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Pinto A, Botelho MJ, Churro C, Asselman J, Pereira P, Pereira JL. A review on aquatic toxins - Do we really know it all regarding the environmental risk posed by phytoplankton neurotoxins? JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT 2023; 345:118769. [PMID: 37597370 DOI: 10.1016/j.jenvman.2023.118769] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/28/2023] [Revised: 07/24/2023] [Accepted: 08/09/2023] [Indexed: 08/21/2023]
Abstract
Aquatic toxins are potent natural toxins produced by certain cyanobacteria and marine algae species during harmful cyanobacterial and algal blooms (CyanoHABs and HABs, respectively). These harmful bloom events and the toxins produced during these events are a human and environmental health concern worldwide, with occurrence, frequency and severity of CyanoHABs and HABs being predicted to keep increasing due to ongoing climate change scenarios. These contexts, as well as human health consequences of some toxins produced during bloom events have been thoroughly reviewed before. Conversely, the wider picture that includes the non-human biota in the assessment of noxious effects of toxins is much less covered in the literature and barely covered by review works. Despite direct human exposure to aquatic toxins and related deleterious effects being responsible for the majority of the public attention to the blooms' problematic, it constitutes a very limited fraction of the real environmental risk posed by these toxins. The disruption of ecological and trophic interactions caused by these toxins in the aquatic biota building on deleterious effects they may induce in different species is paramount as a modulator of the overall magnitude of the environmental risk potentially involved, thus necessarily constraining the quality and efficiency of the management strategies that should be placed. In this way, this review aims at updating and consolidating current knowledge regarding the adverse effects of aquatic toxins, attempting to going beyond their main toxicity pathways in human and related models' health, i.e., also focusing on ecologically relevant model organisms. For conciseness and considering the severity in terms of documented human health risks as a reference, we restricted the detailed revision work to neurotoxic cyanotoxins and marine toxins. This comprehensive revision of the systemic effects of aquatic neurotoxins provides a broad overview of the exposure and the hazard that these compounds pose to human and environmental health. Regulatory approaches they are given worldwide, as well as (eco)toxicity data available were hence thoroughly reviewed. Critical research gaps were identified particularly regarding (i) the toxic effects other than those typical of the recognized disease/disorder each toxin causes following acute exposure in humans and also in other biota; and (ii) alternative detection tools capable of being early-warning signals for aquatic toxins occurrence and therefore provide better human and environmental safety insurance. Future directions on aquatic toxins research are discussed in face of the existent knowledge, with particular emphasis on the much-needed development and implementation of effective alternative (eco)toxicological biomarkers for these toxins. The wide-spanning approach followed herein will hopefully stimulate future research more broadly addressing the environmental hazardous potential of aquatic toxins.
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Affiliation(s)
- Albano Pinto
- CESAM - Centre for Environmental and Marine Studies, Department of Biology, University of Aveiro, Portugal.
| | - Maria João Botelho
- IPMA, Portuguese Institute for the Sea and Atmosphere, Av. Alfredo Magalhães Ramalho 6, 1495-165, Algés, Portugal; CIIMAR, Interdisciplinary Centre of Marine and Environmental Research, University of Porto, Terminal de Cruzeiros do Porto, Av. General Norton de Matos s/n, 4450-208, Matosinhos, Portugal
| | - Catarina Churro
- IPMA, Portuguese Institute for the Sea and Atmosphere, Av. Alfredo Magalhães Ramalho 6, 1495-165, Algés, Portugal; CIIMAR, Interdisciplinary Centre of Marine and Environmental Research, University of Porto, Terminal de Cruzeiros do Porto, Av. General Norton de Matos s/n, 4450-208, Matosinhos, Portugal
| | - Jana Asselman
- Blue Growth Research Lab, Ghent University, Bluebridge Building, Ostend Science Park 1, 8400, Ostend, Belgium
| | - Patrícia Pereira
- CESAM - Centre for Environmental and Marine Studies, Department of Biology, University of Aveiro, Portugal
| | - Joana Luísa Pereira
- CESAM - Centre for Environmental and Marine Studies, Department of Biology, University of Aveiro, Portugal
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Toxic Effects Produced by Anatoxin-a under Laboratory Conditions: A Review. Toxins (Basel) 2022; 14:toxins14120861. [PMID: 36548758 PMCID: PMC9784168 DOI: 10.3390/toxins14120861] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/31/2022] [Revised: 11/18/2022] [Accepted: 12/06/2022] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
The presence of cyanotoxins and its bioaccumulation in the food chain is an increasingly common problem worldwide. Despite the toxic effects produced by Anatoxin-a (ATX-a), this neurotoxin has been less studied compared to microcystins (MCs) and cylindrospermopsin (CYN). Studies conducted under laboratory conditions are of particular interest because these provide information which are directly related to the effects produced by the toxin. Currently, the World Health Organization (WHO) considers the ATX-a toxicological database inadequate to support the publication of a formal guideline reference value. Therefore, the aim of the present work is to compile all of the in vitro and in vivo toxicological studies performed so far and to identify potential data gaps. Results show that the number of reports is increasing in recent years. However, more in vitro studies are needed, mainly in standardized neuronal cell lines. Regarding in vivo studies, very few of them reflect conditions occurring in nature and further studies with longer periods of oral exposure would be of interest. Moreover, additional toxicological aspects of great interest such as mutagenicity, genotoxicity, immunotoxicity and alteration of hormonal balance need to be studied in depth.
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Ahari H, Nowruzi B, Anvar AA, Porzani SJ. The Toxicity Testing of Cyanobacterial Toxins In Vivo and In Vitro by Mouse Bioassay: A Review. Mini Rev Med Chem 2021; 22:1131-1151. [PMID: 34720080 DOI: 10.2174/1389557521666211101162030] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/30/2020] [Revised: 07/26/2021] [Accepted: 08/21/2021] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
Different biological methods based on bioactivity are available to detect cyanotoxins, including neurotoxicity, immunological interactions, hepatotoxicity, cytotoxicity, and enzymatic activity. The mouse bioassay is the first test employed in laboratory cultures, cell extracts, and water bloom materials to detect toxins. It is also used as a traditional method to estimate the LD50. Concerning the ease of access and low cost, it is the most common method for this purpose. In this method, a sample is injected intraperitoneally into adult mice, and accordingly, they are assayed and monitored for about 24 hours for toxic symptoms. The toxin can be detected using this method from minutes to a few hours; its type, e.g., hepatotoxin, neurotoxin, etc., can also be determined. However, this method is nonspecific, fails to detect low amounts, and cannot distinguish between homologues. Although the mouse bioassay is gradually replaced with new chemical and immunological methods, it is still the main technique to detect the bioactivity and efficacy of cyanotoxins using LD50 determined based on the survival time of animals exposed to the toxin. In addition, some countries oppose animal use in toxicity studies. However, high cost, ethical considerations, low-sensitivity, non-specificity, and prolonged processes persuade researchers to employ chemical and functional analysis techniques. The qualitative and quantitative analyses, as well as high specificity and sensitivity, are among the advantages of cytotoxicity tests to investigate cyanotoxins. The present study aimed at reviewing the results obtained from in-vitro and in-vivo investigations of the mouse bioassay to detect cyanotoxins, including microcystins, cylindrospermopsin, saxitoxins, etc.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hamed Ahari
- Department of Food Science and Technology, Science and Research Branch, Islamic Azad University, Tehran. Iran
| | - Bahareh Nowruzi
- Department of Biology, Science and Research Branch, Islamic Azad University, Tehran. Iran
| | - Amir Ali Anvar
- Department of Food Hygiene, Science and Research Branch, Islamic Azad University, Tehran. Iran
| | - Samaneh Jafari Porzani
- Department of Biology, Science and Research Branch, Islamic Azad University, Tehran. Iran
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Cyanotoxins and the Nervous System. Toxins (Basel) 2021; 13:toxins13090660. [PMID: 34564664 PMCID: PMC8472772 DOI: 10.3390/toxins13090660] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/06/2021] [Revised: 08/31/2021] [Accepted: 09/09/2021] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Cyanobacteria are capable of producing a wide range of bioactive compounds with many considered to be toxins. Although there are a number of toxicological outcomes with respect to cyanobacterial exposure, this review aims to examine those which affect the central nervous system (CNS) or have neurotoxicological properties. Such exposures can be acute or chronic, and we detail issues concerning CNS entry, detection and remediation. Exposure can occur through a variety of media but, increasingly, exposure through air via inhalation may have greater significance and requires further investigation. Even though cyanobacterial toxins have traditionally been classified based on their primary mode of toxicity, increasing evidence suggests that some also possess neurotoxic properties and include known cyanotoxins and unknown compounds. Furthermore, chronic long-term exposure to these compounds is increasingly being identified as adversely affecting human health.
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Colas S, Marie B, Lance E, Quiblier C, Tricoire-Leignel H, Mattei C. Anatoxin-a: Overview on a harmful cyanobacterial neurotoxin from the environmental scale to the molecular target. ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH 2021; 193:110590. [PMID: 33307089 DOI: 10.1016/j.envres.2020.110590] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/29/2020] [Revised: 11/06/2020] [Accepted: 12/02/2020] [Indexed: 06/12/2023]
Abstract
Anatoxin-a (ATX-a) is a neurotoxic alkaloid, produced by several freshwater planktonic and benthic cyanobacteria (CB). Such CB have posed human and animal health issues for several years, as this toxin is able to cause neurologic symptoms in humans following food poisoning and death in wild and domestic animals. Different episodes of animal intoxication have incriminated ATX-a worldwide, as confirmed by the presence of ATX-a-producing CB in the consumed water or biofilm, or the observation of neurotoxic symptoms, which match experimental toxicity in vivo. Regarding toxicity parameters, toxicokinetics knowledge is currently incomplete and needs to be improved. The toxin can passively cross biological membranes and act rapidly on nicotinic receptors, its main molecular target. In vivo and in vitro acute effects of ATX-a have been studied and make possible to draw its mode of action, highlighting its deleterious effects on the nervous systems and its effectors, namely muscles, heart and vessels, and the respiratory apparatus. However, very little is known about its putative chronic toxicity. This review updates available data on ATX-a, from the ecodynamic of the toxin to its physiological and molecular targets.
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Affiliation(s)
- Simon Colas
- UMR 7245 CNRS/MNHN "Molécules de Communication et Adaptations des Micro-organismes", Muséum National d'Histoire Naturelle, Paris, France; Mitochondrial and Cardiovascular Pathophysiology - MITOVASC, UMR CNRS 6015, INSERM U1083, UBL/Angers University, Angers, France
| | - Benjamin Marie
- UMR 7245 CNRS/MNHN "Molécules de Communication et Adaptations des Micro-organismes", Muséum National d'Histoire Naturelle, Paris, France
| | - Emilie Lance
- UMR 7245 CNRS/MNHN "Molécules de Communication et Adaptations des Micro-organismes", Muséum National d'Histoire Naturelle, Paris, France
| | - Catherine Quiblier
- UMR 7245 CNRS/MNHN "Molécules de Communication et Adaptations des Micro-organismes", Muséum National d'Histoire Naturelle, Paris, France; Université de Paris - Paris Diderot, 5 rue Thomas Mann, Paris, France
| | - Hélène Tricoire-Leignel
- Mitochondrial and Cardiovascular Pathophysiology - MITOVASC, UMR CNRS 6015, INSERM U1083, UBL/Angers University, Angers, France.
| | - César Mattei
- Mitochondrial and Cardiovascular Pathophysiology - MITOVASC, UMR CNRS 6015, INSERM U1083, UBL/Angers University, Angers, France.
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Razdan S, Adler J, Barua D, Barua S. Multifunctional Biofilter to Effectively Remove Toxins. ACS APPLIED BIO MATERIALS 2021. [DOI: 10.1021/acsabm.0c01282] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
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Lovin LM, Kim S, Taylor RB, Scarlett KR, Langan LM, Chambliss CK, Chatterjee S, Scott JT, Brooks BW. Differential influences of (±) anatoxin-a on photolocomotor behavior and gene transcription in larval zebrafish and fathead minnows. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCES EUROPE 2021; 33:40. [PMID: 34367861 PMCID: PMC8345817 DOI: 10.1186/s12302-021-00479-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/07/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Though anatoxin-a (antx-a) is a globally important cyanobacterial neurotoxin in inland waters, information on sublethal toxicological responses of aquatic organisms is limited. We examined influences of (±) antx-a (11-3490 μg/L) on photolocomotor behavioral responses and gene transcription associated with neurotoxicity, oxidative stress and hepatotoxicity, in two of the most common alternative vertebrate and fish models, Danio rerio (zebrafish) and Pimephales promelas (fathead minnow). We selected environmentally relevant treatment levels from probabilistic exposure distributions, employed standardized experimental designs, and analytically verified treatment levels using isotope-dilution liquid chromatography tandem mass spectrometry. Caffeine was examined as a positive control. RESULTS Caffeine influences on fish behavior responses were similar to previous studies. Following exposure to (±) antx-a, no significant photolocomotor effects were observed during light and dark transitions for either species. Though zebrafish behavioral responses profiles were not significantly affected by (±) antx-a at the environmentally relevant treatment levels examined, fathead minnow stimulatory behavior was significantly reduced in the 145-1960 μg/L treatment levels. In addition, no significant changes in transcription of target genes were observed in zebrafish; however, elavl3 and sod1 were upregulated and gst and cyp3a126 were significantly downregulated in fathead minnows. CONCLUSION We observed differential influences of (±) antx-a on swimming behavior and gene transcription in two of the most common larval fish models employed for prospective and retrospective assessment of environmental contaminants and water quality conditions. Sublethal responses of fathead minnows were consistently more sensitive than zebrafish to this neurotoxin at the environmentally relevant concentrations examined. Future studies are needed to understand such interspecies differences, the enantioselective toxicity of this compound, molecular initiation events within adverse outcome pathways, and subsequent individual and population risks for this emerging water quality threat.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lea M. Lovin
- Department of Environmental Science, Baylor University, Waco, TX 76798, USA
| | - Sujin Kim
- Department of Environmental Science, Baylor University, Waco, TX 76798, USA
| | | | | | - Laura M. Langan
- Department of Environmental Science, Baylor University, Waco, TX 76798, USA
| | | | - Saurabh Chatterjee
- Department of Environmental Health Sciences, University of South Carolina, Columbia, SC 29208, USA
| | - J. Thad Scott
- Department of Biology, Baylor University, Waco, TX 76798, USA
| | - Bryan W. Brooks
- Department of Environmental Science, Baylor University, Waco, TX 76798, USA
- Correspondence:
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Puddick J, van Ginkel R, Page CD, Murray JS, Greenhough HE, Bowater J, Selwood AI, Wood SA, Prinsep MR, Truman P, Munday R, Finch SC. Acute toxicity of dihydroanatoxin-a from Microcoleus autumnalis in comparison to anatoxin-a. CHEMOSPHERE 2021; 263:127937. [PMID: 32828056 DOI: 10.1016/j.chemosphere.2020.127937] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/01/2020] [Revised: 08/03/2020] [Accepted: 08/05/2020] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
The cyanobacterium Microcoleus autumnalis grows as thick benthic mats in rivers and is becoming increasingly prevalent around the world. M. autumnalis can produce high concentrations of anatoxins and ingestion of benthic mats has led to multiple dog deaths over the past two decades. M. autumnalis produces a suite of different anatoxin congeners including anatoxin-a (ATX), dihydroanatoxin-a, (dhATX), homoanatoxin-a and dihydrohomoanatoxin-a. Benthic mat samples often contain high levels of dhATX, but there is little toxicology information on this congener. In the present study, natural versions of dhATX and ATX were purified from cyanobacteria to determine the acute toxicity by different routes of administration using mice. Nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy was used to confirm the putative structure of dhATX. By intraperitoneal (ip) injection, the median lethal dose (LD50) for dhATX was 0.73 mg/kg, indicating a reduced toxicity compared to ATX (LD50 of 0.23 mg/kg). However, by oral administration (both gavage and feeding), dhATX was more toxic than ATX (gavage LD50 of 2.5 mg/kg for dhATX and 10.6 mg/kg for ATX; feeding LD50 of 8 mg/kg for dhATX and 25 mg/kg for ATX). The relative nicotinic acetylcholine receptor-binding affinities of ATX and dhATX were determined using the Torpedo electroplaque assay which showed consistency with the relative toxicity determined by ip injection. This work highlights that toxicity studies based solely on ip injection may not yield LD50 values that are relevant to those derived via oral administration, and hence, do not provide a good estimate of the risk posed to human and animal health in situations where oral ingestion is the likely route of exposure. The high acute oral toxicity of dhATX, and its abundance in M. autumnalis proliferations, demonstrates that it is an important environmental contaminant that warrants further investigation.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Roel van Ginkel
- Cawthron Institute, Private Bag 2, Nelson, 7042, New Zealand
| | - Carrie D Page
- Cawthron Institute, Private Bag 2, Nelson, 7042, New Zealand
| | - J Sam Murray
- Cawthron Institute, Private Bag 2, Nelson, 7042, New Zealand
| | | | - Joel Bowater
- Cawthron Institute, Private Bag 2, Nelson, 7042, New Zealand
| | | | - Susanna A Wood
- Cawthron Institute, Private Bag 2, Nelson, 7042, New Zealand
| | - Michèle R Prinsep
- Chemistry, School of Science, University of Waikato, Private Bag 3105, Hamilton, 3240, New Zealand
| | - Penelope Truman
- Massey University, PO Box 756, Wellington, 6140, New Zealand
| | - Rex Munday
- AgResearch Limited, Ruakura Research Centre, Private Bag 3123, Hamilton, 3240, New Zealand
| | - Sarah C Finch
- AgResearch Limited, Ruakura Research Centre, Private Bag 3123, Hamilton, 3240, New Zealand
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Huang IS, Zimba PV. Cyanobacterial bioactive metabolites-A review of their chemistry and biology. HARMFUL ALGAE 2019; 86:139-209. [PMID: 31358273 DOI: 10.1016/j.hal.2019.05.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 42] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/12/2018] [Revised: 09/14/2018] [Accepted: 11/16/2018] [Indexed: 06/10/2023]
Abstract
Cyanobacterial blooms occur when algal densities exceed baseline population concentrations. Cyanobacteria can produce a large number of secondary metabolites. Odorous metabolites affect the smell and flavor of aquatic animals, whereas bioactive metabolites cause a range of lethal and sub-lethal effects in plants, invertebrates, and vertebrates, including humans. Herein, the bioactivity, chemistry, origin, and biosynthesis of these cyanobacterial secondary metabolites were reviewed. With recent revision of cyanobacterial taxonomy by Anagnostidis and Komárek as part of the Süβwasserflora von Mitteleuropa volumes 19(1-3), names of many cyanobacteria that produce bioactive compounds have changed, thereby confusing readers. The original and new nomenclature are included in this review to clarify the origins of cyanobacterial bioactive compounds. Due to structural similarity, the 157 known bioactive classes produced by cyanobacteria have been condensed to 55 classes. This review will provide a basis for more formal procedures to adopt a logical naming system. This review is needed for efficient management of water resources to understand, identify, and manage cyanobacterial harmful algal bloom impacts.
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Affiliation(s)
- I-Shuo Huang
- Center for Coastal Studies, Texas A&M University-Corpus Christi, 6300 Ocean Drive, Corpus Christi, TX 78412, USA.
| | - Paul V Zimba
- Center for Coastal Studies, Texas A&M University-Corpus Christi, 6300 Ocean Drive, Corpus Christi, TX 78412, USA
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Miller TR, Bartlett SL, Weirich CA, Hernandez J. Automated Subdaily Sampling of Cyanobacterial Toxins on a Buoy Reveals New Temporal Patterns in Toxin Dynamics. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY 2019; 53:5661-5670. [PMID: 31038305 DOI: 10.1021/acs.est.9b00257] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/09/2023]
Abstract
Temporal variability of toxins produced by cyanobacteria in lakes is relatively unknown at time scales relevant to public health (i.e., hourly). In this study, a water quality monitoring buoy was outfitted with an automated water sampler taking preserved samples every 6 h for 68.75 days over a drinking water intake. A total of 251 samples were analyzed by tandem mass spectrometry for 21 cyanotoxin congeners in 5 classes producing 5020 data points. Microcystins (MCs) were the most abundant toxins measured (mean ± sd = 3.9 ± 3.3 μg/L) followed by cyanopeptolins (CPs) (1.1 ± 1.5 μg/L), anabaenopeptins (APs) (1.0 ± 0.6 μg/L), anatoxin-a (AT-A) (0.03 ± 0.06 μg/L), and microginin-690 (MG-690) (0.002 ± 0.01 μg/L). Advanced time series analyses uncovered patterns in cyanotoxin production. The velocity of cyanotoxin concentration varied from -0.7 to 0.9 μg/L/h with a maximum positive velocity just prior to peak toxin concentration during nonbloom periods. A backward-looking moving window of variance analysis detected major increases in cyanotoxin concentration and predicted the two greatest increases in MC. A wavelet analysis identified a significant ( p < 0.01) 2.8-4.2 day periodicity in toxin concentration over a ∼25 day period during peak toxin production, which is partially explained by easterly wind velocity ( R = -0.2, p < 0.05). Diversity in congener profiles was explored with principle component analysis showing that cyanotoxin dynamics followed a seasonal trajectory where toxin profiles were significantly clustered (ANOSIM R = 0.7, p < 0.05) on a daily basis. Variability in toxin profiles was strongly correlated with time ( R = -0.8, p < 0.001) as well as the C:N ratio of the toxin pool ( R = 0.17, p < 0.05). The methods employed here should be useful for uncovering patterns in cyanotoxin dynamics in other systems.
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Affiliation(s)
- Todd R Miller
- Joseph J. Zilber School of Public Health , University of Wisconsin-Milwaukee , Milwaukee , Wisconsin 53211 , United States
| | - Sarah L Bartlett
- Joseph J. Zilber School of Public Health , University of Wisconsin-Milwaukee , Milwaukee , Wisconsin 53211 , United States
- School of Freshwater Sciences , University of Wisconsin-Milwaukee , Milwaukee , Wisconsin 53204 , United States
| | - Chelsea A Weirich
- Joseph J. Zilber School of Public Health , University of Wisconsin-Milwaukee , Milwaukee , Wisconsin 53211 , United States
| | - John Hernandez
- Joseph J. Zilber School of Public Health , University of Wisconsin-Milwaukee , Milwaukee , Wisconsin 53211 , United States
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Huang IS, Zimba PV. Cyanobacterial bioactive metabolites-A review of their chemistry and biology. HARMFUL ALGAE 2019; 83:42-94. [PMID: 31097255 DOI: 10.1016/j.hal.2018.11.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/12/2018] [Revised: 09/14/2018] [Accepted: 11/16/2018] [Indexed: 06/09/2023]
Abstract
Cyanobacterial blooms occur when algal densities exceed baseline population concentrations. Cyanobacteria can produce a large number of secondary metabolites. Odorous metabolites affect the smell and flavor of aquatic animals, whereas bioactive metabolites cause a range of lethal and sub-lethal effects in plants, invertebrates, and vertebrates, including humans. Herein, the bioactivity, chemistry, origin, and biosynthesis of these cyanobacterial secondary metabolites were reviewed. With recent revision of cyanobacterial taxonomy by Anagnostidis and Komárek as part of the Süβwasserflora von Mitteleuropa volumes 19(1-3), names of many cyanobacteria that produce bioactive compounds have changed, thereby confusing readers. The original and new nomenclature are included in this review to clarify the origins of cyanobacterial bioactive compounds. Due to structural similarity, the 157 known bioactive classes produced by cyanobacteria have been condensed to 55 classes. This review will provide a basis for more formal procedures to adopt a logical naming system. This review is needed for efficient management of water resources to understand, identify, and manage cyanobacterial harmful algal bloom impacts.
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Affiliation(s)
- I-Shuo Huang
- Center for Coastal Studies, Texas A&M University Corpus Christi, 6300 Ocean Drive, Corpus Christi, TX 78412, USA.
| | - Paul V Zimba
- Center for Coastal Studies, Texas A&M University Corpus Christi, 6300 Ocean Drive, Corpus Christi, TX 78412, USA
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12
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Wood SA, Biessy L, Puddick J. Anatoxins are consistently released into the water of streams with Microcoleus autumnalis-dominated (cyanobacteria) proliferations. HARMFUL ALGAE 2018; 80:88-95. [PMID: 30502816 DOI: 10.1016/j.hal.2018.10.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/31/2018] [Revised: 10/02/2018] [Accepted: 10/02/2018] [Indexed: 05/12/2023]
Abstract
Proliferations of potentially toxic, mat-forming Microcoleus are increasing in streams globally. A range of cyanotoxins are produced by Microcoleus, with the neurotoxic anatoxins (anatoxin-a, dihydro-anatoxin-a, homoanatoxin-a and dihydro-homoanatoxin-a) the most commonly reported. The anatoxins produced by Microcoleus are thought to be largely contained within the cells. More knowledge on whether anatoxins are been released into the overlying stream water is required to better assess health risks to human, animals, and aquatic organisms. Field studies were conducted in three streams experiencing toxic Microcoleus autumnalis (basionym Phormidium autumnale)-dominated proliferations. Samples were collected every 1.5-3 h over a 24- or 26-h sampling period. Water samples were analyzed for total (intracellular and dissolved) and dissolved anatoxins, and time-integrated anatoxin samples were collected using solid phase adsorption tracking technology (SPATT). Anatoxins were detected in all stream water and SPATT samples (max. 0.91 ng mL-1 and 95 ng g-1 of strata-x hr-1). At two sites, anatoxins were largely dissolved, whereas at the third site only total anatoxins could be detected. Temporal variability in anatoxin concentrations was observed, but there were no evident patterns between sampling sites. Linear regression showed a very weakstatistically significant relationship (R2 = 0.24, p = 0.002) between total anatoxin concentrations in water and SPATT, however, when tested per site, only one of the three showed a significant relationship. These results highlight the potential for chronic exposure to anatoxins for humans (i.e., through drinking water) and aquatic organisms in streams with M. autumnalis proliferations. The health implications of this are unknown.
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Affiliation(s)
- Susanna A Wood
- Cawthron Institute, 98 Halifax Street East, Private Bag 2, Nelson 7042, New Zealand.
| | - Laura Biessy
- Cawthron Institute, 98 Halifax Street East, Private Bag 2, Nelson 7042, New Zealand
| | - Jonathan Puddick
- Cawthron Institute, 98 Halifax Street East, Private Bag 2, Nelson 7042, New Zealand
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Mello FD, Braidy N, Marçal H, Guillemin G, Nabavi SM, Neilan BA. Mechanisms and Effects Posed by Neurotoxic Products of Cyanobacteria/Microbial Eukaryotes/Dinoflagellates in Algae Blooms: a Review. Neurotox Res 2017; 33:153-167. [PMID: 28836116 DOI: 10.1007/s12640-017-9780-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/08/2017] [Revised: 06/28/2017] [Accepted: 07/05/2017] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
Environmental toxins produced by cyanobacteria and dinoflagellates have increasingly become a public health concern due to their ability to damage several tissues in humans. In particular, emerging evidence has called attention to the neurodegenerative effects of the cyanobacterial toxin β-N-methylamino-L-alanine (BMAA). Furthermore, other toxins such as anatoxin, saxitoxin, microcystin, nodularin and ciguatoxin also have a different range of effects on human tissues, including hepatotoxicity, neurotoxicity and gastrointestinal irritation. However, the vast majority of known environmental toxins have not yet been examined in the context of neurodegenerative disease. This review aims to investigate whether neurotoxic mechanisms can be demonstrated in all aforementioned toxins, and whether there exists a link to neurodegeneration. Management of toxin exposure and potential neuroprotective compounds is also discussed. Collectively, all aforementioned microbial toxins are likely to exert some form of neuronal damage, with many of their modes of action consistent with neurodegeneration. This is important in advancing our current understanding of the cytotoxic potential of environmental toxins upon human brain function, particularly in the context of age-related neurodegenerative disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fiona D Mello
- School of Biotechnology and Biomolecular Sciences, The University of New South Wales, Sydney, NSW, 2052, Australia
| | - Nady Braidy
- Centre for Healthy Brain Ageing, School of Psychiatry, Faculty of Medicine, The University of New South Wales, Sydney, Australia
| | - Helder Marçal
- Graduate School of Biomedical Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, The University of New South Wales, Sydney, NSW, 2052, Australia
| | - Gilles Guillemin
- Neuropharmacology group, MND and Neurodegenerative diseases Research Centre, Macquarie University, Sydney, NSW, Australia
| | - Seyed Mohammad Nabavi
- Applied Biotechnology Research Center, Baqiyatallah University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran
| | - Brett A Neilan
- School of Environmental and Life Sciences, The University of Newcastle, Callaghan, NSW, 2308, Australia.
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Shunmugam S, Gayathri M, Prasannabalaji N, Thajuddin N, Muralitharan G. Unraveling the presence of multi-class toxins from Trichodesmium bloom in the Gulf of Mannar region of the Bay of Bengal. Toxicon 2017; 135:43-50. [PMID: 28606423 DOI: 10.1016/j.toxicon.2017.06.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/06/2017] [Revised: 05/23/2017] [Accepted: 06/06/2017] [Indexed: 12/23/2022]
Abstract
Trichodesmium is an enigmatic bloom forming, non-heterocystous cyanobacterium reported most frequently in the coastal waters of India. However, the toxigenic potential of this globally significant N2 fixing cyanobacterium has not been characterized. In this study, we report for the first time the presence of potent multi-class neurotoxins such as Anatoxin-a, Saxitoxins, Gonyautoxin and hepatotoxins like MC-LR, MC-YA from a bloom material of Trichodesmium sp. MBDU 524 collected at the Gulf of Mannar region. Toxins were determined using liquid chromatography-electrospray ionization mass spectrometry (LC-ESI-MS) analysis of HPLC purified aqueous and solvent fractions. Molecular phylogenetic analysis through 16S rRNA gene sequencing showed the close relationship with Trichodesmium erythraeum clade. The toxigenic potential was validated through brine shrimp toxicity assay and showed 100% mortality after 48 h of incubation. The results suggest the potential toxigenic and environmental impacts of Trichodesmium bloom sample from the Gulf of Mannar region.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sumathy Shunmugam
- Department of Microbiology, Centre of Excellence in Life Sciences, Bharathidasan University, Tiruchirappalli, 620024, Tamilnadu, India
| | - Manickam Gayathri
- Department of Microbiology, Centre of Excellence in Life Sciences, Bharathidasan University, Tiruchirappalli, 620024, Tamilnadu, India
| | - Nainangu Prasannabalaji
- Department of Microbiology, Centre of Excellence in Life Sciences, Bharathidasan University, Tiruchirappalli, 620024, Tamilnadu, India
| | - Nooruddin Thajuddin
- Department of Microbiology, Centre of Excellence in Life Sciences, Bharathidasan University, Tiruchirappalli, 620024, Tamilnadu, India
| | - Gangatharan Muralitharan
- Department of Microbiology, Centre of Excellence in Life Sciences, Bharathidasan University, Tiruchirappalli, 620024, Tamilnadu, India.
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Miller TR, Beversdorf LJ, Weirich CA, Bartlett SL. Cyanobacterial Toxins of the Laurentian Great Lakes, Their Toxicological Effects, and Numerical Limits in Drinking Water. Mar Drugs 2017; 15:E160. [PMID: 28574457 PMCID: PMC5484110 DOI: 10.3390/md15060160] [Citation(s) in RCA: 42] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/17/2017] [Revised: 04/22/2017] [Accepted: 05/02/2017] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Cyanobacteria are ubiquitous phototrophic bacteria that inhabit diverse environments across the planet. Seasonally, they dominate many eutrophic lakes impacted by excess nitrogen (N) and phosphorus (P) forming dense accumulations of biomass known as cyanobacterial harmful algal blooms or cyanoHABs. Their dominance in eutrophic lakes is attributed to a variety of unique adaptations including N and P concentrating mechanisms, N₂ fixation, colony formation that inhibits predation, vertical movement via gas vesicles, and the production of toxic or otherwise bioactive molecules. While some of these molecules have been explored for their medicinal benefits, others are potent toxins harmful to humans, animals, and other wildlife known as cyanotoxins. In humans these cyanotoxins affect various tissues, including the liver, central and peripheral nervous system, kidneys, and reproductive organs among others. They induce acute effects at low doses in the parts-per-billion range and some are tumor promoters linked to chronic diseases such as liver and colorectal cancer. The occurrence of cyanoHABs and cyanotoxins in lakes presents challenges for maintaining safe recreational aquatic environments and the production of potable drinking water. CyanoHABs are a growing problem in the North American (Laurentian) Great Lakes basin. This review summarizes information on the occurrence of cyanoHABs in the Great Lakes, toxicological effects of cyanotoxins, and appropriate numerical limits on cyanotoxins in finished drinking water.
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Affiliation(s)
- Todd R Miller
- Joseph J. Zilber School of Public Health, University of Wisconsin-Milwaukee, Milwaukee, WI 53211, USA.
| | - Lucas J Beversdorf
- Joseph J. Zilber School of Public Health, University of Wisconsin-Milwaukee, Milwaukee, WI 53211, USA.
| | - Chelsea A Weirich
- Joseph J. Zilber School of Public Health, University of Wisconsin-Milwaukee, Milwaukee, WI 53211, USA.
| | - Sarah L Bartlett
- Joseph J. Zilber School of Public Health, University of Wisconsin-Milwaukee, Milwaukee, WI 53211, USA.
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16
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Echterbille J, Gilles N, Araóz R, Mourier G, Amar M, Servent D, De Pauw E, Quinton L. Discovery and characterization of EII B, a new α-conotoxin from Conus ermineus venom by nAChRs affinity capture monitored by MALDI-TOF/TOF mass spectrometry. Toxicon 2017; 130:1-10. [PMID: 28238803 DOI: 10.1016/j.toxicon.2017.02.023] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/09/2016] [Revised: 02/03/2017] [Accepted: 02/20/2017] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
Animal toxins are peptides that often bind with remarkable affinity and selectivity to membrane receptors such as nicotinic acetylcholine receptors (nAChRs). The latter are, for example, targeted by α-conotoxins, a family of peptide toxins produced by venomous cone snails. nAChRs are implicated in numerous physiological processes explaining why the design of new pharmacological tools and the discovery of potential innovative drugs targeting these receptor channels appear so important. This work describes a methodology developed to discover new ligands of nAChRs from complex mixtures of peptides. The methodology was set up by the incubation of Torpedo marmorata electrocyte membranes rich in nAChRs with BSA tryptic digests (>100 peptides) doped by small amounts of known nAChRs ligands (α-conotoxins). Peptides that bind to the receptors were purified and analyzed by MALDI-TOF/TOF mass spectrometry which revealed an enrichment of α-conotoxins in membrane-containing fractions. This result exhibits the binding of α-conotoxins to nAChRs. Negative controls were performed to demonstrate the specificity of the binding. The usefulness and the power of the methodology were also investigated for a discovery issue. The workflow was then applied to the screening of Conus ermineus crude venom, aiming at characterizing new nAChRs ligands from this venom, which has not been extensively investigated to date. The methodology validated our experiments by allowing us to bind two α-conotoxins (α-EI and α-EIIA) which have already been described as nAChRs ligands. Moreover, a new conotoxin, never described to date, was also captured, identified and sequenced from this venom. Classical pharmacology tests by radioligand binding using a synthetic homologue of the toxin confirm the activity of the new peptide, called α-EIIB. The Ki value of this peptide for Torpedo nicotinic receptors was measured at 2.2 ± 0.7 nM.
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Affiliation(s)
- Julien Echterbille
- Laboratory of Mass Spectrometry- MolSys, Department of Chemistry, University of Liege, Liege, Belgium
| | - Nicolas Gilles
- Service d'Ingénierie Moléculaire des Protéines (SIMOPRO), IBITECS, CEA, Université Paris-Saclay, F-91191, Gif-sur-Yvette, France
| | - Romulo Araóz
- Service d'Ingénierie Moléculaire des Protéines (SIMOPRO), IBITECS, CEA, Université Paris-Saclay, F-91191, Gif-sur-Yvette, France
| | - Gilles Mourier
- Service d'Ingénierie Moléculaire des Protéines (SIMOPRO), IBITECS, CEA, Université Paris-Saclay, F-91191, Gif-sur-Yvette, France
| | - Muriel Amar
- Service d'Ingénierie Moléculaire des Protéines (SIMOPRO), IBITECS, CEA, Université Paris-Saclay, F-91191, Gif-sur-Yvette, France
| | - Denis Servent
- Service d'Ingénierie Moléculaire des Protéines (SIMOPRO), IBITECS, CEA, Université Paris-Saclay, F-91191, Gif-sur-Yvette, France
| | - Edwin De Pauw
- Laboratory of Mass Spectrometry- MolSys, Department of Chemistry, University of Liege, Liege, Belgium
| | - Loic Quinton
- Laboratory of Mass Spectrometry- MolSys, Department of Chemistry, University of Liege, Liege, Belgium.
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Buratti FM, Manganelli M, Vichi S, Stefanelli M, Scardala S, Testai E, Funari E. Cyanotoxins: producing organisms, occurrence, toxicity, mechanism of action and human health toxicological risk evaluation. Arch Toxicol 2017; 91:1049-1130. [DOI: 10.1007/s00204-016-1913-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 258] [Impact Index Per Article: 36.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/27/2016] [Accepted: 12/13/2016] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
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18
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McAllister TG, Wood SA, Hawes I. The rise of toxic benthic Phormidium proliferations: A review of their taxonomy, distribution, toxin content and factors regulating prevalence and increased severity. HARMFUL ALGAE 2016; 55:282-294. [PMID: 28073542 DOI: 10.1016/j.hal.2016.04.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 53] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/21/2016] [Revised: 03/29/2016] [Accepted: 04/05/2016] [Indexed: 05/12/2023]
Abstract
There has been a marked increase in the distribution, intensity and frequency of proliferations of some species of the benthic mat-forming, toxin-producing genus Phormidium in rivers globally over the last decade. This review summarises current knowledge on their taxonomy, distribution, toxin content, environmental drivers of proliferations, and monitoring and management strategies in New Zealand. Although toxic Phormidium proliferation occurs in rivers worldwide little is known about these factors in most countries. Proliferations, defined as >20% cover of a riverbed, have been identified in 103 rivers across New Zealand. Morphological and molecular data indicate the main species responsible is Phormidium autumnale. In New Zealand Phormidium produces anatoxins (anatoxin-a, homoanatoxin-a, dihydroanatoxin-a, and dihydrohomoanatoxin-a) and these were detected in 67% of 771 samples from 40 rivers. The highest concentration measured was 712mgkg-1 dried weight (Oreti River, Southland), with considerable spatial and temporal variability in anatoxin concentrations between and within rivers. A synthesis of field based studies suggests that Phormidium proliferations are most likely when there is some enrichment of dissolved inorganic nitrogen but when water-column dissolved reactive phosphorus is less than 0.01mgL-1. Once established Phormidium-dominated mats trap sediment and internal mat biogeochemistry can mobilise sediment-bound phosphorus, which is then available for growth. Removal of Phormidium-dominated mats is primarily due to shear stress and substrate disturbance, although there is also evidence for autogenic detachment. A combination of factors including; changes to riparian margins, increased nitrate and fine sediment loads, and alterations in flow regimes are likely to have contributed to the rise in Phormidium proliferations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tara G McAllister
- Waterways Centre for Freshwater Management, University of Canterbury, Christchurch, New Zealand.
| | - Susanna A Wood
- Cawthron Institute, Nelson, New Zealand; Environmental Research Institute, University of Waikato, Hamilton, New Zealand
| | - Ian Hawes
- Waterways Centre for Freshwater Management, University of Canterbury, Christchurch, New Zealand
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Testai E, Scardala S, Vichi S, Buratti FM, Funari E. Risk to human health associated with the environmental occurrence of cyanobacterial neurotoxic alkaloids anatoxins and saxitoxins. Crit Rev Toxicol 2016; 46:385-419. [PMID: 26923223 DOI: 10.3109/10408444.2015.1137865] [Citation(s) in RCA: 53] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/24/2023]
Abstract
Cyanobacteria are ubiquitous photosynthetic micro-organisms forming blooms and scums in surface water; among them some species can produce cyanotoxins giving rise to some concern for human health and animal life. To date, more than 65 cyanobacterial neurotoxins have been described, of which the most studied are the groups of anatoxins and saxitoxins (STXs), comprising many different variants. In freshwaters, the hepatotoxic microcystins represent the most frequently detected cyanotoxin: on this basis, it could appear that neurotoxins are less relevant, but the low frequency of detection may partially reflect an a priori choice of target analytes, the low method sensitivity and the lack of certified standards. Cyanobacterial neurotoxins target cholinergic synapses or voltage-gated ion channels, blocking skeletal and respiratory muscles, thus leading to death by respiratory failure. This review reports and analyzes the available literature data on environmental occurrence of cyanobacterial neurotoxic alkaloids, namely anatoxins and STXs, their biosynthesis, toxicology and epidemiology, derivation of guidance values and action limits. These data are used as the basis to assess the risk posed to human health, identify critical exposure scenarios and highlight the major data gaps and research needs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Emanuela Testai
- a Environment and Primary Prevention Department , Istituto Superiore di Sanità , Rome , Italy
| | - Simona Scardala
- a Environment and Primary Prevention Department , Istituto Superiore di Sanità , Rome , Italy
| | - Susanna Vichi
- a Environment and Primary Prevention Department , Istituto Superiore di Sanità , Rome , Italy
| | - Franca M Buratti
- a Environment and Primary Prevention Department , Istituto Superiore di Sanità , Rome , Italy
| | - Enzo Funari
- a Environment and Primary Prevention Department , Istituto Superiore di Sanità , Rome , Italy
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20
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Wang S, Zhu L, Li Q, Li G, Li L, Song L, Gan N. Distribution and population dynamics of potential anatoxin-a-producing cyanobacteria in Lake Dianchi, China. HARMFUL ALGAE 2015; 48:63-68. [PMID: 29724477 DOI: 10.1016/j.hal.2015.07.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/31/2015] [Revised: 07/07/2015] [Accepted: 07/07/2015] [Indexed: 06/08/2023]
Abstract
The occurrence of cyanobacterial blooms is often accompanied by a variety of toxic secondary metabolites known as cyanotoxins. Anatoxin-a (ATX-a) is a highly toxic cyanobacterial neurotoxin synthesized by numerous species (e.g., Aphanizomenon, Anabaena and Oscillatoria) that has received much public attention. In this study, we used molecular methods (PCR and qPCR) to track the presence and dynamics of ATX-a-producing cyanobacteria, Aphanizomenon and Anabaena in Lake Dianchi, China based on the anaC and cpcBA-IGS genes over a 23-month period (from June 2010 to April 2012). Results revealed that Aphanizomenon was the major potential ATX-a producer in Lake Dianchi and that they were most abundant in early spring and least abundant in summer, coinciding with observed Aphanizomenon blooms. It was found that the proportion of ATX-a toxigenic cells was lower in the northern part of the lake (2.1%) than the middle (16.7%) and southern parts (19.2%). The information on the spatio-temporal distributions of ATX-a-producing cyanobacteria obtained in this study will help to build management strategies to improve water quality for public health.
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Affiliation(s)
- Suqin Wang
- State Key Laboratory of Freshwater Ecology and Biotechnology, Institute of Hydrobiology, The Chinese Academy of Sciences, Wuhan 430072, PR China; University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, PR China
| | - Lin Zhu
- State Key Laboratory of Freshwater Ecology and Biotechnology, Institute of Hydrobiology, The Chinese Academy of Sciences, Wuhan 430072, PR China; University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, PR China
| | - Qi Li
- Wuhan Foreign Language School, Wansongyuan Road 48, Wuhan 430022, PR China
| | - Genbao Li
- State Key Laboratory of Freshwater Ecology and Biotechnology, Institute of Hydrobiology, The Chinese Academy of Sciences, Wuhan 430072, PR China.
| | - Lin Li
- State Key Laboratory of Freshwater Ecology and Biotechnology, Institute of Hydrobiology, The Chinese Academy of Sciences, Wuhan 430072, PR China
| | - Lirong Song
- State Key Laboratory of Freshwater Ecology and Biotechnology, Institute of Hydrobiology, The Chinese Academy of Sciences, Wuhan 430072, PR China
| | - Nanqin Gan
- State Key Laboratory of Freshwater Ecology and Biotechnology, Institute of Hydrobiology, The Chinese Academy of Sciences, Wuhan 430072, PR China.
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Weirich CA, Miller TR. Freshwater harmful algal blooms: toxins and children's health. Curr Probl Pediatr Adolesc Health Care 2014; 44:2-24. [PMID: 24439026 DOI: 10.1016/j.cppeds.2013.10.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 65] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/07/2013] [Revised: 10/04/2013] [Accepted: 10/05/2013] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
Abstract
Massive accumulations of cyanobacteria (a.k.a. "blue-green algae"), known as freshwater harmful algal blooms (FHABs), are a common global occurrence in water bodies used for recreational purposes and drinking water purification. Bloom prevalence is increased due to anthropogenic changes in land use, agricultural activity, and climate change. These photosynthetic bacteria produce a range of toxic secondary metabolites that affect animals and humans at both chronic and acute dosages. Children are especially at risk because of their lower body weight, behavior, and toxic effects on development. Here we review common FHAB toxins, related clinical symptoms, acceptable concentrations in drinking water, case studies of children's and young adults' exposures to FHAB toxins through drinking water and food, methods of environmental and clinical detection in potential cases of intoxication, and best practices for FHAB prevention.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chelsea A Weirich
- Joseph J. Zilber School of Public Health, University of Wisconsin, Milwaukee, WI
| | - Todd R Miller
- Joseph J. Zilber School of Public Health, University of Wisconsin, Milwaukee, WI
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22
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Molgó J, Aráoz R, Benoit E, Iorga BI. Physical and virtual screening methods for marine toxins and drug discovery targeting nicotinic acetylcholine receptors. Expert Opin Drug Discov 2013; 8:1203-23. [DOI: 10.1517/17460441.2013.822365] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/05/2022]
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Puschner B, Pratt C, Tor ER. Treatment and diagnosis of a dog with fulminant neurological deterioration due to anatoxin--a intoxication. J Vet Emerg Crit Care (San Antonio) 2010; 20:518-22. [PMID: 20955303 DOI: 10.1111/j.1476-4431.2010.00578.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/01/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE To describe the clinical features, treatment, diagnostic work-up, and outcome of a dog with acute neurologic signs subsequent to algal toxin exposure. CASE SUMMARY A Golden Retriever was presented for evaluation of acute onset of paraparesis after swimming in a man-made pond in early June and ingesting algae from a nearby bucket. The dog was anxious, had mild ptyalism, and when excited, developed generalized self-limiting tremors that progressed to generalized fasciculations and lateral recumbency. The dog was treated with activated charcoal and crystalloid fluids. Two hours after the presentation, the dog acutely decompensated and was ultimately euthanized. Gastric contents, bucket contents, pond water, bile, and urine were positive for anatoxin-a. NEW OR UNIQUE INFORMATION PROVIDED Anatoxin-a intoxication is rarely confirmed in dogs but should be considered as a differential diagnosis in any dog with acute neurologic signs. We report the first successful detection of anatoxin-a in urine and bile of a dog exposed to blue green algae. This new test provides an enhanced diagnostic tool in suspect cases and has possible therapeutic implications in dogs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Birgit Puschner
- California Animal Health and Food Safety Laboratory System - Toxicology Laboratory, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of California, Davis, CA 95616, USA.
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25
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Campos F, Alfonso M, Durán R. In vivo modulation of α7 nicotinic receptors on striatal glutamate release induced by anatoxin-A. Neurochem Int 2010; 56:850-5. [DOI: 10.1016/j.neuint.2010.03.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/22/2010] [Revised: 03/17/2010] [Accepted: 03/19/2010] [Indexed: 10/19/2022]
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Campos F, Rellán S, Duran R, Gago A, Faro L, Alfonso M. Evaluation of in vivo and in vitro recovery rate of anatoxin-a through the microdialysis probe. Toxicon 2008; 52:817-23. [DOI: 10.1016/j.toxicon.2008.08.019] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/29/2008] [Revised: 08/05/2008] [Accepted: 08/08/2008] [Indexed: 10/21/2022]
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27
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Aráoz R, Herdman M, Rippka R, Ledreux A, Molgó J, Changeux JP, Tandeau de Marsac N, Nghiêm HO. A non-radioactive ligand-binding assay for detection of cyanobacterial anatoxins using Torpedo electrocyte membranes. Toxicon 2008; 52:163-74. [DOI: 10.1016/j.toxicon.2008.05.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/11/2008] [Revised: 05/10/2008] [Accepted: 05/12/2008] [Indexed: 10/22/2022]
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28
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Hogg RC, Bertrand D. Neurotoxins acting at nicotinic receptors. FUTURE NEUROLOGY 2008. [DOI: 10.2217/14796708.3.4.463] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
Neurotoxins include, in the most general sense, all molecules that destroy or inhibit the proper functioning of the nervous system. Neurotoxins from animals and plants include alkaloids and peptides, many of which interact with physiological processes in a selective manner. The majority of neurotoxins disrupt the transmission of signals in the nervous system by interfering with synaptic transmission. Neurotoxins can act presynaptically to inhibit the release, uptake and recycling of neurotransmitters or postsynaptically, binding to receptors on the postsynaptic membrane and preventing their activation by neurotransmitters. A class of neurotoxins from plants and animals interact with nicotinic acetylcholine receptors, either at the neuromuscular junction, peripherally at neuronal ganglia or centrally, to produce neurotoxic effects. In this article we review current knowledge of some of these neurotoxins, their structure, pharmacology, importance as pharmaceutical tools as well as future prospects for the development of therapeutic molecules.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ron C Hogg
- University of Geneva, Department of Neurosciences Fondamentales, Faculty of Medicine, 1, rue Michel Servet, CH-1211 Geneva 4, Switzerland
| | - Daniel Bertrand
- University of Geneva, Department of Neurosciences Fondamentales, Faculty of Medicine, Switzerland
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MALDI-TOF-MS detection of the low molecular weight neurotoxins anatoxin-a and homoanatoxin-a on lyophilized and fresh filaments of axenic Oscillatoria strains. Toxicon 2008; 51:1308-15. [DOI: 10.1016/j.toxicon.2008.02.018] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/22/2006] [Revised: 02/22/2008] [Accepted: 02/25/2008] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
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30
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Jarema KA, Poling A, MacPhail RC. Effects of weekly exposure to anatoxin-a and nicotine on operant performance of rats. Neurotoxicol Teratol 2008; 30:220-7. [PMID: 18387783 DOI: 10.1016/j.ntt.2008.02.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/11/2007] [Revised: 12/13/2007] [Accepted: 02/12/2008] [Indexed: 10/22/2022]
Abstract
This study examined the effects of acute and weekly administration of anatoxin-a and nicotine on operant performance. Anatoxin-a is a potent nicotinic receptor agonist produced by cyanobacteria, which are found in fresh waters throughout the world. Anatoxin-a is a potential human health hazard and has been responsible for numerous deaths of wildlife, livestock and domestic animals. Remarkably little is known, however, about the effects of anatoxin-a on behavior. Nicotine, the psychomotor stimulant in tobacco, has many well-documented behavioral effects, which often diminish (i.e. tolerance develops) when it is given daily. Male Long Evans rats initially were trained to respond under a multiple variable-ratio 30-response variable-interval 60-s (mult VR-30 VI 60-s) schedule of food reinforcement. They were then divided into 12 groups of 8 that received four weekly subcutaneous injections of anatoxin-a (0.05-0.2 mg/kg), nicotine (0.125-1.8 mg/kg), or vehicle 5-min prior to testing. When initially administered, each compound decreased response rates and reinforcement rates in both components of the multiple schedule. Substantial tolerance developed to the disruptive effects of nicotine with weekly administration. Tolerance also developed to the effects of anatoxin-a, although to a lesser degree; the highest dose severely decreased performance with little evidence of recovery. In conjunction with prior findings, these results suggest the behavioral effects of anatoxin-a and nicotine are similar, but not identical, and that relatively infrequent (episodic) administration can produce tolerance.
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Affiliation(s)
- K A Jarema
- Neurotoxicology Division, National Health and Environmental Effects Research Laboratory, U. S. Environmental Protection Agency, 109 TW Alexander Drive B105-04, Research Triangle Park, NC 27711, USA.
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Toxicity of Fresh Water Algal Toxins to Humans and Animals. ALGAL TOXINS: NATURE, OCCURRENCE, EFFECT AND DETECTION 2008. [DOI: 10.1007/978-1-4020-8480-5_3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/28/2023]
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Osswald J, Rellán S, Gago A, Vasconcelos V. Toxicology and detection methods of the alkaloid neurotoxin produced by cyanobacteria, anatoxin-a. ENVIRONMENT INTERNATIONAL 2007; 33:1070-89. [PMID: 17673293 DOI: 10.1016/j.envint.2007.06.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 63] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/21/2007] [Revised: 06/06/2007] [Accepted: 06/13/2007] [Indexed: 05/16/2023]
Abstract
Freshwater resources are under stress due to naturally occurring conditions and human impacts. One of the consequences is the proliferation of cyanobacteria, microphytoplankton organisms that are capable to produce toxins called cyanotoxins. Anatoxin-a is one of the main cyanotoxins. It is a very potent neurotoxin that was already responsible for some animal fatalities. In this review we endeavor to divulgate much of the internationally published information about toxicology, occurrence and detection methods of anatoxin-a. Cyanobacteria generalities, anatoxin-a occurrence and production as well as anatoxin-a toxicology and its methods of detection are the aspects focused in this review. Remediation of anatoxin-a occurrence will be addressed with a public health perspective. Final remarks call the attention for some important gaps in the knowledge about this neurotoxin and its implication to public health. Alterations of aquatic ecosystems caused by anatoxin-a is also addressed. Although anatoxin-a is not the more frequent cyanotoxin worldwide, it has to be regarded as a health risk that can be fatal to terrestrial and aquatic organisms because of its high toxicity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Joana Osswald
- Interdisciplinary Centre of Marine and Environmental Research (CIIMAR), Rua dos Bragas, 289, 4050-123 Porto, Portugal.
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Van Wagoner RM, Drummond AK, Wright JLC. Biogenetic Diversity of Cyanobacterial Metabolites. ADVANCES IN APPLIED MICROBIOLOGY 2007; 61:89-217. [PMID: 17448789 DOI: 10.1016/s0065-2164(06)61004-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 61] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/04/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Ryan M Van Wagoner
- Center for Marine Science, University of North Carolina at Wilmington, Wilmington, NC 28409, USA
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Campos F, Durán R, Vidal L, Faro LRF, Alfonso M. In vivo neurochemical characterization of Anatoxin-a evoked dopamine release from striatum. J Neural Transm (Vienna) 2006; 114:173-84. [PMID: 16897603 DOI: 10.1007/s00702-006-0542-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/18/2006] [Accepted: 06/18/2006] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
Anatoxin-a (AnTx) is a natural neurotoxin, which acts as a potent and stereoselective agonist at the nicotinic acetylcholine receptors. The in vivo actions of the AnTx on dopamine (DA) release are scarcely characterized. The aim of this study was to determine the neurochemical bases for AnTx-induced striatal DA release, using the brain microdialysis technique, in freely moving rats. Local application of AnTx (3.5 mM) through the microdialysis probe produced an increase in striatal DA levels (701 +/- 51% with respect to basal values). The effect of infusion of AnTx in Ca(2+)-free Ringer medium, in Na(+)-free Ringer medium and with TTX in the medium, was inhibited. Also, reserpine pre-treatment blocked the action of AnTx on striatal DA levels. To investigate the involvement of the DA transporter, the effects of AnTx were observed in the presence of nomifensine. The coadministration of AnTx and nomifensine evoked an additive effect on striatal DA levels. The latter results show that the DA release is not mediated by a decreased DA uptake. Taken as a whole, these results suggest that the effects of AnTx are predominantly mediated by an exocytotic mechanism, Ca(2+)-, Na(+)- and TTX-dependent, and not by a mechanism mediated by the DA transporter.
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Affiliation(s)
- F Campos
- Department of Functional Biology and Health Sciences, Faculty of Biology, University of Vigo, Vigo, Spain.
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Campos F, Durán R, Vidal L, Faro LRF, Alfonso M. In vivo Effects of the Anatoxin-a on Striatal Dopamine Release. Neurochem Res 2006; 31:491-501. [PMID: 16758357 DOI: 10.1007/s11064-006-9042-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 01/05/2006] [Indexed: 10/24/2022]
Abstract
Anatoxin-a is an important neurotoxin that acts a potent nicotinic acetylcholine receptor agonist. This characteristic makes anatoxin-a an important tool for the study of nicotinic receptors. Anatoxin-a has been used extensively in vitro experiments, however anatoxin-a has never been studied by in vivo microdialysis studies. This study test the effect of anatoxin-a on striatal in vivo dopamine release by microdialysis.The results of this work show that anatoxin-a evoked dopamine release in a concentration-dependent way. Atropine had not any effect on dopamine release evoked by 3.5 mM anatoxin-a. However, perfusion of nicotinic antagonists mecamylamine and alpha-bungarotoxin induced a total inhibition of the striatal dopamine release. Perfusion of alpha7*-receptors antagonists, metillycaconitine or alpha-bungarotoxin, partially inhibits the release of dopamine stimulated by anatoxin-a. These results show that anatoxin-a can be used as an important nicotinic agonist in the study of nicotinic receptor by in vivo microdialysis technique and also support further in vivo evidences that alpha7*nicotinic AChRs are implicated in the regulation of striatal dopamine release.
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Affiliation(s)
- F Campos
- Department of Functional Biology and Health Sciences, Faculty of Biology, University of Vigo, Pontevedra, Spain.
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Abstract
Biological warfare is a potential threat on the battlefield and in daily life. It is vital for neurologists and other health care practitioners to be familiar with biological and toxic agents that target the nervous system. most illnesses caused by biological warfare agents are not commonly considered neurologic disease, however. Many of these agents (such as anthrax) may present with headache, meningitis, or mental status changes in addition to fever and other symptoms and signs (Tables 2 and 3). Thus, a neurologist may be consulted acutely to aid in diagnosis. Because of the incubation time of many biological agents and their protean manifestations, it is likely that health care workers will be on the front lines in the event of a bioterrorist attack. We must be prepared.
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Affiliation(s)
- Peter J Osterbauer
- Department of Neurology, Wilford Hall Medical Center, Lackland Air Force Base, TX 78236, USA
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Aráoz R, Nghiêm HO, Rippka R, Palibroda N, de Marsac NT, Herdman M. Neurotoxins in axenic oscillatorian cyanobacteria: coexistence of anatoxin-a and homoanatoxin-a determined by ligand-binding assay and GC/MS. Microbiology (Reading) 2005; 151:1263-1273. [PMID: 15817793 DOI: 10.1099/mic.0.27660-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 72] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Two neurotoxic alkaloids, anatoxin-a and its homologue homoanatoxin-a, were purified from the filamentous cyanobacteria Oscillatoria sp. strain 193 (PCC 9240) and Oscillatoria formosa NIVA CYA-92 (PCC 10111), respectively, and characterized by mass spectrometry. Biological activity was determined by examining the capacity of the toxins to competitively inhibit the binding of radiolabelled bungarotoxin to acetylcholine receptors, using post-synaptic membrane fractions of Torpedo electric tissue. Inhibition was concentration dependent, with a K(i) of 5.4+/-1.1x10(-8) M for anatoxin-a and 7.4+/-0.9x10(-8) M for homoanatoxin-a. Their high affinities for the nicotinic cholinergic receptors were exploited to adapt the radioligand-binding assay for routine detection of this class of neurotoxins directly in low-molecular-mass cell extracts of cyanobacteria. Confirmation of the results and toxin identification were achieved by coupled gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC/MS). Seventy-six axenic strains, representative of 13 genera, were analysed. Five strains of the genus Oscillatoria, hitherto unknown for their toxicity, inhibited bungarotoxin binding. GC/MS revealed that Oscillatoria sp. strains PCC 6407, PCC 6412 and PCC 9107 synthesized exclusively anatoxin-a, whereas both anatoxin-a and homoanatoxin-a were produced by strain PCC 9029. Oscillatoria sp. strain PCC 6506, an isolate co-identic with strain PCC 9029, also produced both neurotoxins, but their respective presence depended upon growth conditions. The latter results suggest that regulatory differences in at least some of the cyanobacterial strains may account for the preferential synthesis of only one of the two neurotoxins or for their simultaneous occurrence.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rómulo Aráoz
- Unité des Cyanobactéries (CNRS URA 2172), Institut Pasteur, 25-28 rue du Docteur Roux, 75724 Paris Cedex 15, France
| | - Hoàng-Oanh Nghiêm
- Unité des Récepteurs et Cognition (CNRS URA 2182), Institut Pasteur, 25-28 rue du Docteur Roux, 75724 Paris Cedex 15, France
| | - Rosmarie Rippka
- Unité des Cyanobactéries (CNRS URA 2172), Institut Pasteur, 25-28 rue du Docteur Roux, 75724 Paris Cedex 15, France
| | - Nicolae Palibroda
- Laboratoire de Chimie Structurale des Macromolécules, Institut Pasteur, 25-28 rue du Docteur Roux, 75724 Paris Cedex 15, France
| | - Nicole Tandeau de Marsac
- Unité des Cyanobactéries (CNRS URA 2172), Institut Pasteur, 25-28 rue du Docteur Roux, 75724 Paris Cedex 15, France
| | - Michael Herdman
- Unité des Cyanobactéries (CNRS URA 2172), Institut Pasteur, 25-28 rue du Docteur Roux, 75724 Paris Cedex 15, France
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Rogers EH, Hunter ES, Moser VC, Phillips PM, Herkovits J, Muñoz L, Hall LL, Chernoff N. Potential developmental toxicity of anatoxin-a, a cyanobacterial toxin. J Appl Toxicol 2005; 25:527-34. [PMID: 16127666 DOI: 10.1002/jat.1091] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
Abstract
Some 2000 species of cyanobacteria (blue-green algae) occur globally in aquatic habitats. They are able to survive under a wide range of environmental conditions and some produce potent toxins. Toxin production is correlated with periods of rapid growth (blooms) and 25%-70% of blooms may be toxic. Anatoxin-a is an alkaloid neurotoxin that acts as a potent neuro-muscular blocking agent at the nicotinic receptor. Acute toxicity, following consumption of contaminated water, is characterized by rapid onset of paralysis, tremors, convulsions and death. Human exposures may occur from recreational water activities and dietary supplements, but are primarily through drinking water. The current studies were conducted to examine the effect of in utero exposure on postnatal viability, growth and neurodevelopment, to evaluate the potential of in vitro embryotoxicity, and to explore the synergistic relationship between anatoxin-a and the algal toxin microcystin-LR by the oral route. The results of preliminary studies on amphibian toxicity are also reported. Time-pregnant mice received 125 or 200 microg kg(-1) anatoxin-a by intraperitoneal injection on gestation days (GD) 8-12 or 13-17. Pup viability and weight were monitored over a 6-day period. Maternal toxicity (decreased motor activity) was observed at 200 microg kg(-1) in both treatment periods. There were no significant treatment-related effects on pup viability or weight on postnatal day (PND) 1 or 6. The GD 13-17 pups were evaluated on PND 6, 12 and 20 for standard markers of neurodevelopmental maturation (righting reflex, negative geotaxis and hanging grip time). No significant postnatal neurotoxicity was observed. In vitro developmental toxicity was evaluated in GD 8 mouse embryos exposed to 0.1-25 microm anatoxin-a for 26-28 h. Perturbations in mouse yolk sac vasculature were noted from the 1.0 microm concentration in the absence of significant embryonic dysmorphology. Potential algal toxin synergism was tested in mice receiving either 0, 500 or 1,000 microg kg(-1) microcystin-LR by gavage and approximately 50 min later receiving either 0, 500, 1,000 or 2,500 microg kg(-1) anatoxin-a by the same route. No deaths occurred at any dose and no definitive signs of intoxication were observed. Stages 17 and 25 toad embryos (Bufo arenarum) were exposed to 0.03-30.0 mg l(-1) of anatoxin-a for 10 days. Adverse effects included a dose-dependent transient narcosis, edema and loss of equilibrium. Most notable was the occurrence of 100% mortality at the high dose in both groups 6-13 days post-exposure. The observed delay between initial exposure and death is highly unusual for anatoxin-a.
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Affiliation(s)
- E H Rogers
- US Environmental Protection Agency, National Health and Ecological Effects Research Laboratory, Research Triangle Park, NC 27711, USA
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Kiss T, Vehovszky A, Hiripi L, Kovács A, Vörös L. Membrane effects of toxins isolated from a cyanobacterium, Cylindrospermopsis raciborskii, on identified molluscan neurones. Comp Biochem Physiol C Toxicol Pharmacol 2002; 131:167-76. [PMID: 11879784 DOI: 10.1016/s1532-0456(01)00290-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
The effect of anatoxin (ANTX), the crude extract (AlgTX) and purified fraction (F1) isolated from cyanobacterium C. raciborskii was studied on the neurones of two snail species. ANTX and AlgTX exerted excitatory, inhibitory and biphasic effects on the spontaneous activity of identified neurones. Both ANTX and AlgTX elicited an inward current, which could be decreased by curare or amiloride. On the contrary, F1 had no direct effect on the spontaneous activity; it was not able to induce conductance changes of the neuronal membrane, but it did antagonise the acetylcholine (ACh)-induced inward current. We concluded that ANTX affects the neuronal membrane of neurones acting on ACh receptors. The AlgTX had similar effects, and therefore the extract of C. raciborskii may contain an ANTX-like component. The purified fraction prolonged and decreased the ACh-elicited response, but had no direct membrane effect. We suggest, therefore, that both AlgTX and the purified fraction F1 interact with the ACh receptor, but they have different binding sites on the neuronal ACh receptor-ion channel complex. The possible neurotoxic effects of the C. raciborskii extract and F1 are demonstrated for the first time; the molecular mechanism of their action, however, remains to be elucidated.
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Affiliation(s)
- T Kiss
- Balaton Limnological Research Institute of the Hungarian Academy of Sciences, P.O. Box 35, H-8237 Tihany, Hungary.
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40
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Coleman JE, Wright JL. Radiosumin B, an unusual dipeptide from the cyanobacterium Microcystis aeruginosa. JOURNAL OF NATURAL PRODUCTS 2001; 64:668-670. [PMID: 11374973 DOI: 10.1021/np000511z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/23/2023]
Abstract
Radiosumin B (1), an N-methyl dipeptide containing two unusual amino acid residues, was isolated from the cyanobacterium Microcystis aeruginosa Kützing. The structure and stereochemical details were elucidated on the basis of 1D and 2D NMR data, MS data, and chemical degradation.
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Affiliation(s)
- J E Coleman
- Institute for Marine Biosciences, National Research Council of Canada, 1411 Oxford Street, Halifax, Nova Scotia B3H 3Z1, Canada.
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41
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Duy TN, Lam PK, Shaw GR, Connell DW. Toxicology and risk assessment of freshwater cyanobacterial (blue-green algal) toxins in water. REVIEWS OF ENVIRONMENTAL CONTAMINATION AND TOXICOLOGY 2000; 163:113-185. [PMID: 10771585 DOI: 10.1007/978-1-4757-6429-1_3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/23/2023]
Abstract
The occurrence of cyanobacterial toxins affects aquatic organisms, terrestrial animals (both wild and domestic), and humans. Detrimental effects have been documented in the scientific literature during the past 50 years. Possible guideline values of some cyanobacterial toxins (microcystins, cylindrospermopsin, and anatoxin-a) are estimated, and they show that children and infants are more susceptible to cyanobacterial toxins than adults. Therefore, particular attention should be paid when cyanobacterial blooms occur, even at relatively low cell counts, to protect children and infants from possible risks. Based on these guideline values and the occurrence of the toxins, it can be concluded that chronic and subchronic exposure to cyanobacterial toxins does occur in some populations, particularly in developing countries where high proportions of the population consume untreated surface water directly, such as pond, ditch, river, or reservoir water. Because wildlife and domestic animals consume a large amount of untreated water daily, they are at higher risk than humans from cyanobacterial toxins. Calculated guideline values in Section X show that a relatively high risk posed by the toxins to these animals is likely to occur, even at low cell densities.
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Affiliation(s)
- T N Duy
- Faculty of Environmental Sciences, Griffith University, Nathan, Queensland, Australia
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42
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Trost BM, Oslob JD. Asymmetric Synthesis of (−)-Anatoxin-a via an Asymmetric Cyclization Using a New Ligand for Pd-Catalyzed Alkylations. J Am Chem Soc 1999. [DOI: 10.1021/ja983617d] [Citation(s) in RCA: 94] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Barry M. Trost
- Contribution from the Department of Chemistry, Stanford University, Stanford, California 94305-5080
| | - Johan D. Oslob
- Contribution from the Department of Chemistry, Stanford University, Stanford, California 94305-5080
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43
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Ruge Holte H, Eriksen S, Skulberg O, Aas P. The effect of water soluble cyanotoxin(s) produced by two species of Anabaena on the release of acetylcholine from the peripheral cholinergic nervous system of the rat airway. ENVIRONMENTAL TOXICOLOGY AND PHARMACOLOGY 1998; 5:51-59. [PMID: 21781850 DOI: 10.1016/s1382-6689(97)10007-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/15/1997] [Revised: 08/20/1997] [Accepted: 09/03/1997] [Indexed: 05/31/2023]
Abstract
A water extract of the lyophilised fresh-water alga Anabaena flos-aquae enhanced substantially the release of [(3)H]acetylcholine ([(3)H]acetylcholine and [(3)H]choline) from cholinergic nerves of rat bronchi. Parallel experiments performed with the related species Anabaena lemmermannii did not demonstrate this effect. The effect on the release of [(3)H]acetylcholine by A. flos-aquae extract was concentration dependent. The A. flos-aquae induced [(3)H]acetylcholine release was not reduced by exposure to a low concentration of Ca(2+), but ω-conotoxin GVIA (1.0 μM), a blocker of N-type Ca(2+) channels reduced the release of [(3)H]acetylcholine induced by the A. flos-aquae extract. Addition of verapamil in a concentration (1.0 μM) specific for inhibition of L-type Ca(2+) channels had no effect on the neurotransmitter release. A reduction in the release was, moreover, observed with the intracellular Ca(2+) chelator BAPTA/AM (30 μM) and with the Na(+) channel blocker tetrodotoxin (3.0 μM). During patch-clamp studies of GH(4)C(1) neuronal cells, which have L- and T-type Ca(2+) channels, but no Na(+) channels, it was shown that a water extract of A. flos-aquae depolarised these cells and reduced, rather than enhanced, the influx of Ca(2+). Such an effect was not seen following exposure of GH(4)C(1) cells to water extracts of A. lemmermannii. In addition to its presynaptic activity, the water extract of A. flos-aquae showed an antimuscarinic effect by displacing [(3)H]QNB binding from muscarinic receptors in homogenates of rat bronchi. A similar but more potent effect was observed during experiments with water extract of A. lemmermannii. None of the respective water extracts showed any effects on cholinesterase activities in rat bronchial smooth muscle. The present observations suggest, therefore, that water extracts of A. flos-aquae may depolarise cells by activation of mono and divalent cation channels in cholinergic nerve cells. These channels are probably Na(+) channels and N-type, but not L- or T-type Ca(2+) channels. L- and T-type Ca(2+) channels were blocked in experiments with GH(4)C(1) cells and high concentrations of Ca(2+) channel blockers were necessary to reduce the effects of A. flos-aquae extract in cholinergic nerves in the airways. Furthermore, A. flos-aquae extract may also mobilise Ca(2+) from intracellular compartments. A. lemmermannii, on the other hand, does not contain components which alter mono and divalent cation-fluxes across cell membranes, but may rather have substances with more potent antagonistic effects on muscarinic cholinergic receptors than what is observed in experiments with A. flos-aquae.
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Affiliation(s)
- H Ruge Holte
- Norwegian Defence Research Establishment, Division for Environmental Toxicology, P.O. Box 25, N-2007 Kjeller, Norway
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Manallack DT, Ellis DD, Thompson PE, Gallagher T, Livingstone DJ. Quantitative Structure-activity Relationships Of (+)-anatoxin-a Derivatives. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 1994. [DOI: 10.1080/10575639408044923] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/23/2022]
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Brown ND, Butler DL, Chiang PK. Stabilization of thymopentin and preservation of its pharmacological properties by 2-hydroxypropyl-beta-cyclodextrin. J Pharm Pharmacol 1993; 45:666-7. [PMID: 8105066 DOI: 10.1111/j.2042-7158.1993.tb05675.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/28/2023]
Abstract
Thymopentin prepared in 5, 15, and 20% 2-hydroxypropyl-beta-cyclodextrin (HPCD) was able to inhibit guinea-pig ileum contraction stimulated by anatoxin-a (3 x 10(-6) M) after fourteen months of storage at room temperature. Thus, in contrast to the instability of thymopentin prepared without HPCD, the pharmacological activity was retained and could be stored in a ready-to-use solution for extended periods without refrigeration.
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Affiliation(s)
- N D Brown
- Department of Applied Biochemistry, Walter Reed Army Institute of Research, Washington, DC 20307-5100
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Park HD, Watanabe MF, Harda K, Nagai H, Suzuki M, Watanabe M, Hayashi H. Hepatotoxin (microcystin) and neurotoxin (anatoxin-a) contained in natural blooms and strains of cyanobacteria from Japanese freshwaters. NATURAL TOXINS 1993; 1:353-60. [PMID: 8167957 DOI: 10.1002/nt.2620010606] [Citation(s) in RCA: 105] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/29/2023]
Abstract
Amounts of hepatotoxic microcystin and neurotoxic anatoxin-a were estimated in natural blooms and strains of cyanobacteria from freshwaters in Japan. A simultaneous analysis method of anatoxin-a and microcystin was applied to natural bloom samples, which has been dominated by several species and the strains of cyanobacteria which produced simultaneously both toxins. The natural blooms examined in the present study were mainly composed of Anabaena and Oscillatoria, but most also contained Microcystis and other cyanobacteria. Only one sample was almost unialgal, Anabaena spiroides, collected from Lake Sagami. The toxins in 14 samples collected from nine different natural blooms during 1988-1992 were identified as microcystins-RR, -YR, and -LR; desmethyl-7-microcystin-LR (7-DMLR); and anatoxin-a. Microcystins were the main toxins contained in these natural blooms, with anatoxin-a not being detected or of very little quantity. 7-DMLR was detected in samples only from Lake Kasumigaura. Five strains of Anabaena isolated from waters in Japan produced a small amount of anatoxin-a, but no microcystins. One half of the strains of Microcystis produced microcystins and/or anatoxin-a. This is the first study showing Microcystis producing both anatoxin-a and microcystins.
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Affiliation(s)
- H D Park
- Department of Hygiene, School of Medicine, Shinshu University, Matsumoto, Japan
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Carmichael WW. Cyanobacteria secondary metabolites--the cyanotoxins. THE JOURNAL OF APPLIED BACTERIOLOGY 1992; 72:445-59. [PMID: 1644701 DOI: 10.1111/j.1365-2672.1992.tb01858.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 700] [Impact Index Per Article: 21.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/28/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- W W Carmichael
- Department of Biological Sciences, Wright State University, Dayton, OH 45435
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49
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Thompson PE, Manallack DT, Blaney FE, Gallagher T. Conformational studies on (+)-anatoxin-a and derivatives. J Comput Aided Mol Des 1992; 6:287-98. [PMID: 1517779 DOI: 10.1007/bf00123382] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/27/2022]
Abstract
Anatoxin-a (AnTX) is a highly potent agonist acting at the nicotinic acetylcholine receptor (nAChR) and represents a valuable tool in the study of this receptor. Molecular mechanics, semi-empirical and ab initio molecular orbital energy minimization procedures were conducted to investigate the conformation of AnTX. For each minimization procedure, the s-trans enone isomer of protonated AnTX was the energetically favoured conformer due to intramolecular electrostatic interactions. Our studies are discussed in the light of previous experimental observations and conformational studies, in addition to their importance in the development of future pharmacophore models for nAChR agonist binding.
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50
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Chiang PK, Katzhendler J, Gordon RK, Doctor BP, Brown ND. Postganglionic nicotinic action of anatoxin-a on guinea pig ileum antagonized by thymopentin. ADVANCES IN EXPERIMENTAL MEDICINE AND BIOLOGY 1992; 311:429-30. [PMID: 1529783 DOI: 10.1007/978-1-4615-3362-7_66] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/27/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- P K Chiang
- Division of Biochemistry, Walter Reed Army Institute of Research, Washington, DC 20307-5100
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