlands
| | - John J Kentrop
- Dept. Translational Neuroscience, Brain Center Rudolf Magnus, University Medical Center Utrecht, Utrecht University, Utrecht, the Netherlands
| | - Marinus H van IJzendoorn
- Dept. Psychology, Education and Child Studies, Erasmus University Rotterdam, the Netherlands; Primary Care Unit, School of Clinical Medicine, University of Cambridge, United Kingdom
| | | | - Marian Joëls
- Dept. Translational Neuroscience, Brain Center Rudolf Magnus, University Medical Center Utrecht, Utrecht University, Utrecht, the Netherlands; University of Groningen, University Medical Center Groningen, Groningen, the Netherlands
| | - Rixt van der Veen
- Dept. Translational Neuroscience, Brain Center Rudolf Magnus, University Medical Center Utrecht, Utrecht University, Utrecht, the Netherlands; Faculty of Social and Behavioural Sciences, Leiden University, Leiden, the Netherlands.
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31
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Dale R, Marshall-Pescini S, Range F. What matters for cooperation? The importance of social relationship over cognition. Sci Rep 2020; 10:11778. [PMID: 32678194 PMCID: PMC7366628 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-020-68734-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/21/2020] [Accepted: 07/01/2020] [Indexed: 11/08/2022] Open
Abstract
Cooperation is vital for the survival of many species and has been extensively researched at the ultimate level however, there is a considerable degree of variation within a given species in the extent of cooperative behaviours exhibited. Possible factors that have been discussed to contribute to this variation are the social relationship between the cooperating individuals, but also non-social factors such as inhibitory control. Investigating the performance of wolves, a highly cooperative species, in three experimental cooperative tasks; a coordination (string-pulling) task, a prosocial task and an inequity aversion task, we found that the social relationship between the partners had the largest effects on all tasks, while non-social factors (inhibition, learning speed, causal understanding and persistence) had rather unpredicted, or no effects. The results support the potential importance of relational factors, rather than motivation and cognitive abilities, in driving cooperative interactions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rachel Dale
- Domestication Lab, Konrad Lorenz Institute of Ethology, University of Veterinary Medicine, Veterinaerplatz 1, 1210, Vienna, Austria.
| | - Sarah Marshall-Pescini
- Domestication Lab, Konrad Lorenz Institute of Ethology, University of Veterinary Medicine, Veterinaerplatz 1, 1210, Vienna, Austria
| | - Friederike Range
- Domestication Lab, Konrad Lorenz Institute of Ethology, University of Veterinary Medicine, Veterinaerplatz 1, 1210, Vienna, Austria
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Williams LA, Brosnan SF, Clay Z. Anthropomorphism in comparative affective science: Advocating a mindful approach. Neurosci Biobehav Rev 2020; 115:299-307. [PMID: 32497569 DOI: 10.1016/j.neubiorev.2020.05.014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/30/2019] [Revised: 02/19/2020] [Accepted: 05/26/2020] [Indexed: 10/24/2022]
Abstract
Anthropomorphism is the attribution of human-like capacities and traits to non-human entities. Anthropomorphism is ubiquitous in everyday life and in scientific domains, operating both implicitly and explicitly as a function of the human lens through which we view the world. A rich history of work in psychology, animal behavior, cognitive science, and philosophy has highlighted the negative and, to a lesser degree, the positive implications of anthropomorphism. In this article, we aim to provide a nuanced perspective of how anthropomorphism impacts the work of comparative affective science. Specifically, we discuss three domains of empirical inquiry in which lessons can be drawn about the benefits and pitfalls of anthropomorphism: responses to death, inequity aversion, and prosocial behavior. On balance, we advocate a mindful approach to anthropomorphizing in comparative affective science, and comparative science more generally.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lisa A Williams
- School of Psychology, University of New South Wales, Sydney, NSW 2052 Australia.
| | - Sarah F Brosnan
- Department of Psychology, Language Research Center, Department of Philosophy, and Center for Behavioral Neuroscience, Georgia State University, PO Box 5010, Atlanta, GA 30302-5010 United States
| | - Zanna Clay
- Psychology Department, Durham University, South Rd, Durham DH1 3LE, United Kingdom
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Abstract
Over the past 150 years, the frontal lobes (FLs) have been implicated in the neural mediation of both normal and abnormal moral conduct and social behavior (MCSB). Despite the remarkable advances that have permeated this period up to the present, a comprehensive account of the neural underpinnings of MCSB has stubbornly defied the best minds of psychology, psychiatry, and neurology. The goal of this chapter is to review a few practical and conceptual achievements that have proved heuristically valuable as an impetus for further advance of knowledge. In virtually all cases in which MCSB was compromised by brain damage, the injuries were located (i) in the prefrontal cortices, (ii) in their connections with the temporal poles and anterior insula, or (iii) in related subcortical structures and pathways, such as the thalamic dorsomedial nucleus or the anterior thalamic radiation. The clinicoanatomic associations among these structures originated the "frontal network systems" concept, which satisfactorily explains the occurrence of classical FL syndromes in patients with lesions outside the prefrontal cortices. Overall, clinicoanatomic observational studies and experimental evidence from patients with acquired sociopathy/psychopathy indicate that abnormalities of MCSB are the final common pathway of single or mixed impairments of subordinate psychologic and neural domains that support MCSB. Independent studies on normal volunteers concur with this view, indicating that MCSB is shaped by the dynamic interplay of subordinate psychologic domains, such as moral sensitivity and judgment, and their neural correlates.
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Not by the same token: A female orangutan (Pongo pygmaeus) is selectively prosocial. Primates 2019; 61:237-247. [PMID: 31813075 DOI: 10.1007/s10329-019-00780-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/13/2019] [Accepted: 12/02/2019] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
Abstract
Studies of prosocial behavior in nonhumans have focused on group-living social animals. Despite being highly social and closely related to humans, chimpanzees have rarely exhibited prosocial preferences in experimental tasks. Fewer studies have provided their non group-living relatives-orangutans-with the opportunity to express prosocial preferences. Here, we allowed a single female orangutan to provide rewards for herself and for her mother, sister, or both, across various phases, using a token economy task. The orangutan was more likely to choose prosocially when she could provide rewards to her sister and herself compared to when she could provide rewards to her mother and herself. However, when presented with the simultaneous options of providing rewards for self, self and mother, or self and sister, she chose prosocially equally often to her mother and sister. She made the largest number of prosocial choices in a phase when she could provide rewards to all participants (herself, her sister, and her mother) rather than providing rewards only to herself or only to herself and one other participant. Despite the obvious limitations of a single case study, the study adds to the limited information on prosocial preferences in less social primate species, particularly when given the chance to share food items with different kin.
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Krasheninnikova A, Brucks D, Blanc S, von Bayern AMP. Assessing African grey parrots' prosocial tendencies in a token choice paradigm. ROYAL SOCIETY OPEN SCIENCE 2019; 6:190696. [PMID: 31903198 PMCID: PMC6936274 DOI: 10.1098/rsos.190696] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/23/2019] [Accepted: 11/17/2019] [Indexed: 06/10/2023]
Abstract
Prosociality is defined as a voluntary, typically low-cost behaviour that benefits another individual. Social tolerance has been proposed as a potential driver for its evolution, both on the proximate and on the ultimate level. Parrots are an interesting species to study such other-regarding behaviours, given that they are highly social and stand out in terms of relative brain size and cognitive capacity. We tested eight African grey parrots in a dyadic prosocial choice test. They faced a choice between two different tokens, a prosocial (actor and partner rewarded) and a selfish (only actor rewarded) one. We found that the birds did not behave prosocially when one subject remained in the actor role; however, when roles were alternated, the birds' prosocial choices increased. The birds also seemed to reciprocate their partner's choices, given that a contingency between choices was observed. If the food provisioned to the partner was of higher quality than that the actor obtained, actors increased their willingness to provide food to their partner. Nonetheless, the control conditions suggest that the parrots did not fully understand the task's contingencies. In sum, African grey parrots show the potential for prosociality and reciprocity; however, considering their lack of understanding of the contingencies of the particular tasks used in this study, the underlying motivation for the observed behaviour remains to be addressed by future studies, in order to elucidate the phylogenetic distribution of prosociality further.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anastasia Krasheninnikova
- Max Planck Institute for Ornithology, Eberhard-Gwinner-Strasse, 82319 Seewiesen, Germany
- Max Planck Comparative Cognition Research Station, Loro Parque Fundacíon, 38400 Puerto de la Cruz, Tenerife, Spain
| | - Désirée Brucks
- Max Planck Institute for Ornithology, Eberhard-Gwinner-Strasse, 82319 Seewiesen, Germany
- Max Planck Comparative Cognition Research Station, Loro Parque Fundacíon, 38400 Puerto de la Cruz, Tenerife, Spain
| | - Sigrid Blanc
- Max Planck Comparative Cognition Research Station, Loro Parque Fundacíon, 38400 Puerto de la Cruz, Tenerife, Spain
- Laboratoire d' Ethologie Expérimentale et Comparée, EA 4443, Université Paris 13, Villetaneuse, France
| | - Auguste M. P. von Bayern
- Max Planck Institute for Ornithology, Eberhard-Gwinner-Strasse, 82319 Seewiesen, Germany
- Max Planck Comparative Cognition Research Station, Loro Parque Fundacíon, 38400 Puerto de la Cruz, Tenerife, Spain
- Department of Biology, Ludwig-Maximilians-University of Munich, 82152 Planegg-Martinsried, Germany
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36
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Helping, fast and slow: Exploring intuitive cooperation in early ontogeny. Cognition 2019; 196:104144. [PMID: 31765923 DOI: 10.1016/j.cognition.2019.104144] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/21/2019] [Revised: 11/08/2019] [Accepted: 11/15/2019] [Indexed: 01/10/2023]
Abstract
Cooperative behavior is central to human societies. Human adults who reach their cooperative decisions more rapidly and independently of cognitive control display greater levels of prosocial behavior. This is taken to show that cooperation is guided by intuitive processes rather than by active control of selfish impulses. The current study investigated the emergence of intuitive cooperation in early human ontogeny. We measured helping behavior (latency and frequency) in a longitudinal sample of infants at ages 14 and 18 months. Between 14 and 18 months, the frequency of helping significantly increased and latency to help significantly decreased, suggesting advances in helping behavior during this period of development. Moreover, at 18 months and to some extent, even at 14 months, infants who helped more rapidly (as indexed by a shorter latency) acted more prosocially (as indexed by a greater frequency of helping) than infants who were slower to help. This link between latency and frequency of prosocial behavior was independent of infants' ability for inhibitory control and general sociability levels. Prosocial behavior thus begins to be governed by intuitive processes that operate independently of cognitive control early in human ontogeny. This informs our understanding of the nature and emergence of cooperative behavior by supporting accounts that assign a central role to intuition in the evolution of human cooperation.
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Abstract
Intergroup variation (IGV) refers to variation between different groups of the same species. While its existence in the behavioural realm has been expected and evidenced, the potential effects of IGV are rarely considered in studies that aim to shed light on the evolutionary origins of human socio-cognition, especially in our closest living relatives—the great apes. Here, by taking chimpanzees as a point of reference, we argue that (i) IGV could plausibly explain inconsistent research findings across numerous topics of inquiry (experimental/behavioural studies on chimpanzees), (ii) understanding the evolutionary origins of behaviour requires an accurate assessment of species' modes of behaving across different socio-ecological contexts, which necessitates a reliable estimation of variation across intraspecific groups, and (iii) IGV in the behavioural realm is increasingly likely to be expected owing to the progressive identification of non-human animal cultures. With these points, and by extrapolating from chimpanzees to generic guidelines, we aim to encourage researchers to explicitly consider IGV as an explanatory variable in future studies attempting to understand the socio-cognitive and evolutionary determinants of behaviour in group-living animals.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stephan P Kaufhold
- Department of Cognitive Science, University of California San Diego, 9500 Gilman Drive, La Jolla, San Diego, CA 92093, USA
| | - Edwin J C van Leeuwen
- Behavioral Ecology and Ecophysiology Group, Department of Biology, University of Antwerp, Universiteitsplein 1, 2610, Wilrijk, Antwerp, Belgium.,Centre for Research and Conservation, Royal Zoological Society of Antwerp, K. Astridplein 26, 2018 Antwerp, Belgium.,Max Planck Institute for Psycholinguistics, Wundtlaan 1, 6525 XD Nijmegen, The Netherlands
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Hepach R, Benziad L, Tomasello M. Chimpanzees help others with what they want; children help them with what they need. Dev Sci 2019; 23:e12922. [PMID: 31710758 DOI: 10.1111/desc.12922] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/16/2018] [Revised: 07/17/2019] [Accepted: 10/29/2019] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Abstract
Humans, including young children, are strongly motivated to help others, even paying a cost to do so. Humans' nearest primate relatives, great apes, are likewise motivated to help others, raising the question of whether the motivations of humans and apes are the same. Here we compared the underlying motivation to help in human children and chimpanzees. Both species understood the situation and helped a conspecific in a straightforward situation. However, when helpers knew that what the other was requesting would not actually help her, only children gave her what she needed instead of giving her what she requested. These results suggest that both chimpanzees and human children help others but the underlying motivation for why they help differs. In comparison to chimpanzees, young children help in a paternalistic manner. The evolutionary hypothesis is that uniquely human socio-ecologies based on interdependent cooperation gave rise to uniquely human prosocial motivations to help others paternalistically.
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Affiliation(s)
- Robert Hepach
- Research Methods in Early Child Development, Leipzig University, Leipzig, Sachsen, Germany
| | - Leïla Benziad
- Developmental and Comparative Psychology, Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology, Leipzig, Germany
| | - Michael Tomasello
- Developmental and Comparative Psychology, Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology, Leipzig, Germany.,Duke University, Durham, NC, USA
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Schweinfurth MK, Call J. Revisiting the possibility of reciprocal help in non-human primates. Neurosci Biobehav Rev 2019; 104:73-86. [DOI: 10.1016/j.neubiorev.2019.06.026] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/23/2019] [Revised: 06/12/2019] [Accepted: 06/20/2019] [Indexed: 01/29/2023]
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Affiliation(s)
- Megan Heaney
- School of Psychology The University of Auckland Auckland New Zealand
| | | | - Russell D. Gray
- School of Psychology The University of Auckland Auckland New Zealand
- Max Planck Institute for the Science of Human History Jena Germany
- School of Philosophy Australian National University Canberra ACT Australia
| | - Alex H. Taylor
- School of Psychology The University of Auckland Auckland New Zealand
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41
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Oberliessen L, Kalenscher T. Social and Non-social Mechanisms of Inequity Aversion in Non-human Animals. Front Behav Neurosci 2019; 13:133. [PMID: 31293399 PMCID: PMC6598742 DOI: 10.3389/fnbeh.2019.00133] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/16/2019] [Accepted: 06/05/2019] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Research over the last decades has shown that humans and other animals reveal behavioral and emotional responses to unequal reward distributions between themselves and other conspecifics. However, cross-species findings about the mechanisms underlying such inequity aversion are heterogeneous, and there is an ongoing discussion if inequity aversion represents a truly social phenomenon or if it is driven by non-social aspects of the task. There is not even general consensus whether inequity aversion exists in non-human animals at all. In this review article, we discuss variables that were found to affect inequity averse behavior in animals and examine mechanistic and evolutionary theories of inequity aversion. We review a range of moderator variables and focus especially on the comparison of social vs. non-social explanations of inequity aversion. Particular emphasis is placed on the importance of considering the experimental design when interpreting behavior in inequity aversion tasks: the tasks used to probe inequity aversion are often based on impunity-game-like designs in which animals are faced with unfair reward distributions, and they can choose to accept the unfair offer, or reject it, leaving them with no reward. We compare inequity-averse behavior in such impunity-game-like designs with behavior in less common choice-based designs in which animals actively choose between fair and unfair rewards distributions. This review concludes with a discussion of the different mechanistic explanations of inequity aversion, especially in light of the particular features of the different task designs, and we give suggestions on experimental requirements to understand the “true nature” of inequity aversion.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lina Oberliessen
- Comparative Psychology, Institute of Experimental Psychology, Heinrich Heine University, Düsseldorf, Germany
| | - Tobias Kalenscher
- Comparative Psychology, Institute of Experimental Psychology, Heinrich Heine University, Düsseldorf, Germany
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Abstract
Understanding intraspecific variation in sociality is essential for characterizing the flexibility and evolution of social systems, yet its study in nonhuman animals is rare. Here, we investigated whether chimpanzees exhibit population-level differences in sociality that cannot be easily explained by differences in genetics or ecology. We compared social proximity and grooming tendencies across four semiwild populations of chimpanzees living in the same ecological environment over three consecutive years, using both linear mixed models and social network analysis. Results indicated temporally stable, population-level differences in dyadic-level sociality. Moreover, group cohesion measures capturing network characteristics beyond dyadic interactions (clustering, modularity, and social differentiation) showed population-level differences consistent with the dyadic indices. Subsequently, we explored whether the observed intraspecific variation in sociality could be attributed to cultural processes by ruling out alternative sources of variation including the influences of ecology, genetics, and differences in population demographics. We conclude that substantial variation in social behavior exists across neighboring populations of chimpanzees and that this variation is in part shaped by cultural processes.
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Dale R, Palma-Jacinto S, Marshall-Pescini S, Range F. Wolves, but not dogs, are prosocial in a touch screen task. PLoS One 2019; 14:e0215444. [PMID: 31042740 PMCID: PMC6493736 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0215444] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/24/2019] [Accepted: 04/03/2019] [Indexed: 11/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Prosociality is important for initiating cooperation. Interestingly, while wolves rely heavily on cooperation, dogs’ do so substantially less thus leading to the prediction that wolves are more prosocial than dogs. However, domestication hypotheses suggest dogs have been selected for higher cooperation, leading to the opposing prediction- increased prosocial tendencies in dogs. To tease apart these hypotheses we adapted a paradigm previously used with pet dogs to directly compare dogs and wolves. In a prosocial choice task, wolves acted prosocially to in-group partners; providing significantly more food to a pack-member compared to a control where the partner had no access to the food. Dogs did not. Additionally, wolves did not show a prosocial response to non-pack members, in line with previous research that social relationships are important for prosociality. In sum, when kept in the same conditions, wolves are more prosocial than their domestic counterpart, further supporting suggestions that reliance on cooperation is a driving force for prosocial attitudes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rachel Dale
- Wolf Science Center, Domestication Lab, Konrad-Lorenz Institute of Ethology, University of Veterinary Medicine, Vienna, Austria
- Comparative Cognition, Messerli Research Institute, University of Veterinary Medicine, Vienna, Austria
- * E-mail:
| | - Sylvain Palma-Jacinto
- Wolf Science Center, Domestication Lab, Konrad-Lorenz Institute of Ethology, University of Veterinary Medicine, Vienna, Austria
- University of Tours, Parc Grandmont, Tours, France
| | - Sarah Marshall-Pescini
- Wolf Science Center, Domestication Lab, Konrad-Lorenz Institute of Ethology, University of Veterinary Medicine, Vienna, Austria
- Comparative Cognition, Messerli Research Institute, University of Veterinary Medicine, Vienna, Austria
| | - Friederike Range
- Wolf Science Center, Domestication Lab, Konrad-Lorenz Institute of Ethology, University of Veterinary Medicine, Vienna, Austria
- Comparative Cognition, Messerli Research Institute, University of Veterinary Medicine, Vienna, Austria
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Engelmann JM, Haux LM, Herrmann E. Helping in young children and chimpanzees shows partiality towards friends. EVOL HUM BEHAV 2019. [DOI: 10.1016/j.evolhumbehav.2019.01.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/27/2022]
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Nawroth C, Langbein J, Coulon M, Gabor V, Oesterwind S, Benz-Schwarzburg J, von Borell E. Farm Animal Cognition-Linking Behavior, Welfare and Ethics. Front Vet Sci 2019; 6:24. [PMID: 30838218 PMCID: PMC6383588 DOI: 10.3389/fvets.2019.00024] [Citation(s) in RCA: 44] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/27/2018] [Accepted: 01/21/2019] [Indexed: 12/04/2022] Open
Abstract
Farm animal welfare is a major concern for society and food production. To more accurately evaluate animal farming in general and to avoid exposing farm animals to poor welfare situations, it is necessary to understand not only their behavioral but also their cognitive needs and capacities. Thus, general knowledge of how farm animals perceive and interact with their environment is of major importance for a range of stakeholders, from citizens to politicians to cognitive ethologists to philosophers. This review aims to outline the current state of farm animal cognition research and focuses on ungulate livestock species, such as cattle, horses, pigs and small ruminants, and reflects upon a defined set of cognitive capacities (physical cognition: categorization, numerical ability, object permanence, reasoning, tool use; social cognition: individual discrimination and recognition, communication with humans, social learning, attribution of attention, prosociality, fairness). We identify a lack of information on certain aspects of physico-cognitive capacities in most farm animal species, such as numerosity discrimination and object permanence. This leads to further questions on how livestock comprehend their physical environment and understand causal relationships. Increasing our knowledge in this area will facilitate efforts to adjust husbandry systems and enrichment items to meet the needs and preferences of farm animals. Research in the socio-cognitive domain indicates that ungulate livestock possess sophisticated mental capacities, such as the discrimination between, and recognition of, conspecifics as well as human handlers using multiple modalities. Livestock also react to very subtle behavioral cues of conspecifics and humans. These socio-cognitive capacities can impact human-animal interactions during management practices and introduce ethical considerations on how to treat livestock in general. We emphasize the importance of gaining a better understanding of how livestock species interact with their physical and social environments, as this information can improve housing and management conditions and can be used to evaluate the use and treatment of animals during production.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christian Nawroth
- Institute of Behavioural Physiology, Leibniz Institute for Farm Animal Biology (FBN), Dummerstorf, Germany
- Centre for Proper Housing of Ruminants and Pigs, Federal Food Safety and Veterinary Office, Agroscope Tänikon, Bern, Switzerland
| | - Jan Langbein
- Institute of Behavioural Physiology, Leibniz Institute for Farm Animal Biology (FBN), Dummerstorf, Germany
| | | | - Vivian Gabor
- Department of Animal Sciences, University of Goettingen, Goettingen, Germany
| | - Susann Oesterwind
- Institute of Behavioural Physiology, Leibniz Institute for Farm Animal Biology (FBN), Dummerstorf, Germany
- Faculty of Agricultural and Environmental Sciences, University of Rostock, Rostock, Germany
| | - Judith Benz-Schwarzburg
- Unit for Ethics and Human-Animal Studies, Messerli Research Institute, Vetmeduni Vienna, University of Vienna, Medical University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria
| | - Eberhard von Borell
- Institute of Agricultural and Nutritional Sciences, Martin-Luther-University Halle-Wittenberg, Halle, Germany
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Wu N, Su Y. Variations in the oxytocin receptor gene and prosocial behavior: moderating effects of situational factors. Integr Zool 2019; 13:687-697. [PMID: 29851255 DOI: 10.1111/1749-4877.12336] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/06/2023]
Abstract
Humans are the most prosocial primate species and they often exhibit high levels of prosocial behavior toward genetically unrelated individuals. Traditional evolutionary theories are not sufficient to explain the individual differences and mechanisms related to prosociality. In this study, we focused on the gene-situation interaction in prosocial behaviors, and the patterns of genotype variance related to cooperation and comforting in different situations. We explored the interaction between the oxytocin receptor (OXTR) gene and situations, and the genotype variance under low and high prosociality situations between outgroup and ingroup recipients in a sample of 422 Chinese males. Prosociality was tested by measuring the prosocial tendencies, and prosocial behaviors were tested in cooperation and comforting tasks. OXTR single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) were genotyped using polymerase chain reaction-restriction fragment length polymorphism analysis. The results suggested that the relationship between OXTR SNPs (specifically rs13316193, rs1042778 and rs237887) and prosocial behavior varied across different situations, and that the associations were moderated by the recipient's identity and the prosocial cost. Our findings indicate the action of a moderating mechanism between the OXTR gene and prosocial behaviors according to situational factors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nan Wu
- Teachers College of Beijing Union University, Peking University, Beijing, China.,School of Psychological and Cognitive Sciences and Beijing Key Laboratory of Behavior and Mental Health, Peking University, Beijing, China
| | - Yanjie Su
- School of Psychological and Cognitive Sciences and Beijing Key Laboratory of Behavior and Mental Health, Peking University, Beijing, China
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Schweinfurth MK, Taborsky M. Relatedness decreases and reciprocity increases cooperation in Norway rats. Proc Biol Sci 2019. [PMID: 29514963 DOI: 10.1098/rspb.2018.0035] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Kin selection and reciprocity are two mechanisms underlying the evolution of cooperation, but the relative importance of kinship and reciprocity for decisions to cooperate are yet unclear for most cases of cooperation. Here, we experimentally tested the relative importance of relatedness and received cooperation for decisions to help a conspecific in wild-type Norway rats (Rattus norvegicus). Test rats provided more food to non-kin than to siblings, and they generally donated more food to previously helpful social partners than to those that had refused help. The rats thus applied reciprocal cooperation rules irrespective of relatedness, highlighting the importance of reciprocal help for cooperative interactions among both related and unrelated conspecifics.
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Affiliation(s)
- Manon K Schweinfurth
- Behavioural Ecology, Institute of Ecology and Evolution, University of Bern, Wohlenstrasse 50a, 3032 Hinterkappelen, Switzerland .,School of Psychology & Neuroscience, University of St Andrews, Westburn Lane, KY16 9JP St Andrews, UK
| | - Michael Taborsky
- Behavioural Ecology, Institute of Ecology and Evolution, University of Bern, Wohlenstrasse 50a, 3032 Hinterkappelen, Switzerland
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Sánchez-Amaro A, Duguid S, Call J, Tomasello M. Chimpanzees and children avoid mutual defection in a social dilemma. EVOL HUM BEHAV 2019. [DOI: 10.1016/j.evolhumbehav.2018.07.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
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Khalifeh S, Khodagholi F, Moghtadaei M, Behvarmanesh A, Kheradmand A, Ghazvini H. Effects of Maternal Deprivation on Anxiety, Depression, and Empathy in Male and Female Offspring of Wistar Rats in the Face of Novel Objects. Galen Med J 2019; 8:e1093. [PMID: 34466461 PMCID: PMC8344128 DOI: 10.31661/gmj.v0i0.1093] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/25/2017] [Revised: 03/23/2018] [Accepted: 05/29/2018] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Background: Early life stress (ELS) models such as maternal deprivation (MD) are used to investigate behavioral changes in rodents under stressful situations. MD is a situation in which rat pups are separated from the dam; MD has different paradigms. The purpose of this research is to evaluate the effects of maternal deprivation on anxiety, depression, and empathy in adult Wistar rats. Materials and Methods: MD was applied to pups as per specifically designed protocol to compare rats of the control group with maternal deprivation rats and also the group, which faced novel objects. Each group consisted of eight rats. In this study, separation started from postnatal day (PND) 14 for various periods up to PND 60. EPM test was undertaken to measure anxiety; moreover, FST was used to indicate levels of depression. Also, changes in the empathy ratio were also demonstrated. One-way analysis of variance (ANOVA), Tukey’s post hoc analysis, and t-test were applied to analyze the results. Results: MD-treated rats showed a significant decrease in anxiety and empathy indexes compared with those in the control group (P<0.05). However, MD significantly increased depression in both male and female rats (P<0.05). Finally, exposure to novel objects decreased depression but did not have any effect on anxiety and empathy levels in MD rats (P<0.05). Conclusion: ELS may lead to various states of mood and behavior in adulthood. According to the findings of this study, depression increases due to MD, though both anxiety and empathy decrease in both male and female Wistar rats. Moreover, exposure to novel objects decreases depression, while anxiety and empathy do not change significantly with exposure to novel objects.
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Affiliation(s)
- Solmaz Khalifeh
- Cognitive and Neuroscience Research Center (CNRC), Tehran Medical Sciences, Islamic Azad University, Tehran, Iran
- Correspondence to: Solmaz Khalifeh, Cognitive and Neuroscience Research Center (CNRC), Tehran Medical Sciences, Islamic Azad University, Tehran, Iran Telephone Number: (+98) 9128614233 Email Address:
| | - Fariba Khodagholi
- Neuroscience Research Center, Shahid Beheshti University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran
| | - Mehrad Moghtadaei
- Department of Physiology, Faculty of Advanced Sciences and Technology, Tehran Medical Sciences, Islamic Azad University, Tehran, Iran
| | - Ali Behvarmanesh
- AmirAlmomenin Hospital, Tehran Medical Sciences, Islamic Azad University, Tehran, Iran
| | - Afshin Kheradmand
- Departmant of Pharmacology and Toxicology, school of Pharmacy, International campus, Iran University of medical science,Tehran,Iran
| | - Hamed Ghazvini
- Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences Research Center, Addiction Institute, Mazandaran University of Medical Sciences, Sari, Mazandaran, Iran
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