Inositol trisphosphate modification of ion transport in rough endoplasmic reticulum

Structural and functional insight into a new emerging target IP3R in cancer

Calcium signaling has been identified as an important phenomenon in a plethora of cellular processes. Inositol 1,4,5-trisphosphate receptors (IP3Rs) are ER-residing intracellular calcium (Ca2+) release channels responsible for cell bioenergetics by transferring calcium from the ER to the mitochondria. The recent availability of full-length IP3R channel structure has enabled the researchers to design the IP3 competitive ligands and reveal the channel gating mechanism by elucidating the conformational changes induced by ligands. However, limited knowledge is available for IP3R antagonists and the exact mechanism of action of these antagonists within a tumorigenic environment of a cell. Here in this review a summarized information about the role of IP3R in cell proliferation and apoptosis has been discussed. Moreover, structure and gating mechanism of IP3R in the presence of antagonists have been provided in this review. Additionally, compelling information about ligand-based studies (both agonists and antagonists) has been discussed. The shortcomings of these studies and the challenges toward the design of potent IP3R modulators have also been provided in this review. However, the conformational changes induced by antagonists for channel gating mechanism still display some major drawbacks that need to be addressed. However, the design, synthesis and availability of isoform-specific antagonists is a rather challenging one due to intra-structural similarity within the binding domain of each isoform. HighlightsThe intricate complexity of IP3R's in cellular processes declares them an important target whereby, the recently solved structure depicts the receptor's potential involvement in a complex network of processes spanning from cell proliferation to cell death.Pharmacological inhibition of IP3R attenuates the proliferation or invasiveness of cancers, thus inducing necrotic cell death.Despite significant advancements, there is a tremendous need to design new potential hits to target IP3R, based upon 3D structural features and pharmacophoric patterns.Communicated by Ramaswamy H. Sarma.

In Memoriam Sir Michael Berridge 1938 - 2020

The article is an 'In Memoriam' article honouring the memory of Sir Michael Berridge.

The Protective Role of Calbindin-D9k on Endoplasmic Reticulum Stress-Induced Beta Cell Death

Intracellular calcium ion content is tightly regulated for the maintenance of cellular functions and cell survival. Calbindin-D_9k (CaBP-9k) is responsible for regulating the distribution of cytosolic free-calcium ions. In this study, we aimed to investigate the effect of CaBP-9k on cell survival in pancreatic beta cells. Six-month-old wildtype CaBP-9k, CaBP-28k, and CaBP-9k/28k knockout (KO) mice were used to compare the pathological phenotypes of calcium-binding protein-deleted mice. Subsequently, the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) stress reducer tauroursodeoxycholic acid (TUDCA) was administered to wildtype and CaBP-9k KO mice. In vitro assessment of the role of CaBP-9k was performed following CaBP-9k overexpression and treatment with the ER stress inducer thapsigargin. Six-month-old CaBP-9k KO mice showed reduced islet volume and up-regulation of cell death markers resulting from ER stress, which led to pancreatic beta cell death. TUDCA treatment recovered islet volume, serum insulin level, and abdominal fat storage by CaBP-9k ablation. CaBP-9k overexpression elevated insulin secretion and recovered thapsigargin-induced ER stress in the INS-1E cell line. The results of this study show that CaBP-9k can protect pancreatic beta cell survival from ER stress and contribute to glucose homeostasis, which can reduce the risk of type 1 diabetes and provide the molecular basis for calcium supplementation to diabetic patients.

Calbindin-D9k Ablation Disrupt Glucose/Pancreatic Insulin Homeostasis

It has been proposed that cellular Ca²⁺ signals activate hormone secretion. In pancreatic β cells, which produce insulin, Ca²⁺ signals have been known to contribute to insulin secretion. Prior to this study, we confirmed that insulin-secreting β cells express CaBP-9k, and assumed that CaBP-9k play a role in β cell insulin synthesis or secretion. Using CaBP-9k knock out (KO) mice, we demonstrated that ablation of CaBP-9k causes reducing insulin secretion and increasing serum glucose. To compare the role of CaBP-9k with pathophysiological conditions, we exposed wild-type and CaBP-9k KO mice to hypoxic conditions for 10 days. Hypoxia induced endoplasmic reticulum (ER) stress, increasing both insulin signaling and insulin resistance. By exposing hypoxia, CaBP-9k KO mice showed an increased level of ER stress marker protein relative to wild type mice. Without hypoxic conditions, CaBP-9K ablation regulates calcium channels and causes ER stress in a CaBP-9K specific manner. Ablation of CaBP-9k also showed decreased levels of sulfonylurea receptor1 (SUR1) and inward-rectifier potassium ion channel 6.2 (K_ir6.2), which are insulin secretion marker genes. Overall, the results of the present study demonstrated that CaBP-9k regulates synthesis of insulin and is part of the insulin-secreting calcium signaling.

Measurement of intracellular Ca2+ release in intact and permeabilized cells using 45Ca2+

Ca(2+) is an important ion that controls almost every function in a cell. Activator Ca(2+) can be released from intracellular Ca(2+) stores, and there are various ways to study this release. Here, we introduce a technique that uses radioactive (45)Ca(2+) to quantitatively measure the unidirectional release of Ca(2+) from the nonmitochondrial Ca(2+) stores in monolayers of cultured cells. This technique can be used in cells with an intact plasma membrane as well as in cells in which the plasma membrane has been permeabilized.

Calcium signalling and secretory epithelia

Ca(2+) is now firmly established as the most important intracellular regulator of physiological and pathological events in a vast number of different cell types, including secretory epithelia. In these tissues, Ca(2+) signalling is crucially important for the control of both fluid secretion and electrolyte secretion as well as the regulation of macromolecule secretion. In this overview article, I shall attempt to give some general background to the concepts underlying our current thinking about Ca(2+) signalling in epithelia and its roles in regulating secretion. It is outside the scope of this review to provide a comprehensive account of Ca(2+) signalling and the many different processes in the many different secretory epithelia that are controlled by Ca(2+) signals. It is my aim to draw attention to some general features of Ca(2+) signalling processes in secretory epithelia, which are rather different from those in, for example, endocrine glands. The principal examples will be taken from studies of exocrine cells and, in particular, pancreatic acinar cells, as they are the pioneer cells with regard to investigations of Ca(2+) signalling due to primary intracellular Ca(2+) release. They also represent the cell type which has been characterized in most detail with regard to Ca(2+) transport events and mechanisms.

Species- and Dose-Specific Pancreatic Responses and Progression in Single- and Repeat-Dose Studies with GI181771X

Compound-induced pancreatic injury is a serious liability in preclinical toxicity studies. However, its relevance to humans should be cautiously evaluated because of interspecies variations. To highlight such variations, we evaluated the species- and dose-specific pancreatic responses and progression caused by GI181771X, a novel cholecystokinin 1 receptor agonist investigated by GlaxoSmithKline for the treatment of obesity. Acute (up to 2,000 mg/kg GI181771X, as single dose) and repeat-dose studies in mice and/or rats (0.25–250 mg/kg/day for 7 days to 26 weeks) showed wide-ranging morphological changes in the pancreas that were dose and duration dependent, including necrotizing pancreatitis, acinar cell hypertrophy/atrophy, zymogen degranulation, focal acinar cell hyperplasia, and interstitial inflammation. In contrast to rodents, pancreatic changes were not observed in cynomolgus monkeys given GI181771X (1–500 mg/kg/day with higher systemic exposure than rats) for up to 52 weeks. Similarly, no GI181771X treatment-associated abnormalities in pancreatic structure were noted in a 24-week clinical trial with obese patients (body mass index >30 or >27 kg/m2) as assessed by abdominal ultrasound or by magnetic resonance imaging. Mechanisms for interspecies variations in the pancreatic response to CCK among rodents, monkeys, and humans and their relevance to human risk are discussed.

Therapeutic potential for novel drugs targeting the type 1 cholecystokinin receptor

Cholecystokinin (CCK) is a physiologically important gastrointestinal and neuronal peptide hormone, with roles in stimulating gallbladder contraction, pancreatic secretion, gastrointestinal motility and satiety. CCK exerts its effects via interactions with two structurally related class I guanine nucleotide-binding protein (G protein)-coupled receptors (GPCRs), the CCK(1) receptor and the CCK(2) receptor. Here, we focus on the CCK(1) receptor, with particular relevance to the broad spectrum of signalling initiated by activation with the natural full agonist peptide ligand, CCK. Distinct ligand-binding pockets have been defined for the natural peptide ligand and for some non-peptidyl small molecule ligands. While many CCK(1) receptor ligands have been developed and have had their pharmacology well described, their clinical potential has not yet been fully explored. The case is built for the potential importance of developing more selective partial agonists and allosteric modulators of this receptor that could have important roles in the treatment of common clinical syndromes.

Ca2+ release dynamics in parotid and pancreatic exocrine acinar cells evoked by spatially limited flash photolysis

Intracellular calcium concentration ([Ca(2+)](i)) signals are central to the mechanisms underlying fluid and protein secretion in pancreatic and parotid acinar cells. Calcium release was studied in natively buffered cells following focal laser photolysis of caged molecules. Focal photolysis of caged-inositol 1,4,5 trisphosphate (InsP(3)) in the apical region resulted in Ca(2+) release from the apical trigger zone and, after a latent period, the initiation of an apical-to-basal Ca(2+) wave. The latency was longer and the wave speed significantly slower in pancreatic compared with parotid cells. Focal photolysis in basal regions evoked only limited Ca(2+) release at the photolysis site and never resulted in a propagating wave. Instead, an apical-to-basal wave was initiated following a latent period. Again, the latent period was significantly longer under all conditions in pancreas than parotid. Although slower in pancreas than parotid, once initiated, the apical-to-basal wave speed was constant in a particular cell type. Photo release of caged-Ca(2+) failed to evoke a propagating Ca(2+) wave in either cell type. However, the kinetics of the Ca(2+) signal evoked following photolysis of caged-InsP(3) were significantly dampened by ryanodine in parotid but not pancreas, indicating a more prominent functional role for ryanodine receptor (RyR) following InsP(3) receptor (InsP(3)R) activation. These data suggest that differing expression levels of InsP(3)R, RyR, and possibly cellular buffering capacity may contribute to the fast kinetics of Ca(2+) signals in parotid compared with pancreas. These properties may represent a specialization of the cell type to effectively stimulate Ca(2+)-dependent effectors important for the differing primary physiological role of each gland.

Inositol trisphosphate and calcium mobilization

Calcium-mobilizing agonists act by stimulating the hydrolysis of phosphatidylinositol 4,5-bisphosphate (PtdIns4,5P2) to inositol 1,4,5-trisphosphate and diacylglycerol (DG). In response to such agonists cells also produce inositol 1,3,4-trisphosphate but this isomer is unlikely to influence calcium mobilization. Application of inositol 1,4,5-trisphosphate (Ins1,4,5P3) to permeabilized cells results in a rapid release of calcium from the endoplasmic reticulum. Structure-activity studies reveal that the vicinal phosphates on the 4- and 5-positions are essential for releasing calcium whereas the phosphate on the opposite side enhances the affinity of Ins1,4,5P3 for its putative receptor. The flow of calcium across the endoplasmic reticulum appears to be electrogenic and requires an opposite flow of potassium to neutralize charge movements. Diacylglycerol, acting through protein kinase C, does not play a direct role in calcium signalling but it does modulate various aspects of the InsP3/Ca2+ pathway. The DG/protein kinase C pathway can influence both the formation and hydrolysis of PtdIns4,5P2 and can alter the responsiveness of various processes to the action of calcium. The Ins1,4,5P3/Ca2+ signal pathway functions throughout the life history of cells to regulate such diverse activities as egg maturation and fertilization, growth, secretion, metabolism, neural activity, and perhaps excitation-contraction coupling in skeletal muscle.

‘Quantal’ Ca2+release reassessed - a clue to oscillation and synchronization

Ca(2+) release from intracellular Ca(2+) stores, a pivotal event in Ca(2+) signaling, is a 'quantal' process; it terminates after a rapid release of a fraction of stored Ca(2+). To explain the 'quantal' nature, 'all-or-none' model and 'steady-state' model were proposed. This article shortly reviews these hypotheses and considers a recently proposed mechanism, 'luminal potential' model, in which the membrane potential of Ca(2+) store regulates Ca(2+) efflux. By reassessing the 'quantal' nature, other important features of Ca(2+) signaling, oscillation and synchronization, are highlighted. The mechanism for 'quantal' Ca(2+) release may underlie the temporal and spatial control of Ca(2+) signaling.

Voltage- and Ca2+-activated potassium channels in Ca2+ store control Ca2+ release

Ca2+ release from Ca2+ stores is a 'quantal' process; it terminates after a rapid release of stored Ca2+. To explain the quantal nature, it has been supposed that a decrease in luminal Ca2+ acts as a 'brake' on store release. However, the mechanism for the attenuation of Ca2+ efflux remains unknown. We show that Ca2+ release is controlled by voltage- and Ca2+-activated potassium channels in the Ca2+ store. The potassium channel was identified as the big or maxi-K (BK)-type, and was activated by positive shifts in luminal potential and luminal Ca2+ increases, as revealed by patch-clamp recordings from an exposed nuclear envelope. The blockage or closure of the store BK channel due to Ca2+ efflux developed lumen-negative potentials, as revealed with an organelle-specific voltage-sensitive dye [DiOC5(3); 3,3'-dipentyloxacarbocyanine iodide], and suppressed Ca2+ release. The store BK channels are reactivated by Ca2+ uptake by Ca2+ pumps regeneratively with K+ entry to allow repetitive Ca2+ release. Indeed, the luminal potential oscillated bistably by approximately 45 mV in amplitude. Our study suggests that Ca2+ efflux-induced store BK channel closures attenuate Ca2+ release with decreases in counter-influx of K+.

Regulation of the cerebellar inositol 1,4,5-trisphosphate receptor by univalent cations

In the present study we investigated the effects of K and other univalent cations on [3H]InsP3 [[3H]Ins(1,4,5)P3] binding to sheep cerebellar microsomes. In equilibrium binding experiments performed over 4 s at pH 7.1 and 20 degrees C, the addition of K to the binding medium decreased the affinity and increased the total number of binding sites for InsP3 in a dose-dependent manner. At low InsP3 concentration (0.5 nM) these effects resulted in a biphasic dose-response curve, with maximal binding at about 75 mM K. In contrast, the dose-response curve calculated for InsP3 at the physiological concentration of 5 mM, was linear up to 200 mM K. Univalent inorganic cations stimulated [3H]InsP3 binding to various extents, with the following descending order of efficiency at 75 mM: Cs approximately Rb approximately K>Na>Li. The effect of K on InsP3R affinity was rapidly reversed upon cation removal. We were therefore also able to demonstrate that K increased Bmax (maximal specific binding) by pre-treating microsomes with K before measuring [3H]InsP3 binding in the absence of that cation. The increase in Bmax was reversible, but this reversal occurred less rapidly than the change in affinity. These results are consistent with a process by which K reversibly converted very low-affinity sites into sites with higher affinity, making them detectable in competitive binding experiments. They suggest that interconversion between these two affinity states constitutes the basis of a K-controlled regulatory mechanism for cerebellar InsP3R.

Antisense-mediated loss of calcium homoeostasis endoplasmic reticulum protein (CHERP; ERPROT213-21) impairs Ca2+ mobilization, nuclear factor of activated T-cells (NFAT) activation and cell proliferation in Jurkat T-lymphocytes

We recently discovered a novel gene on chromosome 19p13.1 and its product, an integral endoplasmic reticulum (ER) membrane protein, termed CHERP (calcium homoeostasis endoplasmic reticulum protein). A monoclonal antibody against its C-terminal domain inhibits Ins(1,4,5) P (3)-induced Ca(2+) release from ER membrane vesicles of many cell types, and an antisense-mediated knockdown of CHERP in human erythroleukemia (HEL) cells greatly impaired Ca(2+) mobilization by thrombin. In the present paper, we explore further CHERP's function in Jurkat T-lymphocytes. Confocal laser immunofluorescence microscopy showed that CHERP was co-localized with the Ins(1,4,5) P (3) receptor throughout the cytoplasmic and perinuclear region, as previously found in HEL cells. Transfection of Jurkat cells with a lac I-regulated mammalian expression vector containing CHERP antisense cDNA caused a knockdown of CHERP and impaired the rise of cytoplasmic Ca(2+) (measured by fura-2 acetoxymethyl ester fluorescence) caused by phytohaemagglutinin (PHA) and thrombin. A 50% fall of CHERP decreased the PHA-induced rise of the cytoplasmic free Ca(2+) concentration ([Ca(2+)](i)), but Ca(2+) influx was unaffected. Greater depletion of CHERP (>70%) did not affect the concentration of Ins(1,4,5) P (3) receptors, but diminished the rise of [Ca(2+)](i) in response to PHA to </=30% of that in control cells, decreased Ca(2+) influx and slowed the initial rate of [Ca(2+)](i) rise caused by thapsigargin, an inhibitor of the sarcoplasmic/endoplasmic-reticulum Ca(2+)-ATPase, suggesting there was also some deficit in ER Ca(2+) stores. In CHERP-depleted cells the Ca(2+)-dependent activation and translocation of the key transcription factor NFAT (nuclear factor of activated T-cells) from cytoplasm to nucleus was suppressed. Furthermore, cell proliferation was greatly slowed (as in HEL cells) along with a 60% decrease in cyclin D1, a key regulator of progression through the G(1) phase of the cell cycle. These findings provide further evidence that CHERP is an important component of the ER Ca(2+)-mobilizing system in cells, and its loss impairs Ca(2+)-dependent biochemical pathways and progression through the cell cycle.

The mycotoxin paxilline inhibits the cerebellar inositol 1,4, 5-trisphosphate receptor

Paxilline, a tremorgenic alkaloid mycotoxin produced by Penicillium paxilline, is a reversible inhibitor of the cerebellar inositol 1,4, 5-trisphophate (InsP(3)) receptor. It inhibits the amount or extent of InsP(3)-induced Ca(2+) release (IICR), at sub-maximal concentrations of InsP(3), in a biphasic manner consistent with two inhibition constants (K(i)'s 6.7 and > or =400 microM). As paxilline does not affect InsP(3) binding to the receptor, it can be considered a non-competitive inhibitor. The fact that IICR is biphasic has been interpreted as there being two populations of InsP(3)-sensitive Ca(2+) stores, which release Ca(2+) in either a fast or slow fashion. This study has shown that the rate constants for Ca(2+) release from both the fast and slow populations are reduced by paxilline (100 microM) by about 70% and 60%, respectively. Detailed analysis of the way different concentrations of paxilline inhibit the rate constants for Ca(2+) release indicates that the population of Ca(2+) stores that contribute to the slower phase of Ca(2+) release is more sensitive to the inhibitory action of paxilline.

A mammalian iron ATPase induced by iron

While molecular mechanisms for iron entry and storage within cells have been elucidated, no system to mediate iron efflux has been heretofore identified. We now describe an ATP requiring iron transporter in mammalian cells. (55)Fe is transported into microsomal vesicles in a Mg-ATP-dependent fashion. The transporter is specific for ferrous iron, is temperature- and time-dependent, and detected only with hydrolyzable nucleotides. It differs from all known ATPases and appears to be a P-type ATPase. The Fe-ATPase is localized together with heme oxygenase-1 to microsomal membranes with both proteins greatly enriched in the spleen. Iron treatment markedly induces ATP-dependent iron transport in RAW 264.7 macrophage cells with an initial phase that is resistant to cycloheximide and actinomycin D and a later phase that is inhibited by these agents. Iron release, elicited in intact rats by glycerol-induced rhabdomyolysis, induces ATP-dependent iron transport in the kidney. Mice with genomic deletion of heme oxygenase-1 have selective tissue iron accumulation and display augmented ATP-dependent iron transport in those tissues that accumulate iron.

Cloning of human Ca2+ homoeostasis endoplasmic reticulum protein (CHERP): regulated expression of antisense cDNA depletes CHERP, inhibits intracellular Ca2+ mobilization and decreases cell proliferation

A monoclonal antibody which blocks InsP(3)-induced Ca(2+) release from isolated endoplasmic reticulum was used to isolate a novel 4.0 kb cDNA from a human erythroleukaemia (HEL) cell cDNA expression library. A corresponding mRNA transcript of approx. 4.2 kb was present in all human cell lines and tissues examined, but cardiac and skeletal muscle had an additional transcript of 6.4 kb. The identification in GenBank(R) of homologous expressed sequence tags from many tissues and organisms suggests that the gene is ubiquitously expressed in higher eukaryotes. The gene was mapped to human chromosome 19p13.1. The cDNA predicts a 100 kDa protein, designated Ca(2+) homoeostasis endoplasmic reticulum protein (CHERP), with two putative transmembrane domains, multiple consensus phosphorylation sites, a polyglutamine tract of 12 repeats and regions of imperfect tryptophan and histadine octa- and nona-peptide repeats. In vitro translation of the full-length cDNA produced proteins of M(r) 128000 and 100000, corresponding to protein bands detected by Western blotting of many cell types. CHERP was co-localized in HEL cells with the InsP(3) receptor by two-colour immunofluorescence. Transfection of HEL cells with antisense cDNA led to an 80% decline in CHERP within 5 days of antisense induction, with markedly decreased intracellular Ca(2+) mobilization by thrombin, decreased DNA synthesis and growth arrest, indicating that the protein has an important function in Ca(2+) homoeostasis, growth and proliferation.

The role of inorganic phosphate in regulating the kinetics of inositol 1,4,5-trisphosphate-induced Ca2+ release: a putative role for endoplasmic reticulum phosphate transporters

The effects of phosphate and acylphosphonate phosphate transporter inhibitors were investigated on inositol 1,4,5-trisphosphate (InsP3)-induced Ca2+ release from cerebellar microsomes. Although neither changing the phosphate concentration nor adding phosphate transporter inhibitors affected the percentage (extent) of InsP3-induced Ca2+ release, they did, however, affect the transient kinetics of this process. InsP3-induced Ca2+ release is biphasic in nature, arising from two populations of InsP3-sensitive Ca2+ stores which either release Ca2+ in a fast or slow fashion. Altering phosphate concentration or adding phosphate transporter inhibitors appeared to affect only the fast phase component. We therefore suggest that these observations could be explained by the possibility that phosphate transporters only reside in the fast releasing InsP3-sensitive Ca2+ stores.

Inositol 1,4,5-trisphosphate and basal Ca2+ release is affected by the cytoplasmic concentration of Cl- in endothelial cells

The effects of varying Cl- concentration in the intracellular bathing medium, on IP3-induced 45Ca2+ release from internal stores, were examined in saponin-permeabilised bovine aortic endothelial (BAE) cells. Results from this study show that the release of Ca2+ from the internal stores is affected by the cytoplasmic concentration of Cl- ions. Complete replacement of Cl- with gluconate augmented IP3 (3 microM)-induced 45Ca2+ release by 33 +/- 8%. Replacement of both Cl- and K+ with gluconate and NMG, respectively, had no significant effect on 45Ca2+ release. However, resting levels of internal 45Ca2+ were found to be affected by Cl- removal. These data suggest that in BAE cells, IP3 and also basal 45Ca2+ release may be regulated by the physiological intracellular Cl- concentration.

Alkali metal ion dependence of inositol 1,4,5-trisphosphate-induced calcium release from rat cerebellar microsomes

The effects of the alkali metal ions Na+, K+, Rb+, and Cs+ on ATP-dependent Ca2+ uptake, [3H]Inositol 1,4,5-trisphosphate (InsP3) binding, and quantal InsP3-induced Ca2+ release were investigated using rat cerebellar microsomes. Both the ion species and concentration affected the ability of the microsomes to support Ca2+ uptake with K+ being mot effective (3.8 nmol of Ca2+/min/mg at 100 mM K+). The order of efficacy of the other ions was as follows: K+ > Na+ > Rb+ = Cs+ >> Li+. The binding of [3H]InsP3 to cerebellar microsomes was, however, affected little by the presence of these ions. All these alkali metal ions (except Li+) supported InsP3-induced Ca2+ release at concentrations above 25 mM; however, the extent of Ca2+ release (expressed as a percent Ca2+ release compared with that released by the ionophore A23187) was dependent upon the ion species present. Again K+ was more potent than the other ions at facilitating InsP3-induced Ca2+ release (order of efficacy: K+ > Rb+ > Na+ > Cs+), although the concentration of InsP3 required to induce half-maximal Ca2+ release (IC50) was not significantly altered. Over the ion concentration range tested (25-100 mM), the extent of InsP3-induced Ca2+ release with both K+ and Rb+ increased in a linear fashion, while Na+ showed only a slight increase and Cs+ showed no increase over this range. The effect of K+ concentration on quantal Ca2+ release was to alter the extent of release rather than the IC50 InsP3 concentration. Using stopped-flow techniques, the effects of InsP3 and K+ concentrations on the kinetics of InsP3-induced Ca2+ release were shown to exhibit a monoexponential process in this microsomal preparation. The rate constants for Ca2+ release increased with InsP3 concentration (0.11 s-1 at 0.02 microM InsP3 to 0.5 s-1 at 40 microM InsP3); however, the relationship between the fractional extent of release and rate constants for release did not change in a similar way with InsP3 concentration. Although the fractional extent of Ca2+ release increased with K+ concentration, the rate constants for release over this K+ concentration range were unaffected. This observation leads us to question the role of K+ as a counter ion required for Ca2+ release, and we therefore postulate a role for K+ (and the other alkali metal ions) as a "co-factor" required for channel opening.

Estimation of the free [Ca2+] gradient across endoplasmic reticulum membranes by a null-point method

The rate of unidirectional efflux of 45Ca from rat liver microsomal vesicles loaded with 45Ca and then treated with thapsigargin is not inhibited by increased [Ca2+] in the external medium, although the net efflux rate is substantially inhibited. We have used this property to measure the electrochemical gradient of Ca2+ from the inside to the outside of the vesicles at a series of Ca2+ loadings, by measuring the external [Ca2+]free at which there is zero net efflux. At a loading of 7.9 +/- 0.6 nmol/mg of microsomal protein, the apparent internal [Ca2+]free is 21 +/- 1.6 microM. As the loading is increased, the internal [Ca2+]free increases linearly up to a value of 47 +/- 3.6 microM at a loading of 21.6 +/- 1.6 nmol/mg. Using a similar technique, the value for [Ca2+]free in the endoplasmic reticulum of permeabilized L1210 cells was found to be 12.5 microM.

Reversible histochemical modifications of endoplasmic reticulum following arginine vasopressin stimulation of granular cells of toad bladder

The endoplasmic reticulum is generally absent from schematic representations of transport phenomena, although it shows a well-organized network in most transport epithelial cells. In order to examine the correlation between this organelle and cellular activity, bladders of Bufo marinus were studied under different experimental conditions and fixed by immersion in glutaraldehyde, followed by OsO4 impregnation for 3 days. Normal granular and mitochondria-rich cells showed a rich cytoplasmic network of canaliculi, well-impregnated by osmium deposits. Following a 2 to 15-min stimulation (serosal bath) with arginine vasopressin, the V2 receptor agonist dD-arginine-vasopressin or cyclic AMP (cAMP), the staining of endoplasmic reticulum in granular cells disappeared. After washing out of the hormone or the agonist, impregnation of the endoplasmic reticulum could be observed once again. Arginine vasopressin did not modify the impregnation of endoplasmic reticulum of either mitochondria-rich or basal cells. Our data indicate a correlation between the reactivity of endoplasmic reticulum to osmium, and a cAMP-dependent effect of arginine vasopressin through its V2 receptors. Incubation of arginine vasopressin through its V2 receptors. Incubation of toad bladders carried out with agents interfering with cellular calcium (calcium ionophores, high or low bath calcium) or with calcium release from the endoplasmic reticulum (TMB-8, thapsigargin) suggested that an early step in the cAMP-dependent effect of arginine vasopressin must involve the release of intracellular calcium from the endoplasmic reticulum. However, calcium ATPases in this organelle do not seem to participate in the hormonal effect.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 250 WORDS)

Analysis of a novel double-barreled anion channel from rat liver rough endoplasmic reticulum

The presence of anionic channels in stripped rough endoplasmic reticulum membranes isolated from rat hepatocytes was investigated by fusing microsomes from these membranes to a planar lipid bilayer. Several types of anion-selective channels were observed including a voltage-gated Cl- channel, the activity of which appeared in bursts characterized by transitions among three distinct conductance levels of 0 pS (0 level), 160 pS (O1 level), and 320 pS (O2 level), respectively, in 450 mM (cis) 50 mM (trans) KCl conditions. A chi 2 analysis on current records where interburst silent periods were omitted showed that the relative probability of current levels 0 (baseline), O1, and O2 followed a binomial statistic. However, measurements of the conditional probabilities W(level 0 at tau/level O2 at 0) and W(level O2 at tau/level 0 at 0) provided clear evidence of direct transitions between the current levels 0 and O2 without any detectable transitions to the intermediate level O1. It was concluded on the basis of these results that the observed channel was controlled by at least two distinct gating processes, namely 1) a voltage-dependent activation mechanism in which the entire system behaves as two independent monomeric channels of 160 pS with each channel characterized by a simple Open-Closed kinetic, and 2) a slow voltage-dependent process that accounts for both the appearance of silent periods between bursts of channel activity and the transitions between the current levels 0 and O2. Finally, an analysis of the relative probability for the system to be in levels 0, O1, and O2 showed that our results are more compatible with a model in which all the states resulting from the superposition of the two independent monomeric channels have access at different rates to a common inactivated state than with a model where a simple Open-Closed main gate either occludes or exposes simultaneously two independent 160-pS monomers.

Ca2+ release and Ca2+ entry induced by rapid cytosolic alkalinization in Jurkat T-lymphocytes

4-Aminopyridine (4-AP), a compound usually known as a K(+)-channel inhibitor, induced rapid cytosolic alkalinization from pH 7.15 to pH 7.4, and subsequently Ca2+ mobilization in the T-lymphocyte cell line Jurkat. Other weak bases, such as NH4Cl or triethanolamine, induced a smaller and/or slower increase in cytosolic pH, resulting in a lower or no detectable Ca2+ signal. In the presence of extracellular Ca2+, 4-AP mediated a rapid and sustained increase in the free cytosolic Ca2+ concentration similar to that obtained by T-cell receptor-mediated stimulation. In the absence of extracellular Ca2+, 4-AP transiently released Ca2+ from an intracellular store that is most likely identical with the agonist- and Ins(1,4,5)P3-sensitive Ca2+ pool of Jurkat T-cells. As possible mechanisms for Ca2+ release from this particular pool as induced by 4-AP we examined (i) formation of Ins(1,4,5)P3 and (ii) sensitization of the Ins(1,4,5)P3-receptor/Ca(2+)release system by increasing intracellular pH. Although 4-AP did not induce formation of inositol polyphosphates, as demonstrated by h.p.l.c. analysis, in permeabilized cells the dose-response curve for Ins(1,4,5)P3 was shifted to the left by changing the intracellular pH from 7.2 to 7.4. This indicated that sensitization of the Ins(1,4,5)P3-receptor/Ca(2+)-release system was responsible for the effects of 4-AP seen in intact cells. In conclusion, 4-AP appears a novel tool for depletion of the agonist-sensitive Ca2+ pool of T-cells without simultaneous formation of Ins(1,4,5)P3, thereby inducing capacitative Ca2+ entry in these cells.

Calcium release by cholecystokinin analogue OPE is IP3 dependent in single rat pancreatic acinar cells

Cholecystokinin (CCK) and carbachol raise intracellular Ca2+ concentration ([Ca2+]i) in pancreatic acinar cells by elevating inositol 1,4,5-trisphosphate (IP3). CCK analogues JMV-180 and OPE stimulate fully efficacious enzyme secretion and [Ca2+]i oscillations but release Ca2+ from intracellular stores by apparently IP3-independent mechanisms in permeabilized acinar cells. In the present study, we investigated whether OPE mobilizes Ca2+ from IP3-sensitive Ca2+ stores and whether IP3 mediates such responses in single intact cells. OPE and JMV-180 similarly elevated IP3 to low levels compared with those elicited by 10 nM CCK. Depletion of IP3-sensitive stores by elevation of intracellular IP3 using carbachol, microinjection of a nonmetabolizable IP3 analogue, or exposure to thapsigargin, in the absence of extracellular Ca2+, depleted the same Ca2+ stores that were sensitive to OPE. In converse experiments, OPE depleted carbachol- or thapsigargin-sensitive stores, indicating that carbachol-, thapsigargin-, IP3-, and OPE-sensitive Ca2+ stores overlap completely and that stores mobilized by OPE are IP3 sensitive. To determine whether IP3 mediates responses to OPE, cells were microinjected with low-molecular-weight heparin, a competitive inhibited the rise of [Ca2+]i in response to carbachol, OPE, or JMV-180, whereas de-N-sulfated heparin, an inactive heparin, was without effect. These results indicate that CCK analogues release Ca2+ from IP3-sensitive Ca2+ stores by mechanisms involving the IP3 receptor.

An investigation on the role of vacuolar-type proton pumps and luminal acidity in calcium sequestration by nonmitochondrial and inositol-1,4,5-trisphosphate-sensitive intracellular calcium stores in clonal insulin-secreting cells

To test whether in RINm5F rat insulinoma cells luminal acidity and the activity of a vacuolar-type proton pump are involved in calcium sequestration by intracellular calcium stores sensitive to inositol 1,4,5-trisphosphate (InsP3) we examined the effects of various proton-conducting ionophores and ammonium chloride, and of bafilomycin, a specific inhibitor of vacuolar proton pumps, on this parameter. Bafilomycin in concentrations up to 1 microM did not affect calcium sequestration by nonmitochondrial, InsP3-sensitive stores at all; 50 microM carbonylcyanide m-chlorophenylhydrazone, 50 microM monensin and 30 mM NH4Cl, which are diverse ways to dissipate transmembrane pH gradients, did not inhibit calcium sequestration. This argues against signficant involvement of internal acidity and vacuolar proton pumps in calcium sequestration by InsP3-sensitive stores in RINm5F cells. The proton-potassium-exchanging ionophore nigericin (20-100 microM), however, inhibited calcium sequestration by nonmitochondrial and InsP3-sensitive stores. This effect was dependent on the presence of potassium and could be reversed by inclusion of carbonylcyanide m-chlorophenylhydrazone or acetate in the incubation medium. Thus, the inhibitory effect of nigericin appears to be based on proton extrusion coupled to potassium influx across the membrane of calcium stores in RINm5F cells, creating an internal alkalinization of these stores. The effect of nigericin implies the continuous maintenance of an outside-to-inside potassium concentration gradient by nonmitochondrial calcium stores in RINm5F cells. This feature will be of potential interest in the identification of InsP3-sensitive calcium-storing organelles.

Ca2+ release by inositol 1,4,5-trisphosphate is blocked by the K(+)-channel blockers apamin and tetrapentylammonium ion, and a monoclonal antibody to a 63 kDa membrane protein: reversal of blockade by K+ ionophores nigericin and valinomycin and purification of the 63 kDa antibody-binding protein

Ins(1,4,5)P3-induced Ca2+ release from platelet membrane vesicles was blocked by apamin, a selective inhibitor of low-conductance Ca(2+)-activated K+ channels, and by tetrapentylammonium ion, and was weakly inhibited by tetraethylammonium ion. Other K(+)-channel blockers, i.e. charybdotoxin, 4-aminopyridine and glybenclamide were ineffective. A monoclonal antibody (mAb 213-21) obtained by immunizing mice with the InsP3-sensitive membrane fraction from platelets also blocked Ca2+ release by InsP3 from membrane vesicles obtained from platelets, cerebellum, aortic smooth muscle, HEL cells and sea-urchin eggs. ATP-dependent Ca2+ uptake and binding of [3H]InsP3 to platelet membranes was unaffected by either K(+)-channel blockers or mAb 213-21. Blockade of Ca2+ release by apamin, tetrapentylammonium and mAb 213-21 was not affected by the Na+/H+ carrier monensin or the protonophore carbonyl cyanide p-trifluoromethoxyphenylhydrazone (FCCP), but could be completely reversed by the K+/H+ ionophore nigericin and partially reversed by the K+ carrier valinomycin. The antibody-binding protein (ABP) solubilized from platelets, cerebellum, and smooth muscle chromatographed identically on gel filtration, anion-exchange and heparin-TSK h.p.l.c. ABP was purified to apparent homogeneity from platelets and aortic smooth muscle as a 63 kDa protein by immunoaffinity chromatography on mAb 213-21-agarose. These results suggest that optimal Ca2+ release by InsP3 from platelet membrane vesicles may require the tandem function of a K+ channel. A counterflow of K+ ions could prevent the build-up of a membrane potential (inside negative) that would tend to oppose Ca2+ release. The 63 kDa protein may function to regulate K+ permeability that is coupled to the Ca2+ efflux via the InsP3 receptor.

Tetrahexylammonium ions increase Ca2+ sensitivity of contraction of guinea-pig ileal smooth muscle

Effects of tetraalkylammonium ions, having tetraalkyl chains of increasing length from ethyl to octyl, on inositol-trisphosphate (InsP3)-induced Ca2+ release and contractile mechanics were examined in guinea-pig skinned ileal smooth muscle longitudinal strips. Although tetrahexylammonium ions (THexA) appeared to be the most potent inhibitor of Ca2+ release among the tetraalkylammonium ions examined, an additional and more prominent effect was found, i.e., the contraction induced by Ca2+ release showed a large sustained component in the presence of THexA. Potentiation of the contraction by THexA (above 30 microM) was also observed in skinned fibers in which the sarcoplasmic reticulum function was destroyed by treatment with A23187. The potentiating effect of THexA was the most potent by far among the tetraalkylammonium ions examined and was elicited by Ca(2+)-dependent and GTP-binding-protein-independent mechanisms. The potentiation was not due to activation of myosin light-chain kinase. The selective inhibitors of myosin light-chain kinase, protein kinase C and calmodulin reduced THexA-induced potentiation of contraction only at concentrations above 30 microM, at which non-specific effects are likely. Furthermore, relaxation induced by changing pCa from 4.5 to 8.5 was not affected by 1 mM THexA, suggesting that the potentiating effect is not mainly due to inhibition of myosin light-chain phosphatase. In conclusion, ThexA sensitizes guinea-pig skinned ileal smooth muscle to Ca2+ in a structure-selective manner. This sensitization appears not to be mediated mainly by a GTP-binding protein, by activation of myosin light-chain kinase or protein kinase C, by enhanced Ca2+ binding to calmodulin, or by inhibition of myosin light-chain phosphatase.

Effects of rubidium on responses to potassium channel openers in rat isolated aorta

1. In a physiological salt solution (PSS) in which potassium (K) was replaced by rubidium (Rb), segments of rat aorta precontracted with 20 mM RbCl were fully relaxed by K-channel openers with an order of potency levcromakalim > cromakalim > aprikalim > RP 49356. These relaxations were inhibited by glibenclamide. 2. Segments of rat aorta bathed in normal PSS and precontracted with 20 mM KCl were also relaxed by these K-channel openers with an order of potency levcromakalim > cromakalim > aprikalim > RP 49356. These relaxations were glibenclamide-sensitive. However, the absolute potencies of the K-channel openers were approximately four times greater in normal PSS than in RbPSS. 3. In RbPSS, minoxidil sulphate relaxed segments of aorta precontracted with 20 mM RbCl by approximately 20% whereas in normal PSS it fully relaxed those contracted with 20 mM KCl. 4. In RbPSS, levcromakalim-induced relaxation of aortic segments precontracted with 20 mM RbCl was initially well-maintained but then faded by approximately 60% of the initial relaxation to a new, stable level. Subsequent exposure to RP 49356 or to higher concentrations of levcromakalim was without further relaxant effect. Similar changes were observed when RP 49356 was the initial relaxant and tissues were exposed to either RP 49356 or levcromakalim. In normal PSS, levcromakalim- or RP 49356-induced relaxation of contractions produced by 20 mM KCl was well-maintained. 5. In RbPSS, minoxidil sulphate-induced relaxation of aortic segments precontracted with 20 mM RbCl was well-maintained. Subsequent exposure to either levcromakalim or to RP 49356 produced further tissue relaxation. 6. In RbPSS, levcromakalim produced no detectable increase in either 86Rb- or 42K-efflux from rat aortic strips. In normal PSS, a significant increase in the exchange of both isotopes was detected.7. Levcromakalim hyperpolarized segments of rat aorta bathed both in normal PSS and after depolarization by the addition of 20 mM KCI. Exposure to RbPSS depolarized the tissue and under these conditions, levcromakalim had no effect on membrane potential.8. In Rb- and normal PSS, levcromakalim produced a similar degree of inhibition of the refilling of then or adrenaline-sensitive Ca store.9. It is concluded that millimolar concentrations of Rb inhibit the plasmalemmal ATP-sensitive K-channels (KATP) which are the target of the K-channel openers. The relaxant actions of the K-channel openers in both normal and Rb-PSS and the inhibition of these effects by glibenclamide may reflect a functional interaction between these agents at ATP-binding sites associated with both KATP and with intracellular structures including Ca stores.

Luminal Ca2+ increases the affinity of inositol 1,4,5-trisphosphate for its receptor

Luminal Ca2+ has been proposed to regulate the sensitivity of intracellular Ca2+ stores to InsP3 and perhaps thereby to contribute to the mechanisms responsible for regenerative intracellular Ca2+ signals. Since Ca2+ release from intracellular stores is accompanied by K+ influx into the stores, InsP3-stimulated Ca2+ mobilization can be inhibited by substantially reducing the [K+] of incubation media. By measuring [3H]InsP3 binding to permeabilized hepatocytes in K(+)-deficient media, thereby preventing InsP3-stimulated Ca2+ mobilization, we have examined the effects of Ca2+ within the intracellular stores on equilibrium binding of InsP3 to its receptor. Our results demonstrate a small, but significant (P < 0.05, n = 8-9), effect of luminal Ca2+ on InsP3 binding; the concentration of InsP3 causing half-maximal displacement of [3H]InsP3 (1.25 nM) was 3.5 nM for empty stores and 2.1 nM for stores containing Ca2+. Our results suggest that at least part of the stimulatory effect of luminal Ca2+ on InsP3-stimulated Ca2+ mobilization may result from an effect of luminal Ca2+ on InsP3 binding to its receptor.

Physiological concentrations of inorganic phosphate affect MgATP-dependent Ca2+ storage and inositol trisphosphate-induced Ca2+ efflux in microsomal vesicles from non-hepatic cells

1. MgATP-dependent 45Ca2+ uptake by microsomes obtained from various non-hepatic tissues, namely rat brain, rat solid Morris hepatoma 3924A and human platelets, was measured in the presence of P(i) at low, cytosol-like, concentrations. 2. Increasing P(i) concentrations (0.5-3 mM) caused a progressive enlargement of the 45Ca(2+)-storage capacity of all the microsomal fractions. 3. As a result of P(i) stimulation of Ca2+ uptake, 45Ca2+ and [32P]P(i) were co-accumulated by the three microsomal fractions. 4. The time course for 45Ca2+ and [32P]P(i) accumulation in brain microsomes revealed a biphasic 45Ca2+ uptake: a rapid phase was followed by a second, slower, phase, which depended on the presence of P(i). During the P(i)-dependent phase, the uptake of 45Ca2+ was paralleled by the uptake of [32P]Pi. 5. The passive efflux of Ca2+ was paralleled by the efflux of P(i) and vice versa. In fact, the inhibition of active Ca2+ uptake by excess EGTA, or lowering the P(i) concentration of the incubation system by dilution, caused the release of 45Ca2+ and [32P]P(i) from 45Ca2+ or [32P]P(i) pre-loaded brain microsomes. The Ca2+ ionophore A23187 also released 45Ca2+ and [32P]P(i). 6. Ca2+ efflux by A23187 was rapid (t 1/2 approx. 2 s) and independent of the extent of intravesicular Ca2+ loading, which indicates that Ca2+ and P(i) do not form intravesicular insoluble complexes. 7. The progressive increase in Ca2+ accumulation, depending on P(i) stimulation, resulted in a proportional increase in the amount of Ca2+ releasable by InsP3 in the three non-hepatic microsomal fractions and in digitonin-permeabilized platelets. 8. Concomitantly to Ca2+, microsomal P(i) was also released by InsP3.

Characteristics of the contractile response of rabbit aorta produced by cromakalim in calcium-free solution

1 The effect of potassium channel opening compounds has been investigated in the smooth muscle of rabbit aorta under Ca-free conditions. Examination of the characteristics of the response has been performed using cromakalim as the prototype compound. 2 In order of potency, Ro 31-6930, cromakalim, minoxidil sulphate and pinacidil each produced a contraction in rabbit aortic strips bathed in Ca-free MOPS-buffered physiological salt solution (PSS). In contrast, forskolin, glyceryl trinitrate and nifedipine each failed to increase tension under identical conditions. Cromakalim also evoked contraction of bovine trachealis muscle bathed in Ca-free PSS. 3. The contractile response to cromakalim in rabbit aortic strips was of delayed onset (15-20 min) and reached a plateau after approximately 120 min (1.8 g maximum with 1 microM cromakalim). No cromakalim-induced tension changes were observed in either 1 mM or 2.5 mM Ca-containing PSS. 4. Raising the [KCl] of the Ca-free PSS to 65.9 mM fully inhibited the cromakalim-induced contraction in rabbit aortic strips. In addition, pretreatment of aortic strips with the sulphonylurea glibenclamide antagonized the subsequent mechanical response to cromakalim. 5. In Ca-free PSS, cromakalim (1 microM) stimulated 42K-efflux with a time-course corresponding to the contractile event. Glibenclamide (1 microM) inhibited this cromakalim-induced 42K-efflux. 6. In sharp microelectrode studies in bovine trachealis, cromakalim (10 microM) produced a sustained membrane hyperpolarization in normal PSS. In contrast, the cromakalim-induced hyperpolarization in Ca-free PSS was not sustained. The fading of the hyperpolarization was temporally correlated with the increase in tension under these experimental conditions. 7. It is concluded that the K-channel opener-induced smooth muscle contractile response revealed in Ca-free PSS is the consequence of K-channel opening. The nature of the detailed mechanism which underlies this contractile phenomenon remains to be determined.

Ca2+ uptake by endoplasmic reticulum of renal cortex. I. Ionic requirements and regulation in vitro

A subcellular fraction enriched in cytochrome c reductase (7.9-fold) and relatively de-enriched (0.64-fold) in Na+/K(+)-ATPase was prepared from canine kidney cortex by sucrose density gradient ultracentrifugation. It was shown by electron microscopy to consist primarily of a light fraction of endoplasmic reticulum (LER). LER vesicles displayed ATP-dependent 45Ca2+ uptake that was insensitive to 10 mM KCN or NaN3, and was promptly released by 20 microM A23187 or ionomycin. Inositol-1,4,5-trisphosphate (IP3) appeared to produce a time-dependent release of 45Ca2+. Vanadate inhibited 45Ca2+ uptake with a Ki approximately 0.3 mM, further suggesting that the activity resided in the ER rather than the plasma membrane. 45Ca2+ uptake by LER, at 5 microM total [Ca2+], displayed a strong dependence on divalent cations (Mg2+ greater than Co2+ greater than Mn2+ much greater than Ba2+ greater than or equal to Cd2+ greater than or equal to Sr2+, present at 2 mM) as well as on monovalent cations (Na+ greater than or equal to K+ + Na+ greater than K+ greater than Li+ greater than choline +), and anions (Cl- greater than acetate- greater than or equal to NO3- greater than or equal to F- greater than H2PO4- much greater than gluconate- greater than or equal to oxalate= much greater than SO4=). It had a fairly narrow pH optimum (7.25-7.50). Preincubation (10 min) of LER vesicles with 12-O-tetradecanoylphorbol-13-acetate (TPA) stimulated LER Ca2+ uptake; this effect was enhanced in the presence of renal cytosol [5% (vol/vol)].(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 250 WORDS)

Regulation of agonist-evoked [Ca2+]i oscillation by intracellular Ca2+ and Ba2+ in AR42J cells

Measurements of intracellular Ca2+ ([Ca2+]i) and intracellular Ba2+ ([Ba2+]i) in single AR42J cells were used to evaluate the effect of [Ca2+]i and [Ba2+]i on agonist-evoked [Ca2+]i oscillations. Variations in [Ca2+]i and [Ba2+]i were imposed by gradual activation of entry through voltage-activated Ca2+ channels (VACC) present in the plasma membrane of these cells. Activation of high K+ was followed by partial inactivation of the channels and stabilization of [Ca2+]i at a new steady-state level depending on the extent of depolarization. Activation by BAY K 8644 was followed by complete inactivation and return of [Ca2+]i to resting levels. Ba2+ activated the channels and entered the cells but could not be removed from the cytosol by cellular Ca2+ pumps. The use of channel blockers and the ability to increase [Ca2+]i and [Ba2+]i by channel activation during [Ca2+]i oscillations showed that VACC do not contribute to or are activated during agonist-stimulated Ca2+ oscillation in this cell type. Graded activation of VACC showed that an increase in [Ca2+]i between the spikes to below 200 nM increased the frequency of the oscillation. Further increase in [Ca2+]i caused gradual reduction in the frequency. At [Ca2+]i above 500 nM, [Ca2+]i oscillations were inhibited. The inhibitory but not the stimulatory effects of [Ca2+]i on the oscillations can be mimicked by [Ba2+]i. These observations suggest that [Ca2+]i levels between the spikes play an important role in regulating the oscillations.

Localized superoxide release by neutrophils can be provoked by a cytosolic calcium 'cloud'

We have used single-cell ratio imaging of Fura-2 loaded neutrophils to visualize release of cytosolic Ca2+ from an intracellular store in order to determine the location of this store and the relationship of release from it to oxidase activation. In the presence of extracellular Ca2+, N-formyl-L-methionyl-L-leucyl-L-phenylalanine (FMLP) produced an increase in free Ca2+ throughout the cytosol. In its absence, however, stimulation induced in 38% of neutrophils a highly localized increase in cytosolic free Ca2+, located between the nuclear lobes and the plasma membrane, at a region of cytosol which stained positively with 3,3'-dihexyloxacarbocyanine iodide [DiOC6(3)]. Calcium release from the store was transient, without oscillation and occurred after delays of up to 120 seconds. Addition of Ca2+ ionophore also released Ca2+ from this, and other stores, within the cell, up to three foci being detected in some cells. Localized oxidase activation occurred at the plasma membrane when the calcium concentration ([Ca2+]) of the 'cloud' exceeded 250 nM. Surprisingly, localized activation occurred at the plasma membrane at a site separate from but near to a region of high Ca2+. It was concluded that release of Ca2+ from a single receptor-releasable, Ca2+ store in neutrophils was insufficient to trigger oxidase activation throughout the cell, but could provide a localized activation of the oxidase.

Influence of calcium and amino acids on the osmium impregnation of the endoplasmic reticulum

The aim of this study was to define further the interaction between osmium and organelle content in cells prefixed with glutaraldehyde. We have studied the reaction of osmium with divalent or trivalent cations (calcium, barium, zinc, aluminum, and iron) and various amino acids in the same conditions prevalent in histological techniques, in particular with Thiéry's technique of metal impregnation. Experiments were carried out in vitro in test tubes, on cellulose acetate discs, or with an immunodiffusion apparatus. Some experiments were also carried out with tissue extracts (kidney and intestine). Our studies suggest that calcium is in general essential for the formation of osmium black, but also that lysine is reactive even in the absence of calcium and that a few amino acids--such as tryptophan, ornithine, cysteine, and aspartic acid--are only slightly reactive in the absence of calcium. Other amino acids do not seem to participate in the endoplasmic reticulum osmium impregnation even in the presence of calcium ions. Our studies also suggest that osmium reactivity reflects calcium binding sites and not only calcium content.

Differences between the effects of cromakalim and nifedipine on agonist-induced responses in rabbit aorta

1. The effects of cromakalim on endothelium-denuded rabbit aortic strips were compared with those of the calcium (Ca2+) entry blocking agent, nifedipine. 2. Pre-incubation with cromakalim or nifedipine had no significant effect on the initial phasic component of noradrenaline (NA)-induced responses. 3. Cromakalim (0.3-10 microM), but not nifedipine, inhibited the maintained tonic contractions produced by NA. The effects of cromakalim were antagonized by raising extracellular [K+] or by glibenclamide. 4. Nifedipine inhibited contractions produced by KCl (40 mM) whereas cromakalim had no effect. 5. In Ca2(+)-free physiological salt solution (PSS), cromakalim produced a significant inhibition of both the refilling of and the release of Ca2+ from NA-releasable Ca2+ stores, whereas nifedipine was ineffective. 6. In tissues preloaded with 42K+ cromakalim (0.3-10 microM) produced a concentration-dependent increase in the 42K+ efflux rate coefficient. NA (0.3 microM) also produced an increase in the rate of efflux of 42K+, an effect which was not antagonized by nifedipine (0.3 microM). 7. When microelectrodes were used, cromakalim (1-10 microM) produced a maintained concentration-dependent membrane hyperpolarization. However, low concentrations of cromakalim (less than 1 microM) which relaxed the aorta had no effect on membrane potential. NA had no significant effect on membrane potential. 9. It is concluded that the ability of cromakalim to relax NA-induced contractions in rabbit aorta is not exerted by the indirect closure of nifedipine-sensitive Ca2+ channels. Instead, cromakalim may exert a direct inhibitory action on Ca2+ uptake into and release from Ca2+ stores and additionally inhibit the pathway through which Ca2+ passes from the extracellular fluid to intracellular Ca2+ stores.

MgATP-dependent accumulation of calcium ions and inorganic phosphate in a liver reticular pool

1. MgATP-dependent Ca2+ uptake by rat liver microsomal preparations and permeabilized hepatocytes was measured in the presence or absence of Pi. 2. Monitoring of free Ca2+ in incubation systems with a Ca2+ electrode in the presence of Pi (2-7 mM) revealed a biphasic Ca2+ uptake, with the onset of a second, Pi-dependent, Ca2+ accumulation. 3. Increasing Pi concentrations (up to 10 mM) caused a progressive enlargement of 45Ca2(+)-loading capacity of microsomal fractions. 4. As a result of Pi stimulation of active Ca2+ uptake, [32P]Pi and 45Ca2+ were co-accumulated. 5. Experiments with permeabilized hepatocytes revealed that the amount of Ca2+ releasable by myo-inositol 1,4,5-trisphosphate is unaffected by Pi.

Localization of calcium and microfilament changes in mechanically stressed cells

We combined fluorescence labeling, digital image processing, and micromanipulation to investigate the intracellular events induced by inflicting a mechanical stress on rat basophilic leukemia cells. Our findings were as follows: 1. Most cells displayed a localized calcium rise in response to micropipet aspiration. This represented an average threefold increase as compared to resting level, and it was observed during the first 10 s following aspiration. A slow return to initial level occurred within about 3 min. Further, this calcium rise involved a mobilization of intracellular stores, since it was not prevented by adding a calcium chelator into the extracellular medium. 2. All micropipet-aspirated cells displayed a local accumulation of microfilaments, with a preferential localization in the cell protrusions or near the pipet tips. 3. No absolute correlation was found between the localization of calcium rise and cytoskeletal accumulation. 4. Cell deformability was decreased when intracellular calcium was maintained at a constant (high or low) level with ionomycin and/or EGTA. It is concluded that cells have a general ability to respond to mechanical stimulation by a coordinated set of events. More parameters must be studied before the mechanisms of cell shape regulation are fully understood.

Effects of caerulein on the apical cytoskeleton of the pancreatic acinar cell

In this study experiments were performed to correlate the rate of digestive enzyme secretion to morphologic observations of the apical cytoskeleton using dispersed rat pancreatic acini with various concentrations of caerulein. Caerulein at concentrations of 10 pM to 0.1 nM stimulated increasing rates of secretion of amylase, a digestive enzyme. Greater concentrations of caerulein caused progressively less amylase secretion. Transmission electron microscopy demonstrated several characteristics of the apical cytoskeleton in untreated acini that were altered with the "inhibitory" concentrations of caerulein. In control acini and acini stimulated with concentrations of caerulein up to 0.1 nM, the micrographs reveal an apical actin network extending into microvilli, an intermediate filament band, and electron-dense structures contained in both the actin filament network and the intermediate filament band. With concentrations of caerulein greater than 0.1 nM, these structures were progressively ablated. The findings with respect to the actin filament network were confirmed with light microscopic observations of dispersed acini stained with rhodamine-phalloidin. These results indicate that caerulein has marked morphologic effects on the pancreatic acinar cell cytoskeleton and that the cytoskeletal changes may modulate the secretory response.

Volume-sensitive K-Cl cotransport in inside-out vesicles made from erythrocyte membranes from sheep of low-K phenotype

Unidirectional K ion effluxes were measured from inside-out vesicles prepared from erythrocyte membranes from sheep of the low-K phenotype. Total K efflux was 150 nmol per mg of protein per hr in a Cl medium of 295 mosmol/kg (with the Na/K pump inhibited). Cl-dependent K efflux (determined with methanesulfonate replacing Cl) was 54 nmol/(mg.hr). Cl-dependent K efflux (K-Cl cotransport) increased to 77 nmol/(mg.hr) with osmotic swelling of approximately 30% in 230-mosmol/kg medium and decreased to 13 nmol/(mg.hr) after shrinkage of approximately 60% in 430-mosmol/kg medium. Osmotically induced changes in transport and vesicle volume were reversible. K-Cl cotransport was enhanced by ATP. Nonhydrolyzable ATP analogues failed to substitute for ATP, indicating that phosphorylation is involved. However, in the absence of added ATP there was significant K-Cl cotransport, suggesting that phosphorylation is not essential for function. The results provide clues about the nature of the signals detected by the sensor of cell volume changes and demonstrate that inside-out vesicles from sheep erythrocyte membranes provide an advantageous experimental system for investigation of the volume sensor.

Intracellular calcium pools in neuroblastoma x glioma hybrid NG108-15 cells

The intracellular nonmitochondrial calcium pools of saponin-permeabilized NG108-15 cells were characterized using inositol 1,4,5-trisphosphate (IP3) and GTP. IP3 or GTP alone induced release of 47 and 68%, respectively, of the calcium that was releasable by A23187. GTP induced release of a further 24% of the calcium after IP3 treatment, whereas IP3 induced release of a further 11% of the calcium after GTP treatment. Guanosine 5'-O-(3-thio)triphosphate had little effect on IP3-induced calcium release but completely inhibited GTP-induced calcium release. In contrast, heparin inhibited the action of IP3 but not that of GTP. The results imply the existence of at least three nonmitochondrial pools: (a) 31% is releasable by IP3 and GTP, (b) 11% is releasable by IP3 alone, and (c) 24% is releasable by GTP alone. GTP enhanced calcium uptake in the presence of oxalate with an EC50 of 0.6 microM and stimulated calcium release in the absence of oxalate with an EC50 of 0.32 microM. The similar EC50 values for these dual effects of GTP on calcium movement suggest that GTP exerts its dual action by the same mechanism.

Fasting induces modifications of the endoplasmic reticulum in intestinal cells

The polymorphism of the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) in epithelial cells with different transport functions such as the enterocyte suggests that the ER may be involved in some way in molecular transport. To further access this possibility, we examined the ER from the intestine of winter flounder, Pseudopleuronectes americanus, a species which undergoes an annual fast of approximately 6 months' duration, a time during which previous work indicates nutrient carrier number does not change. Fish from June (feeding) and January (8-10 weeks fasted) were sampled. Tissues from the pyloric caeca, foregut, midgut, and hindgut were prepared for electron microscopy using two techniques of staining. Cell height was unaltered in any section, although microvillar length shortened variably. Cellular organization, including position of nuclei, number and distribution of mitochondria, and presence of basolateral membranes, did not change. The ER appeared equally abundant in June and January. However, use of the osmium impregnation technique, which is specific for ER cisternal contents, revealed a change in the impregnation of ER, from a heavily impregnated network in summer to little or no impregnation in winter. These results suggest that a shift in function of the ER had occurred when nutrient transport ceased, and supports a role of the ER in nutrient transport.

Liver inositol, 1,4,5-trisphosphate-binding sites are the Ca2(+)-mobilizing receptors

Ins(1,4,5)P3 is the intracellular messenger that in many cells mediates the effects of Ca2(+)-mobilizing receptors on intracellular Ca2+ stores. An Ins(1,4,5)P3 receptor from cerebellum has been purified and functionally reconstituted, but the relationship between this protein and the high-affinity Ins(1,4,5)P3-binding sites of peripheral tissues is unclear. We compared the Ins(1,4,5)P3-binding sites of liver and cerebellum by measuring inhibition of specific Ins(1,4,[32P]5)P3 binding by various ligands under equilibrium conditions, and find that each ligand binds with similar affinity in the two tissues. Earlier studies in which Ins(1,4,5)P3 binding and Ca2+ mobilization were measured under different conditions demonstrated large differences between KD values for binding and EC50 values (concn. giving half-maximal effect) for Ca2+ release. We show here that, when measured under identical conditions, KD and EC50 values for four agonists are similar. Schild analysis of inhibition of Ins(1,4,5)P3 binding by ATP demonstrates a competitive interaction between the two at the liver Ins(1,4,5)P3-binding site, and this partly accounts for earlier discrepancies in binding and Ca2(+)-release data. We conclude that the high-affinity Ins(1,4,5)P3-binding site of hepatocytes is likely to be the receptor that mediates Ca2+ mobilization, and that this receptor is at present indistinguishable from that in cerebellum.