A testicular antigen aberrantly expressed in human cancers detected by autologous antibody screening

Recent progress in mRNA cancer vaccines

The research and development of messenger RNA (mRNA) cancer vaccines have gradually overcome numerous challenges through the application of personalized cancer antigens, structural optimization of mRNA, and the development of alternative RNA-based vectors and efficient targeted delivery vectors. Clinical trials are currently underway for various cancer vaccines that encode tumor-associated antigens (TAAs), tumor-specific antigens (TSAs), or immunomodulators. In this paper, we summarize the optimization of mRNA and the emergence of RNA-based expression vectors in cancer vaccines. We begin by reviewing the advancement and utilization of state-of-the-art targeted lipid nanoparticles (LNPs), followed by presenting the primary classifications and clinical applications of mRNA cancer vaccines. Collectively, mRNA vaccines are emerging as a central focus in cancer immunotherapy, offering the potential to address multiple challenges in cancer treatment, either as standalone therapies or in combination with current cancer treatments.

A recent perspective on designing tumor vaccines for tumor immunology

With the rapid development of immunotherapy, therapeutic tumor vaccines, which aim to enhance the immunogenicity of tumor cells and activate the patient's immune system to kill tumor cells, as well as eliminate or inhibit tumor growth, have drawn increasing attention in the field of tumor therapy. However, due to the lack of immune cell infiltration, low immunogenicity, immune escape and other problems, the efficacy of tumor vaccine is often limited. Researchers have developed a variety of strategies to enhance tumor immune recognition, such as improving the immunogenicity of tumor antigens, selecting a suitable vaccine platform, or combining tumor vaccines with other anticancer treatments. In this review, we will deliberate on how to overcome the problem of therapeutic tumor vaccines, and discuss the up-to-date progress and achievements in the tumor vaccine development, as well as their future in cancer treatment.

The current therapeutic cancer vaccines landscape in non-small cell lung cancer

Currently, conventional immunotherapies for the treatment of non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC) have low response rates and benefit only a minority of patients, particularly those with advanced disease, so novel therapeutic strategies are urgent deeded. Therapeutic cancer vaccines, a form of active immunotherapy, harness potential to activate the adaptive immune system against tumor cells via antigen cross-presentation. Cancer vaccines can establish enduring immune memory and guard against recurrences. Vaccine-induced tumor cell death prompts antigen epitope spreading, activating functional T cells and thereby sustaining a cancer-immunity cycle. The success of vaccines against severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) has rendered cancer vaccines a promising avenue, especially when combined with immunotherapy or chemoradiotherapy for NSCLC. This review delves into the intricate antitumor immune mechanisms underlying therapeutic cancer vaccines, enumerates the tumor antigen spectrum of NSCLC, discusses different cancer vaccines progress and summarizes relevant clinical trials. Additionally, we analyze the combination strategies, current limitations, and future prospects of cancer vaccines in NSCLC treatment, aiming to offer fresh insights for their clinical application in managing NSCLC. Overall, cancer vaccines offer promising potential for NSCLC treatment, particularly combining with chemoradiotherapy or immunotherapy could further improve survival in advanced patients. Exploring inhaled vaccines or prophylactic vaccines represents a crucial research avenue.

Unveiling the significance of cancer-testis antigens and their implications for immunotherapy in glioma

Glioma has a poor prognosis, which is attributable to its inherent characteristics and lack of specific treatments. Immunotherapy plays a pivotal role in the contemporary management of malignancies. Despite the initiation of numerous immunotherapy-based clinical trials, their effects on enhancing glioma prognosis remain limited, highlighting the need for innovative and effective therapeutic targets and strategies to address this challenge. Since the 1990s, there has been a growing interest in cancer-testis antigens (CTAs) present in normal mammalian testicular germ cells and placental trophoblast cells, which exhibit reactivated expression in various tumor types. Mechanisms such as DNA methylation, histone modification, transcriptional regulation, and alternative splicing influence the expression of CTAs in tumors. The distinct expression patterns and robust immunogenicity of CTAs are promising tumor biomarkers and optimal targets for immunotherapy. Previous reports have shown that multiple CTAs are present in gliomas and are closely related to prognosis. The expression of these antigens is also associated with the immune response in gliomas and the effectiveness of immunotherapy. Significantly, numerous clinical trials, with IL13RA2 as a representative CTA member, have assessed the immunotherapeutic potential of gliomas and have shown favorable clinical efficacy. This review provides a comprehensive overview of the regulation and function of CTAs, summarizes their expression and role in gliomas, emphasizes their importance as immunotherapy targets in gliomas, and discusses related challenges and future interventions.

Unveiling the role of KRAS in Chinese colorectal cancer patients: a positive influence on tumor mutational burden

Background

One of the main challenges associated with the development of therapeutic and diagnostic strategies for patients with colorectal cancer (CRC) is the establishment of minimally invasive and efficient biomarkers. Pertinent genes in CRC have been identified through their functions in systematic mutagenesis screens. KRAS is considered a dominant mutated oncogene that contributes to pathogenesis of CRC. This study aimed to explore the genomic alternations of KRAS in a CRC population.

Methods

Sequencing data of 94 Chinese patients with CRC were prospectively collected and analyzed using next-generation sequencing (NGS). The influence of KRAS and its associated subtype co-mutations on the expression level of the tumor mutational burden (TMB) was investigated. The objective of our study was to assess the potential prognostic significance of KRAS and other driving oncogenes in determining the clinical efficacy of immunotherapy.

Results

The gene mutation rates of TP53, APC, and KRAS were 81.91%, 71.28%, and 43.62%, respectively. Additionally, KRAS G12D displayed a relatively higher mutation rate than other KRAS-mutant subtypes. Increased TMB was observed in cases of KRAS and BRAF mutation combined with APC single mutation; furthermore, the expression of TMB in G12V was the highest, and G12D presented the lowest TMB in single KRAS-mutant subtypes or the combination with APC mutations.

Conclusions

The TMB driven by KRAS co-mutations may have the potential to be used as a key biomarker for prediction of treatment outcomes of immune checkpoint inhibitors (ICIs) in patients with CRC, especially with APC co-mutation.

Engineered T cells for Colorectal Cancer

Colorectal cancer (CRC) is a major contributor to global cancer incidence and mortality. Conventional treatments have limitations; hence, innovative approaches are imperative. Recent advancements in cancer research have led to the development of personalized targeted therapies and immunotherapies. Immunotherapy, in particular, T cell-based therapies, exhibited to be promising in enhancing cancer treatment outcomes. This review focuses on the landscape of engineered T cells as a potential option for the treatment of CRC. It highlights the approaches, challenges and current advancements in this field. As the understanding of molecular mechanisms increases, engineered T cells hold great potential in revolutionizing cancer treatment. To fully explore their safety efficacy in improving patient outcomes, further research and clinical trials are necessary.

NY-ESO-1 antigen: A promising frontier in cancer immunotherapy

Significant strides have been made in identifying tumour-associated antigens over the past decade, revealing unique epitopes crucial for targeted cancer therapy. Among these, the New York esophageal squamous cell carcinoma (NY-ESO-1) protein, a cancer/testis antigen, stands out. This protein is presented on the cell surface by major histocompatibility complex class I molecules and exhibits restricted expression in germline cells and various cancers, marking it as an immune-privileged site. Remarkably, NY-ESO-1 serves a dual role as both a tumour-associated antigen and its own adjuvant, implying a potential function as a damage-associated molecular pattern. It elicits strong humoural immune responses, with specific antibody frequencies significantly correlating with disease progression. These characteristics make NY-ESO-1 an appealing candidate for developing effective and specific immunotherapy, particularly for advanced stages of disease. In this review, we provide a comprehensive overview of NY-ESO-1 as an immunogenic tumour antigen. We then explore the diverse strategies for targeting NY-ESO-1, including cancer vaccination with peptides, proteins, DNA, mRNA, bacterial vectors, viral vectors, dendritic cells and artificial adjuvant vector cells, while considering the benefits and drawbacks of each strategy. Additionally, we offer an in-depth analysis of adoptive T-cell therapies, highlighting innovative techniques such as next-generation NY-ESO-1 T-cell products and the integration with lymph node-targeted vaccines to address challenges and enhance therapeutic efficacy. Overall, this comprehensive review sheds light on the evolving landscape of NY-ESO-1 targeting and its potential implications for cancer treatment, opening avenues for future tailored directions in NY-ESO-1-specific immunotherapy. HIGHLIGHTS: Endogenous immune response: NY-ESO-1 exhibited high immunogenicity, activating endogenous dendritic cells, T cells and B cells. NY-ESO-1-based cancer vaccines: NY-ESO-1 vaccines using protein/peptide, RNA/DNA, microbial vectors and artificial adjuvant vector cells have shown promise in enhancing immune responses against tumours. NY-ESO-1-specific T-cell receptor-engineered cells: NY-ESO-1-targeted T cells, along with ongoing innovations in engineered natural killer cells and other cell therapies, have improved the efficacy of immunotherapy.

Expression of the tumor antigens NY-ESO-1, tyrosinase, MAGE-A3, and TPTE in pediatric and adult melanoma: a retrospective case control study

Tumor-associated antigens (TAAs) are potential targets for T cell-based immunotherapy approaches in cutaneous melanoma. BNT111, an investigational lipoplex-formulated mRNA-based therapeutic cancer vaccine encoding melanoma TAAs NY-ESO-1, tyrosinase, MAGE-A3, and TPTE, is undergoing clinical testing in adults. Expression of these TAAs in pediatric melanoma is unclear but is a prerequisite for feasibility of this treatment approach in children with melanoma. Our main objective was to characterize expression of those TAAs in pediatric melanomas compared to control cohorts. In this retrospective case control study, protein and transcript expression of NY-ESO-1, tyrosinase, MAGE-A3, and TPTE were analyzed in a cohort of 25 pediatric melanomas, 31 melanomas of young adults, 29 adult melanomas, and 30 benign melanocytic nevi in children using immunohistochemical staining and digital pathology (QuPath) and reverse transcription quantitative PCR. Based on IHC analysis, pediatric melanomas expressed tyrosinase (100.0%), TPTE (44.0%), MAGE-A3 (12.0%), and NY-ESO-1 (8.0%). Young adult melanomas expressed tyrosinase (96.8%), NY-ESO-1 (19.4%), MAGE-A3 (19.4%), and TPTE (3.2%). Adult melanomas expressed tyrosinase (86.2%), MAGE-A3 (75.9%), NY-ESO-1 (48.3%), and TPTE (48.3%). Childhood melanocytic nevi only expressed tyrosinase (93.3%). Expression prevalence of individual TAAs did not differ between subtypes of pediatric melanoma, and no association with prognosis was found. All four TAAs were expressed in pediatric melanoma, albeit NY-ESO-1 and MAGE-A3 to a lesser extent than in adult melanoma. These data support the possibility of investigating vaccines targeting these TAAs for the treatment of pediatric melanoma.

Next-generation cancer vaccines and emerging immunotherapy combinations

Therapeutic cancer vaccines have been a subject of research for several decades as potential new weapons to tackle malignancies. Their goal is to induce a long-lasting and efficient antitumour-directed immune response, capable of mediating tumour regression, preventing tumour progression, and eradicating minimal residual disease, while avoiding major adverse effects. Development of new vaccine technologies and antigen prediction methods has led to significant improvements in cancer vaccine efficacy. However, for their successful clinical application, certain obstacles still need to be overcome, especially tumour-mediated immunosuppression and escape mechanisms. In this review, we introduce therapeutic cancer vaccines and subsequently discuss combination approaches of next-generation cancer vaccines and existing immunotherapies, particularly immune checkpoint inhibitors (ICIs) and adoptive cell transfer/cell-based immunotherapies.

The bright side of chemistry: Exploring synthetic peptide-based anticancer vaccines

The present review focuses on synthetic peptide-based vaccine strategies in the context of anticancer intervention, paying attention to critical aspects such as peptide epitope selection, adjuvant integration, and nuanced classification of synthetic peptide cancer vaccines. Within this discussion, we delve into the diverse array of synthetic peptide-based anticancer vaccines, each derived from tumor-associated antigens (TAAs), including melanoma antigen recognized by T cells 1 (Melan-A or MART-1), mucin 1 (MUC1), human epidermal growth factor receptor 2 (HER-2), tumor protein 53 (p53), human telomerase reverse transcriptase (hTERT), survivin, folate receptor (FR), cancer-testis antigen 1 (NY-ESO-1), and prostate-specific antigen (PSA). We also describe the synthetic peptide-based vaccines developed for cancers triggered by oncovirus, such as human papillomavirus (HPV), and hepatitis C virus (HCV). Additionally, the potential synergy of peptide-based vaccines with common therapeutics in cancer was considered. The last part of our discussion deals with the realm of the peptide-based vaccines delivery, highlighting its role in translating the most promising candidates into effective clinical strategies. Although this discussion does not cover all the ongoing peptide vaccine investigations, it aims at offering valuable insights into the chemical modifications and the structural complexities of anticancer peptide-based vaccines.

Placenta: an old organ with new functions

The transition from oviparity to viviparity and the establishment of feto-maternal communications introduced the placenta as the major anatomical site to provide nutrients, gases, and hormones to the developing fetus. The placenta has endocrine functions, orchestrates maternal adaptations to pregnancy at different periods of pregnancy, and acts as a selective barrier to minimize exposure of developing fetus to xenobiotics, pathogens, and parasites. Despite the fact that this ancient organ is central for establishment of a normal pregnancy in eutherians, the placenta remains one of the least studied organs. The first step of pregnancy, embryo implantation, is finely regulated by the trophoectoderm, the precursor of all trophoblast cells. There is a bidirectional communication between placenta and endometrium leading to decidualization, a critical step for maintenance of pregnancy. There are three-direction interactions between the placenta, maternal immune cells, and the endometrium for adaptation of endometrial immune system to the allogeneic fetus. While 65% of all systemically expressed human proteins have been found in the placenta tissues, it expresses numerous placenta-specific proteins, whose expression are dramatically changed in gestational diseases and could serve as biomarkers for early detection of gestational diseases. Surprisingly, placentation and carcinogenesis exhibit numerous shared features in metabolism and cell behavior, proteins and molecular signatures, signaling pathways, and tissue microenvironment, which proposes the concept of "cancer as ectopic trophoblastic cells". By extensive researches in this novel field, a handful of cancer biomarkers has been discovered. This review paper, which has been inspired in part by our extensive experiences during the past couple of years, highlights new aspects of placental functions with emphasis on its immunomodulatory role in establishment of a successful pregnancy and on a potential link between placentation and carcinogenesis.

A heterogeneous pharmaco-transcriptomic landscape induced by targeting a single oncogenic kinase

Over-activation of the epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR) is a hallmark of glioblastoma. However, EGFR-targeted therapies have led to minimal clinical response. While delivery of EGFR inhibitors (EGFRis) to the brain constitutes a major challenge, how additional drug-specific features alter efficacy remains poorly understood. We apply highly multiplex single-cell chemical genomics to define the molecular response of glioblastoma to EGFRis. Using a deep generative framework, we identify shared and drug-specific transcriptional programs that group EGFRis into distinct molecular classes. We identify programs that differ by the chemical properties of EGFRis, including induction of adaptive transcription and modulation of immunogenic gene expression. Finally, we demonstrate that pro-immunogenic expression changes associated with a subset of tyrphostin family EGFRis increase the ability of T-cells to target glioblastoma cells.

Exploring the Potential of Humoral Immune Response to Commensal Bifidobacterium as a Biomarker for Human Health, including Both Malignant and Non-Malignant Diseases: A Perspective on Detection Strategies and Future Directions

In this comprehensive review, we explore the pivotal role of commensal Bifidobacterium (c-BIF) as potent non-self-antigens through antigenic mimicry, along with exploring the potential of humoral immune responses for both malignant and non-malignant disease. c-BIF, a predominant component of the human gut microbiome encompassing around 90% of the human genome, has emerged as a pivotal player in human biology. Over recent decades, there has been extensive research elucidating the intricate connections between c-BIF and various facets of human health, with particular emphasis on their groundbreaking impact on anti-cancer effects and the management of non-malignant diseases. The multifaceted role of c-BIF is explored, ranging from enhancing anti-tumor immunity to improving the efficacy of anti-cancer and anti-infectious disease strategies, and serving as predictive biomarkers for various diseases. Recent studies highlight not only c-BIF's promotion of anti-tumor immunity but also their role in enhancing the efficacy of immune checkpoint inhibitors. The review emphasizes the promising avenue of manipulating the gut microbiota, particularly c-BIF, for modulating cancer immunotherapy with targeted effects on tumor cells while minimizing harm to normal tissue. In the context of infectious and inflammatory diseases, the crucial role of c-BIFs in the management of COVID-19 symptoms is examined, emphasizing their impact on the severity of and immune response to COVID-19. Furthermore, c-BIF exhibits preventive and therapeutic effects on Human Papillomaviruses (HPV) and shows promise in improving inflammatory bowel diseases. The potential application of c-BIF as a biomarker for immunotherapy is explored, with a specific emphasis on its predictive and prognostic value in cancer. Suggestions are made regarding the use of humoral immune responses to cytotoxic T lymphocyte (CTL) epitope peptides that share motifs with c-BIF, proposing them as potential markers for predicting overall survival in diverse cancer patients. In conclusion, c-BIF emerges as a crucial and multifaceted determinant of human health, across anti-tumor immunity to infectious and inflammatory disease management. The manipulation of c-BIF and gut microbiota presents a promising avenue for advancing therapeutic strategies, particularly in the realm of cancer immunotherapy. Additionally, this review highlights the significance of c-BIF as potent non-self-antigens via antigenic mimicry, emphasizing the importance of robust humoral immune responses against c-BIF for preventing various diseases, including inflammatory conditions. Elevated levels of circulating antibodies against c-BIF in healthy individuals may serve as potential indicators of lower risks for malignant and non-malignant diseases.

Serum NY-ESO-1 antibody as a predictive biomarker for postoperative recurrence of gastric cancer: a multicenter prospective observational study

BACKGROUND

No reliable marker has been identified to predict postoperative recurrence of gastric cancer. We designed a clinical trial to investigate the utility of serum NY-ESO-1 antibody responses as a predictive marker for postoperative recurrence in gastric cancer.

METHODS

A multicenter prospective study was conducted between 2012 and 2021. Patients with resectable cT3-4 gastric cancer were included. Postoperative NY-ESO-1 and p53 antibody responses were serially evaluated every 3 months for 1 year in patients with positive preoperative antibody responses. The recurrence rate was assessed by the positivity of antibody responses at 3 and 12 months postoperatively.

RESULTS

Among 1001 patients, preoperative NY-ESO-1 and p53 antibody responses were positive in 12.6% and 18.1% of patients, respectively. NY-ESO-1 antibody responses became negative postoperatively in non-recurrent patients (negativity rates; 45% and 78% at 3 and 12 months, respectively), but remained positive in recurrent patients (negativity rates; 9% and 8%, respectively). p53 antibody responses remained positive in non-recurrent patients. In multivariate analysis, NY-ESO-1 antibody positivity at 3 months (P  < 0.03) and 12 months (P  < 0.001) were independent prognostic factors for a shorter recurrence-free interval.

CONCLUSIONS

Serum NY-ESO-1 antibodies may be a useful predictive marker for postoperative recurrence in gastric cancer.

CLINICAL TRIAL REGISTRATION

UMIN000007925.

Designing, cloning and simulation studies of cancer/testis antigens based multi-epitope vaccine candidates against cutaneous melanoma: An immunoinformatics approach

Background

Melanoma is the most fatal kind of skin cancer. Among its various types, cutaneous melanoma is the most prevalent one. Melanoma cells are thought to be highly immunogenic due to the presence of distinct tumor-associated antigens (TAAs), which includes carcinoembryonic antigen (CEA), cancer/testis antigens (CTAs) and neo-antigens. The CTA family is a group of antigens that are only expressed in malignancies and testicular germ cells.

Methods

We used integrative framework and systems-level analysis to predict potential vaccine candidates for cutaneous melanoma involving epitopes prediction, molecular modeling and molecular docking to cross-validate the binding affinity and interaction between potential vaccine agents and major histocompatibility molecules (MHCs) followed by molecular dynamics simulation, immune simulation and in silico cloning.

Results

In this study, three cancer/testis antigens were targeted for immunotherapy of cutaneous melanoma. Among many CTAs that were studied for their expression in primary and malignant melanoma, NY-ESO-1, MAGE1 and SSX2 antigens are most prevalent in cutaneous melanoma. Cytotoxic and Helper epitopes were predicted, and the finest epitopes were shortlisted based on binding score. The vaccine construct was composed of the four epitope-rich domains of antigenic proteins, an appropriate adjuvant, His tag and linkers. This potential multi-epitope vaccine was further evaluated in terms of antigenicity, allergencity, toxicity and other physicochemical properties. Molecular interaction estimated through protein-protein docking unveiled good interactions characterized by favorable binding energies. Molecular dynamics simulation ensured the stability of docked complex and the predicted immune response through immune simulation revealed elevated levels of antibodies titer, cytokines, interleukins and immune cells (NK, DC and MA) population.

Conclusion

The findings indicate that the potential vaccine candidates could be effective immunotherapeutic agents that modify the treatment strategies of cutaneous melanoma.

Serum NY-ESO-1 and p53 antibodies as useful tumor markers in gastric cancer

Purpose

The NY-ESO-1 antigen is highly immunogenic and often spontaneously induces an immune response in patients with cancer. We conducted a large-scale multicenter cohort study to investigate the utility of serum NY-ESO-1 and p53 antibodies as predictive markers for the postoperative recurrence of gastric cancer. Here, we examined the usefulness of pre-treatment NY-ESO-1 and p53 antibodies as tumor markers for the diagnosis of gastric cancer in combination with carcinoembryonic antigen (CEA) and carbohydrate antigen 19-9 (CA19-9).

Methods

A total of 1031 patients with cT3-4 gastric cancer were enrolled in the study. NY-ESO-1 and p53 antibodies were assessed prior to treatment. The positivity of NY-ESO-1 and p53 antibodies, CEA, and CA19-9 was evaluated before treatment.

Results

Serum NY-ESO-1 and p53 antibodies were positive in 12.6% and 18.1% of the patients, respectively. Positive NY-ESO-1 antibody response was correlated with male gender, higher cStage, and upper tumor location. However, a positive p53 antibody response was not associated with tumor factors. The combination of NY-ESO-1 or p53 antibody response with CEA and CA19-9, or the 4-factors, was positive in 45.1%, 49.6%, and 53.8% of patients, respectively. Moreover, the 4-factor combination was able to detect >60% of cStage III-IV diseases, which was 14% higher than that with the combination of CEA and CA19-9.

Conclusion

The combination of NY-ESO-1 and p53 antibody responses to CEA and CA19-9 increases the diagnostic accuracy of gastric cancer. Serum NY-ESO-1 and p53 antibodies may be useful tumor markers for gastric cancer.

Decoding the autoantibody reactome

Autoantibodies influence a wide range of conditions beyond autoimmune diseases.

Recent applications of RNA therapeutic in clinics

Ribonucleic acid (RNA) therapy has been extensively researched for several decades and has garnered significant attention in recent years owing to its potential in treating a broad spectrum of diseases. It falls under the domain of gene therapy, leveraging RNA molecules as a therapeutic approach in medicine. RNA can be targeted using small-molecule drugs, or RNA molecules themselves can serve as drugs by interacting with proteins or other RNA molecules. While several RNA drugs have been granted clinical approval, numerous RNA-based therapeutics are presently undergoing clinical investigation or testing for various conditions, including genetic disorders, viral infections, and diverse forms of cancer. These therapies offer several advantages, such as high specificity, enabling precise targeting of disease-related genes or proteins, cost-effectiveness, and a relatively straightforward manufacturing process. Nevertheless, successful translation of RNA therapies into widespread clinical use necessitates addressing challenges related to delivery, stability, and potential off-target effects. This chapter provides a comprehensive overview of the general concepts of various classes of RNA-based therapeutics, the mechanistic basis of their function, as well as recent applications of RNA therapeutic in clinics.

NKT-Licensed In Vivo Dendritic Cell-Based Immunotherapy as Cellular Immunodrugs for Cancer Treatment

With the advent of new therapies, immunotherapy has gained attention as a critical modality. After the discovery of the natural killer T (NKT) cells ligand, ex vivo cultured dendritic cells (DCs) loaded with NKT ligand (especially α-galactosylceramide (α-GalCer) (DC/Gal) or ex vivo expanded NKT transfer studies were clinically examined in several institutes. To prevent tumoral immune escape, the link between innate and adaptive immunity, in situ selective targeting of DCs has been attempted; however, protocol optimization was required. As a type of DC targeting therapy that combines the benefits of invariant natural killer T (iNKT) cells, we established an all-in-one, off-the-shelf drug, named the artificial adjuvant vector cell (aAVC), which consists of the tumor antigen and the CD1d-iNKT ligand complex. Here, to our knowledge, we first demonstrate the DC/GalCer therapy and NKT transfer therapy. Next, we introduce and discuss the use of aAVC therapy not only for efficient innate and adaptive immunity induction using fully matured DC in situ but also the characterization necessary for locally reprogramming the tumor microenvironment and systemically inducing long-term memory in T cells. We also discuss how the immune network mechanism is controlled by DCs. Next, we performed the first human clinical trial using WT1 antigen-expressing aAVC against relapse and refractory acute myelogenous leukemia. Thus, we highlight the challenges of using aAVCs as prodrugs for actively energizing DCs in vivo, underpinning immunological networks, and developing strategies for providing maximal benefits for patients.

The role of the NY-ESO-1 in the prognosis of gastric cancer

Gastric cancer (GC) is one of the most common malignancies worldwide and the fourth leading cause of cancer-related deaths. GC is a multifactorial disease influenced by both environmental and genetic factors. Its most critical features include invasiveness and high metastatic potential. Metastasis is a complex process, and our understanding of the mechanisms involved remains incomplete. Growing evidence suggests that cancer-testis antigens (CTAs) play a crucial role in the metastatic potential of various tumors. Several studies have linked CTA expression with lower tumor differentiation, higher metastatic potential, and poor chemotherapy response. New York esophageal squamous cell carcinoma-1 (NY-ESO-1) antigen, part of the CTA group, is expressed in tumor tissues, while its expression in normal tissues is restricted to spermatogonia. This study aimed to determine the expression of NY-ESO-1 in primary adenocarcinoma of the stomach, both with and without metastasis in regional lymph nodes, and to compare it with TNM stage, age, gender, and survival. We analyzed GC tissue from 53 node-negative and 55 node-positive primary gastric carcinoma patients for NY-ESO-1 expression using immunohistochemical assay. The results were correlated with clinicopathological parameters and survival. Patients with positive NY-ESO-1 expression in primary tumors had a median survival of 19.0 months (range 14.1-24.0), in contrast to those with negative expression, who had a median survival of 52.0 months (range 0.0-133.3) (chi-square 7.99, P=0.005). T status, N status, and NY-ESO-1 expression were all independently associated with shorter survival. No significant difference in NY-ESO-1 expression in primary tumors was observed concerning lymph node metastasis status. In summary, our findings suggest that increased expression of NY-ESO-1 could potentially serve as a prognostic biomarker for GC.

Gene of the month: cancer testis antigen gene 1b (NY-ESO-1)

Cancer testis antigen gene 1B (CTAG1B) and its associated gene product; New York oesophageal squamous carcinoma 1 (NY-ESO-1), represent a unique and promising target for cancer immunotherapy. As a member of the cancer testis antigen family (CTA), the protein's restricted expression pattern and ability to elicit spontaneous humoural and cellular immune responses has resulted in a plethora of novel modalities and approaches attempting to harness its immunotherapeutic anti-cancer potential. Here, we discuss the structure and function of CTAG1B/NY-ESO-1 in both health and disease, immunohistochemical detection, as well as the most promising advances in the development of associated anti-cancer therapies. From cancer vaccines to engineered cellular therapy approaches, a multitude of immunotherapies targeting CTA's are coming to the forefront of oncology. Although the efficacy of such approaches have yet to provide convincing evidence of durable response, early phase clinical trial data has resulted in some exciting findings which will have significant potential to act as a platform for future practice changing technologies.

Utilizing immunogenomic approaches to prioritize targetable neoantigens for personalized cancer immunotherapy

Advancements in sequencing technologies and bioinformatics algorithms have expanded our ability to identify tumor-specific somatic mutation-derived antigens (neoantigens). While recent studies have shown neoantigens to be compelling targets for cancer immunotherapy due to their foreign nature and high immunogenicity, the need for increasingly accurate and cost-effective approaches to rapidly identify neoantigens remains a challenging task, but essential for successful cancer immunotherapy. Currently, gene expression analysis and algorithms for variant calling can be used to generate lists of mutational profiles across patients, but more care is needed to curate these lists and prioritize the candidate neoantigens most capable of inducing an immune response. A growing amount of evidence suggests that only a handful of somatic mutations predicted by mutational profiling approaches act as immunogenic neoantigens. Hence, unbiased screening of all candidate neoantigens predicted by Whole Genome Sequencing/Whole Exome Sequencing may be necessary to more comprehensively access the full spectrum of immunogenic neoepitopes. Once putative cancer neoantigens are identified, one of the largest bottlenecks in translating these neoantigens into actionable targets for cell-based therapies is identifying the cognate T cell receptors (TCRs) capable of recognizing these neoantigens. While many TCR-directed screening and validation assays have utilized bulk samples in the past, there has been a recent surge in the number of single-cell assays that provide a more granular understanding of the factors governing TCR-pMHC interactions. The goal of this review is to provide an overview of existing strategies to identify candidate neoantigens using genomics-based approaches and methods for assessing neoantigen immunogenicity. Additionally, applications, prospects, and limitations of some of the current single-cell technologies will be discussed. Finally, we will briefly summarize some of the recent models that have been used to predict TCR antigen specificity and analyze the TCR receptor repertoire.

Adoptive cell therapy in paediatric extracranial solid tumours: current approaches and future challenges

Immunotherapy has ignited hope to cure paediatric solid tumours that resist traditional therapies. Among the most promising methods is adoptive cell therapy (ACT). Particularly, ACT using T cells equipped with chimeric antigen receptors (CARs) has moved into the spotlight in clinical studies. However, the efficacy of ACT is challenged by ACT-intrinsic factors, like lack of activation or T cell exhaustion, as well as immune evasion strategies of paediatric solid tumours, such as their highly immunosuppressive microenvironment. Novel strategies, including ACT using innate-like lymphocytes, innovative cell engineering techniques, and ACT combination therapies, are being developed and will be crucial to overcome these challenges. Here, we discuss the main classes of ACT for the treatment of paediatric extracranial solid tumours, reflect on the available preclinical and clinical evidence supporting promising strategies, and address the challenges that ACT is still facing. Ultimately, we highlight state-of-the-art developments and opportunities for new therapeutic options, which hold great potential for improving outcomes in this challenging patient population.

αβ-T cell receptor transduction gives superior mitochondrial function to γδ-T cells with promising persistence

Adoptive cell therapy using allogeneic γδ-T cells is a promising option for off-the-shelf T cell products with a low risk of graft-versus-host disease (GVHD). Long-term persistence may boost the clinical development of γδ-T cell products. In this study, we found that genetically modified Vγ9+Vδ2+ T cells expressing a tumor antigen-specific αβ-TCR and CD8 coreceptor (GMC) showed target-specific killing and excellent persistence. To determine the mechanisms underlying these promising effects, we investigated metabolic characteristics. Cytokine secretion by γδ-TCR-stimulated nongene-modified γδ-T cells (NGMCs) and αβ-TCR-stimulated GMCs was equally suppressed by a glycolysis inhibitor, although the cytokine secretion of αβ-TCR-stimulated GMCs was more strongly inhibited by ATP synthase inhibitors than that of γδ-TCR-stimulated NGMCs. Metabolomic and transcriptomic analyses, flow cytometry analysis using mitochondria-labeling dyes and extracellular flux analysis consistently suggest that αβ-TCR-transduced γδ-T cells acquire superior mitochondrial function. In conclusion, αβ-TCR-transduced γδ-T cells acquire superior mitochondrial function with promising persistence.

Redefining serological diagnostics with immunoaffinity proteomics

Serological diagnostics is generally defined as the detection of specific human immunoglobulins developed against viral, bacterial, or parasitic diseases. Serological tests facilitate the detection of past infections, evaluate immune status, and provide prognostic information. Serological assays were traditionally implemented as indirect immunoassays, and their design has not changed for decades. The advantages of straightforward setup and manufacturing, analytical sensitivity and specificity, affordability, and high-throughput measurements were accompanied by limitations such as semi-quantitative measurements, lack of universal reference standards, potential cross-reactivity, and challenges with multiplexing the complete panel of human immunoglobulin isotypes and subclasses. Redesign of conventional serological tests to include multiplex quantification of immunoglobulin isotypes and subclasses, utilize universal reference standards, and minimize cross-reactivity and non-specific binding will facilitate the development of assays with higher diagnostic specificity. Improved serological assays with higher diagnostic specificity will enable screenings of asymptomatic populations and may provide earlier detection of infectious diseases, autoimmune disorders, and cancer. In this review, we present the major clinical needs for serological diagnostics, overview conventional immunoassay detection techniques, present the emerging immunoassay detection technologies, and discuss in detail the advantages and limitations of mass spectrometry and immunoaffinity proteomics for serological diagnostics. Finally, we explore the design of novel immunoaffinity-proteomic assays to evaluate cell-mediated immunity and advance the sequencing of clinically relevant immunoglobulins.

Proteogenomic insights suggest druggable pathways in endometrial carcinoma

We characterized a prospective endometrial carcinoma (EC) cohort containing 138 tumors and 20 enriched normal tissues using 10 different omics platforms. Targeted quantitation of two peptides can predict antigen processing and presentation machinery activity, and may inform patient selection for immunotherapy. Association analysis between MYC activity and metformin treatment in both patients and cell lines suggests a potential role for metformin treatment in non-diabetic patients with elevated MYC activity. PIK3R1 in-frame indels are associated with elevated AKT phosphorylation and increased sensitivity to AKT inhibitors. CTNNB1 hotspot mutations are concentrated near phosphorylation sites mediating pS45-induced degradation of β-catenin, which may render Wnt-FZD antagonists ineffective. Deep learning accurately predicts EC subtypes and mutations from histopathology images, which may be useful for rapid diagnosis. Overall, this study identified molecular and imaging markers that can be further investigated to guide patient stratification for more precise treatment of EC.

Pushing forward in sarcoma with a new TCR targeting NY-ESO-1

A phase 1 trial demonstrating the safety and efficacy of a novel NY-ESO-1-specific TCR-T cells by Pan et al.1 is a major step forward for adoptive T cell therapy in the clinical practice of advanced soft tissue sarcomas.

Cancer/testis antigens: promising immunotherapy targets for digestive tract cancers

Digestive tract cancers, including esophageal, gastric, and colorectal cancers, are the major cause of death among cancer patients worldwide due to the heterogeneity of cancer cells, which limits the effectiveness of traditional treatment methods. Immunotherapy represents a promising treatment strategy for improving the prognosis of patients with digestive tract cancers. However, the clinical application of this approach is limited by the absence of optimal targets. Cancer/testis antigens are characterized by low or absent expression in normal tissues, but high expression in tumor tissues, making them an attractive target for antitumor immunotherapy. Recent preclinical trials have shown promising results for cancer/testis antigen-targeted immunotherapy in digestive cancer. However, practical problems and difficulties in clinical application remain. This review presents a comprehensive analysis of cancer/testis antigens in digestive tract cancers, covering their expression, function, and potential as an immunotherapy target. Additionally, the current state of cancer/testis antigens in digestive tract cancer immunotherapy is discussed, and we predict that these antigens hold great promise as an avenue for breakthroughs in the treatment of digestive tract cancers.

Biomaterials Facilitating Dendritic Cell-Mediated Cancer Immunotherapy

Dendritic cell (DC)-based cancer immunotherapy has exhibited remarkable clinical prospects because DCs play a central role in initiating and regulating adaptive immune responses. However, the application of traditional DC-mediated immunotherapy is limited due to insufficient antigen delivery, inadequate antigen presentation, and high levels of immunosuppression. To address these challenges, engineered biomaterials have been exploited to enhance DC-mediated immunotherapeutic effects. In this review, vital principal components that can enhance DC-mediated immunotherapeutic effects are first introduced. The parameters considered in the rational design of biomaterials, including targeting modifications, size, shape, surface, and mechanical properties, which can affect biomaterial optimization of DC functions, are further summarized. Moreover, recent applications of various engineered biomaterials in the field of DC-mediated immunotherapy are reviewed, including those serve as immune component delivery platforms, remodel the tumor microenvironment, and synergistically enhance the effects of other antitumor therapies. Overall, the present review comprehensively and systematically summarizes biomaterials related to the promotion of DC functions; and specifically focuses on the recent advances in biomaterial designs for DC activation to eradicate tumors. The challenges and opportunities of treatment strategies designed to amplify DCs via the application of biomaterials are discussed with the aim of inspiring the clinical translation of future DC-mediated cancer immunotherapies.

Cancer testis antigen subfamilies: Attractive targets for therapeutic vaccine (Review)

Cancer‑testis antigen (CTA) is a well‑accepted optimal target library for cancer diagnosis and treatment. Most CTAs are located on the X chromosome and aggregate into large gene families, such as the melanoma antigen, synovial sarcoma X and G antigen families. Members of the CTA subfamily are usually co‑expressed in tumor tissues and share similar structural characteristics and biological functions. As cancer vaccines are recommended to induce specific antitumor responses, CTAs, particularly CTA subfamilies, are widely used in the design of cancer vaccines. To date, DNA, mRNA and peptide vaccines have been commonly used to generate tumor‑specific CTAs in vivo and induce anticancer effects. Despite promising results in preclinical studies, the antitumor efficacy of CTA‑based vaccines is limited in clinical trials, which may be partially attributed to weak immunogenicity, low efficacy of antigen delivery and presentation processes, as well as a suppressive immune microenvironment. Recently, the development of nanomaterials has enhanced the cancer vaccination cascade, improved the antitumor performance and reduced off‑target effects. The present study provided an in‑depth review of the structural characteristics and biofunctions of the CTA subfamilies, summarised the design and utilisation of CTA‑based vaccine platforms and provided recommendations for developing nanomaterial‑derived CTA‑targeted vaccines.

The molecular mechanisms of apoptosis accompanied with the epigenetic regulation of the NY-ESO-1 antigen in non-small lung cancer cells treated with decitabine (5-aza-CdR)

Dysregulated epigenetic modifications are common in lung cancer but have been reversed using demethylating agent like 5-Aza-CdR. 5-Aza-CdR induces/upregulates the NY-ESO-1 antigen in lung cancer. Therefore, we investigated the molecular mechanisms accompanied with the epigenetic regulation of NY-ESO-1 in 5-Aza-CdR-treated NCI-H1975 cell line. We showed significant induction of the NY-ESO-1 protein (**p < 0.0097) using Cellular ELISA. Bisulfite-sequencing demonstrated 45.6% demethylation efficiency at the NY-ESO-1 gene promoter region and RT-qPCR analysis confirmed the significant induction of NY-ESO-1 at mRNA level (128-fold increase, *p < 0.050). We then investigated the mechanism by which 5-Aza-CdR inhibits cell proliferation in the NCI-H1975 cell line. Upregulation of the death receptors TRAIL (2.04-fold *p < 0.011) and FAS (2.1-fold *p < 0.011) indicate activation of the extrinsic apoptotic pathway. The upregulation of Voltage-dependent anion-selective channel protein 1 (1.9-fold), Major vault protein (1.8-fold), Bax (1.16-fold), and Cytochrome C (1.39-fold) indicate the activation of the intrinsic pathway. We also observed the differential expression of protein Complement C3 (3.3-fold), Destrin (-5.1-fold), Vimentin (-1.7-fold), Peroxiredoxin 4 (-1.6-fold), Fascin (-1.8-fold), Heme oxygenase-2 (-0.67-fold**p < 0.0055), Hsp27 (-0.57-fold**p < 0.004), and Hsp70 (-0.39-fold **p < 0.001), indicating reduced cell growth, cell migration, and metastasis. The upregulation of 40S ribosomal protein S9 (3-fold), 40S ribosomal protein S15 (4.2-fold), 40S ribosomal protein S18 (2.5-fold), and 60S ribosomal protein L22 (4.4-fold) implied the induction of translation machinery. These results reiterate the decisive role of 5-Aza-CdR in lung cancer treatment since it induces the epigenetic regulation of NY-ESO-1 antigen, inhibits cell proliferation, increases apoptosis, and decreases invasiveness.

Biology of Cancer-Testis Antigens and Their Therapeutic Implications in Cancer

Tumour-specific antigens have been an area of interest in cancer therapy since their discovery in the middle of the 20th century. In the era of immune-based cancer therapeutics, redirecting our immune cells to target these tumour-specific antigens has become even more relevant. Cancer-testis antigens (CTAs) are a class of antigens with an expression specific to the testis and cancer cells. CTAs have also been demonstrated to be expressed in a wide variety of cancers. Due to their frequency and specificity of expression in a multitude of cancers, CTAs have been particularly attractive as cancer-specific therapeutic targets. There is now a rapid expansion of CTAs being identified and many studies have been conducted to correlate CTA expression with cancer and therapy-resistant phenotypes. Furthermore, there is an increasing number of clinical trials involving using some of these CTAs as molecular targets in pharmacological and immune-targeted therapeutics for various cancers. This review will summarise the current knowledge of the biology of known CTAs in tumorigenesis and the regulation of CTA genes. CTAs as molecular targets and the therapeutic implications of these CTA-targeted anticancer strategies will also be discussed.

Melanoma antigens recognized by T cells and their use for immunotherapy

Melanoma has been a prototype for cancer immunology research, and the mechanisms of anti-tumor T-cell responses have been extensively investigated in patients treated with various immunotherapies. Individual differences in cancer-immune status are defined mainly by cancer cell characteristics such as DNA mutations generating immunogenic neo-antigens, and oncogene activation causing immunosuppression, but also by patients' genetic backgrounds such as HLA types and genetic polymorphisms of immune related molecules, and environmental and lifestyle factors such as UV rays, smoking, gut microbiota and concomitant medications; these factors have an influence on the efficacy of immunotherapy. Recent comparative studies on responders and non-responders in immune-checkpoint inhibitor therapy using various new technologies including multi-omics analyses on genomic DNA, mRNA, metabolites and microbiota and single cell analyses of various immune cells have led to the advance of human tumor immunology and the development of new immunotherapy. Based on the new findings from these investigations, personalized cancer immunotherapies along with appropriate biomarkers and therapeutic targets are being developed for patients with melanoma. Here, we will discuss one of the essential subjects in tumor immunology: identification of immunogenic tumor antigens and their effective use in various immunotherapies including cancer vaccines and adoptive T-cell therapy.

Gene-based cancer-testis antigens as prognostic indicators in hepatocellular carcinoma

Cancer/testis antigens (CTAs) are reproductive tissue-restricted genes, frequently ectopic expressed in tumors. CTA genes associate with a poor prognosis in some solid tumors, due to their potential roles in the tumorigenesis and progression. However, whether CTAs relate with hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) remains unclear. In this study, the prognostic signatures based on CTA genes were investigated and validated in three cohorts including Chinese HCC patients with hepatitis B virus infection (CHCC-HBV), International Cancer Genome Consortium (ICGC) and The Cancer Genome Atlas (TCGA) cohorts. Univariate, LASSO, and multivariate Cox regression analyses were used to screen prognostic genes and develop the prognostic gene signature. A prognosis model was established with six CTA genes (SSX1, CTCFL, OIP5, CEP55, NOL4, and TPPP2) in CHCC-HBV cohort, and further validated in the ICGC and TCGA cohorts. The CTA signature was an essential prognostic predictor independent of other clinical pathological factors. High-risk group exhibited up-regulated cell cycle-related and tumor-related pathways and more M0 macrophage, activated mast cell, activated memory CD4⁺ T cell, and memory B cell infiltration. Furthermore, CTA signature correlated with the sensitivity to multiple chemotherapy drugs. Our results highlighted that the CTA gene profiling was a prognostic assessment tool for HCC patients.

The therapeutic potential value of Cancer-testis antigens in immunotherapy of gastric cancer

Gastric cancer (GC) is the fourth most common cause of mortality and the fifth for incidence, globally. Diagnosis, early prognosis, and therapy remains challenging for this condition, and new tumor-associated antigens are required for its detection and immunotherapy. Cancer-testis antigens (CTAs) are a subfamily of tumor-associated antigens (TAAs) that have been identified as potential biomarkers and targets for cancer immunotherapy. The CTAs-restricted expression pattern in tumor cells and their potential immunogenicity identify them as attractive target candidates in CTA-based diagnosis or prognosis or immunotherapy. To date, numerous studies have reported the dysregulation of CTAs in GC. Several clinical trials have been done to assess CTA-based immunotherapeutic potential in the treatment of GC patients. NY-ESO-1, MAGE, and KK-LC-1 have been used in GC clinical trials. We review recent studies that have investigated the potential of the CTAs in GC regarding the expression, function, aggressive phenotype, prognosis, and immunological responses as well as their possible clinical significance as immunotherapeutic targets with a focus on challenges and future interventions.

mRNA-Based Therapeutics in Cancer Treatment

Over the past two decades, significant technological innovations have led to messenger RNA (mRNA) becoming a promising option for developing prophylactic and therapeutic vaccines, protein replacement therapies, and genome engineering. The success of the two COVID-19 mRNA vaccines has sparked new enthusiasm for other medical applications, particularly in cancer treatment. In vitro-transcribed (IVT) mRNAs are structurally designed to resemble naturally occurring mature mRNA. Delivery of IVT mRNA via delivery platforms such as lipid nanoparticles allows host cells to produce many copies of encoded proteins, which can serve as antigens to stimulate immune responses or as additional beneficial proteins for supplements. mRNA-based cancer therapeutics include mRNA cancer vaccines, mRNA encoding cytokines, chimeric antigen receptors, tumor suppressors, and other combination therapies. To better understand the current development and research status of mRNA therapies for cancer treatment, this review focused on the molecular design, delivery systems, and clinical indications of mRNA therapies in cancer.

Emerging targeted and cellular therapies in the treatment of advanced and metastatic synovial sarcoma

Synovial sarcoma is a soft tissue sarcoma accounting for approximately 1,000 cases per year in the United States. Currently, standard treatment of advanced and metastatic synovial sarcoma is anthracycline-based chemotherapy. While advanced synovial sarcoma is more responsive to chemotherapy compared to other soft tissue sarcomas, survival rates are poor, with a median survival time of less than 18 months. Enhanced understanding of tumor antigen expression and molecular mechanisms behind synovial sarcoma provide potential targets for treatment. Adoptive Cell Transfer using engineered T-cell receptors is in clinical trials for treatment of synovial sarcoma, specifically targeting New York esophageal squamous cell carcinoma-1 (NY-ESO-1), preferentially expressed antigen in melanoma (PRAME), and melanoma antigen-A4 (MAGE-A4). In this review, we explore the opportunities and challenges of these treatments. We also describe artificial adjuvant vector cells (aAVCs) and BRD9 inhibitors, two additional potential targets for treatment of advanced synovial sarcoma. This review demonstrates the progress that has been made in treatment of synovial sarcoma and highlights the future study and qualification needed to implement these technologies as standard of care.

Immune checkpoint therapy and response biomarkers in non-small-cell lung cancer: Serum NY-ESO-1 and XAGE1 antibody as predictive and monitoring markers

Immune checkpoint inhibitors (ICI) are key drugs in systemic therapy for advanced non-small-cell lung cancer (NSCLC) and have recently been incorporated into neoadjuvant and adjuvant settings for surgical resection. Currently, ICI combinations with cytotoxic agents are frequently used in clinical practice, although several ICI clinical trials have failed to produce long-term clinical benefits. Unfortunately, clinical benefit is moderate and limited considering physical and financial burden. Therefore, selecting appropriate patients and regimens for ICI therapy is important, and biomarkers are necessary for their selection. Tumor PD-L1 expression is universally used as a biomarker; however, PD-L1 assays show low analytical validity and reproducibility due to the visual-scoring system by pathologists. Recent tumor immunology studies explore that neoantigens derived from somatic mutations and the collaboration between T and B cells efficiently elicit antitumor responses. This suggests that high tumor mutational burden and T-cell infiltration are predictive biomarkers. However, B cells producing antibody (Ab) remain poorly understood and analyzed as biomarkers. We found that NY-ESO-1 and XAGE1 of cancer-testis antigen frequently elicit spontaneous humoral and cellular immune responses in NSCLC. Serum Ab against these antigens were detected in approximately 25% of NSCLC patients and predicted ICI monotherapy responses. In addition, the Ab levels were decreased with tumor shrinkage after ICI therapy. Thus, NY-ESO-1 and XAGE1 Ab are potentially biomarkers predicting and monitoring response to ICI therapy. For clinical applications, a fully-automated assay system measuring the Ab was developed. Here, we review current ICI therapy, tumor immunology, and biomarkers in NSCLC, and discuss the applicability of the serum biomarkers NY-ESO-1 and XAGE1 Ab.

Boosting Antitumor Immunity with an Expanded Neoepitope Landscape

Immune-checkpoint blockade therapy has been successfully applied to many cancers, particularly tumors that harbor a high mutational burden and consequently express a high abundance of neoantigens. However, novel approaches are needed to improve the efficacy of immunotherapy for treating tumors that lack a high load of classic genetically derived neoantigens. Recent discoveries of broad classes of nongenetically encoded and inducible neoepitopes open up new avenues for therapeutic development to enhance sensitivity to immunotherapies. In this review, we discuss recent work on neoantigen discovery, with an emphasis on novel classes of noncanonical neoepitopes.

Ectopic expression of meiotic cohesin generates chromosome instability in cancer cell line

This work originated from mining of cancer genome data and proceeded to analyze the effects of ectopic expression of meiotic cohesins in mitotic cells in culture. In the process, apart from conclusively answering the question on mechanisms for RAD21L toxicity and its underrepresentation in tumor transcriptomes, we found an association of meiotic cohesin binding with BORIS/CTCFL sites in the normal testis. We also elucidated the patterns and outcomes of meiotic cohesin binding to chromosomes in model cell lines. Furthermore, we uncovered that RAD21L-based meiotic cohesin possesses a self-contained chromosome restructuring activity able to trigger sustainable but imperfect mitotic arrest leading to chromosomal instability. The discovered epigenomic and genetic mechanisms can be relevant to chromosome instability in cancer.

Many tumors express meiotic genes that could potentially drive somatic chromosome instability. While germline cohesin subunits SMC1B, STAG3, and REC8 are widely expressed in many cancers, messenger RNA and protein for RAD21L subunit are expressed at very low levels. To elucidate the potential of meiotic cohesins to contribute to genome instability, their expression was investigated in human cell lines, predominately in DLD-1. While the induction of the REC8 complex resulted in a mild mitotic phenotype, the expression of the RAD21L complex produced an arrested but viable cell pool, thus providing a source of DNA damage, mitotic chromosome missegregation, sporadic polyteny, and altered gene expression. We also found that genomic binding profiles of ectopically expressed meiotic cohesin complexes were reminiscent of their corresponding specific binding patterns in testis. Furthermore, meiotic cohesins were found to localize to the same sites as BORIS/CTCFL, rather than CTCF sites normally associated with the somatic cohesin complex. These findings highlight the existence of a germline epigenomic memory that is conserved in cells that normally do not express meiotic genes. Our results reveal a mechanism of action by unduly expressed meiotic cohesins that potentially links them to aneuploidy and chromosomal mutations in affected cells.

Heterogeneity and Functions of Tumor-Infiltrating Antibody Secreting Cells: Lessons from Breast, Ovarian, and Other Solid Cancers

Simple Summary

B cells are gaining increasing recognition as important contributors to the tumor microenvironment, influencing, positively or negatively, tumor growth, patient survival, and response to therapies. Antibody secreting cells (ASCs) constitute a variable fraction of tumor-infiltrating B cells in most solid tumors, and they produce tumor-specific antibodies that can drive distinct immune responses depending on their isotypes and specificities. In this review, we discuss the current knowledge of the heterogeneity of ASCs infiltrating solid tumors and how both their canonical and noncanonical functions shape antitumor immunity, with a special emphasis on breast and ovarian cancers.

Abstract

Neglected for a long time in cancer, B cells and ASCs have recently emerged as critical actors in the tumor microenvironment, with important roles in shaping the antitumor immune response. ASCs indeed exert a major influence on tumor growth, patient survival, and response to therapies. The mechanisms underlying their pro- vs. anti-tumor roles are beginning to be elucidated, revealing the contributions of their secreted antibodies as well as of their emerging noncanonical functions. Here, concentrating mostly on ovarian and breast cancers, we summarize the current knowledge on the heterogeneity of tumor-infiltrating ASCs, we discuss their possible local or systemic origin in relation to their immunoglobulin repertoire, and we review the different mechanisms by which antibody (Ab) subclasses and isoforms differentially impact tumor cells and anti-tumor immunity. We also discuss the emerging roles of cytokines and other immune modulators produced by ASCs in cancer. Finally, we propose strategies to manipulate the tumor ASC compartment to improve cancer therapies.

T cell cytoskeletal forces shape synapse topography for targeted lysis via membrane curvature bias of perforin

Cytotoxic T lymphocytes (CTLs) lyse target cells by delivering lytic granules that contain the pore former perforin to the cytotoxic immunological synapse. Here, we establish that opposing cytoskeletal forces drive lytic granule polarization and simultaneously shape T cell synapse topography to enhance target perforation. At the cell rear, actomyosin contractility drives the anterograde movement of lytic granules toward the nucleus. At the synapse, dynein-derived forces induce negatively curved membrane pockets to which granules are transported around the nucleus. These highly concave degranulation pockets are located directly opposite positively curved bulges on the target cell membrane. We identify a curvature bias in the action of perforin, which preferentially perforates positively curved tumor cell membrane. Together, these findings demonstrate murine and human T cell-mediated cytotoxicity to be a highly tuned mechano-biochemical system, in which the forces that polarize lytic granules locally bend the synaptic membrane to favor the unidirectional perforation of the target cell.

Impact of cancer evolution on immune surveillance and checkpoint inhibitor response

Intratumour heterogeneity (ITH) is pervasive across all cancers studied and may provide the evolving tumour multiple routes to escape immune surveillance. Immune checkpoint inhibitors (CPIs) are rapidly becoming standard of care for many cancers. Here, we discuss recent work investigating the influence of ITH on patient response to immune checkpoint inhibitor (CPI) therapy. At its simplest, ITH may confound the diagnostic accuracy of predictive biomarkers used to stratify patients for CPI therapy. Furthermore, ITH is fuelled by mechanisms of genetic instability that can both engage immune surveillance and drive immune evasion. A greater appreciation of the interplay between ITH and the immune system may hold the key to increasing the proportion of patients experiencing durable responses from CPI therapy.

A synthetic DNA template for fast manufacturing of versatile single epitope mRNA

A flexible, affordable, and rapid vaccine platform is necessary to unlock the potential of personalized cancer vaccines in order to achieve full clinical efficiency. mRNA cancer vaccine manufacture relies on the rigid sequence design of multiepitope constructs produced by laborious bacterial cloning and time-consuming plasmid preparation. Here, we introduce a synthetic DNA template (SDT) assembly process, which allows cost- and time-efficient manufacturing of single (neo)epitope mRNA. We benchmarked SDT-derived mRNA against mRNA derived from a plasmid DNA template (PDT), showing that monocyte-derived dendritic cells (moDCs) electroporated with SDT-mRNA or PDT-mRNA, encoding HLA-I- or HLA-II-restricted (neo)epitopes, equally activated T cells that were modified to express the cognate T cell receptors. Furthermore, we validated the SDT-mRNA platform for neoepitope immunogenicity screening using the characterized HLA-A2-restricted neoepitope DHX40B and four new candidate HLA-A2-restricted melanoma neoepitopes. Finally, we compared SDT-mRNA with PDT-mRNA for vaccine development purposes. moDCs electroporated with mRNA encoding the HLA-A2-restricted, mutated Melan-A/Mart-1 epitope together with TriMix mRNA-generated high levels of functional Melan-A/Mart-1-specific CD8⁺ T cells. In conclusion, SDT single epitope mRNA can be manufactured in a more flexible, cost-efficient, and time-efficient way compared with PDT-mRNA, allowing prompt neoepitope immunogenicity screening, and might be exploited for the development of personalized cancer vaccines.

Paving the Way to Solid Tumors: Challenges and Strategies for Adoptively Transferred Transgenic T Cells in the Tumor Microenvironment

T cells are important players in the antitumor immune response. Over the past few years, the adoptive transfer of genetically modified, autologous T cells-specifically redirected toward the tumor by expressing either a T cell receptor (TCR) or a chimeric antigen receptor (CAR)-has been adopted for use in the clinic. At the moment, the therapeutic application of CD19- and, increasingly, BCMA-targeting-engineered CAR-T cells have been approved and have yielded partly impressive results in hematologic malignancies. However, employing transgenic T cells for the treatment of solid tumors remains more troublesome, and numerous hurdles within the highly immunosuppressive tumor microenvironment (TME) need to be overcome to achieve tumor control. In this review, we focused on the challenges that these therapies must face on three different levels: infiltrating the tumor, exerting efficient antitumor activity, and overcoming T cell exhaustion and dysfunction. We aimed to discuss different options to pave the way for potent transgenic T cell-mediated tumor rejection by engineering either the TME or the transgenic T cell itself, which responds to the environment.

Kita-Kyushu Lung Cancer Antigen-1 (KK-LC-1): A Promising Cancer Testis Antigen

Cancer has always been a huge problem in the field of human health, and its early diagnosis and treatment are the key to solving this problem. Cancer testis antigens (CTAs) are a family of multifunctional proteins that are specifically expressed in male spermatozoa and tumor cells but not in healthy somatic cells. Studies have found that CTAs are involved in the occurrence and development of tumors, and some CTAs trigger immunogenicity, which suggests a possibility of tumor immunotherapy. The differential expression and function of CTAs in normal tissues and tumor cells can promote the screening of tumor markers and the development of new immunotherapies. This article introduces the expression of Kita-Kyushu lung cancer antigen-1 (KK-LC-1), a new member of the CTA family, in different types of tumors and its role in immunotherapy.

The foundational framework of tumors: Gametogenesis, p53, and cancer

The completion-of-tumor hypothesis involved in the dynamic interplay between the initiating oncogenic event and progression is essential to better recognize the foundational framework of tumors. Here we review and extend the gametogenesis-related hypothesis of tumors, because high embryonic/germ cell traits are common in tumors. The century-old gametogenesis-related hypothesis of tumors postulated that tumors arise from displaced/activated trophoblasts, displaced (lost) germ cells, and the reprogramming/reactivation of gametogenic program in somatic cells. Early primordial germ cells (PGCs), embryonic stem (ES) cells, embryonic germ cells (EGCs), and pre-implantation embryos at the stage from two-cell stage to blastocysts originating from fertilization or parthenogenesis have the potential to develop teratomas/teratocarcinomas. In addition, the teratomas/teratocarcinomas/germ cells occur in gonads and extra-gonads. Undoubtedly, the findings provide strong support for the hypothesis. However, it was thought that these tumor types were an exception rather than verification. In fact, there are extensive similarities between somatic tumor types and embryonic/germ cell development, such as antigens, migration, invasion, and immune escape. It was documented that embryonic/germ cell genes play crucial roles in tumor behaviors, e.g. tumor initiation and metastasis. Of note, embryonic/germ cell-like tumor cells at different developmental stages including PGC and oocyte to the early embryo-like stage were identified in diverse tumor types by our group. These embryonic/germ cell-like cancer cells resemble the natural embryonic/germ cells in morphology, gene expression, the capability of teratoma formation, and the ability to undergo the process of oocyte maturation and parthenogenesis. These embryonic/germ cell-like cancer cells are derived from somatic cells and contribute to tumor formation, metastasis, and drug resistance, establishing asexual meiotic embryonic life cycle. p53 inhibits the reactivation of embryonic/germ cell state in somatic cells and oocyte-like cell maturation. Based on earlier and our recent studies, we propose a novel model to complete the gametogenesis-related hypothesis of tumors, which can be applied to certain somatic tumors. That is, tumors tend to establish a somatic asexual meiotic embryonic cycle through the activation of somatic female gametogenesis and parthenogenesis in somatic tumor cells during the tumor progression, thus passing on corresponding embryonic/germ cell traits leading to the malignant behaviors and enhancing the cells' independence. This concept may be instrumental to better understand the nature and evolution of tumors. We rationalize that targeting the key events of somatic pregnancy is likely a better therapeutic strategy for cancer treatment than directly targeting cell mitotic proliferation, especially for those tumors with p53 inactivation.

NY-ESO-1-specific redirected T cells with endogenous TCR knockdown mediate tumor response and cytokine release syndrome

BACKGROUND

Because of the shortage of ideal cell surface antigens, the development of T-cell receptor (TCR)-engineered T cells (TCR-T) that target intracellular antigens such as NY-ESO-1 is a promising approach for treating patients with solid tumors. However, endogenous TCRs in vector-transduced T cells have been suggested to impair cell-surface expression of transduced TCR while generating mispaired TCRs that can become self-reactive.

METHODS

We conducted a first-in-human phase I clinical trial with the TCR-transduced T-cell product (TBI-1301) in patients with NY-ESO-1-expressing solid tumors. In manufacturing TCR-T cells, we used a novel affinity-enhanced NY-ESO-1-specific TCR that was transduced by a retroviral vector that enables siRNA (small interfering RNA)-mediated silencing of endogenous TCR. The patients were divided into two cohorts. Cohort 1 was given a dose of 5×108 cells (whole cells including TCR-T cells) preconditioned with 1500 mg/m2 cyclophosphamide. Cohort 2 was given 5× 109 cells preconditioned with 1500 mg/m2 cyclophosphamide.

RESULTS

In vitro study showed that both the CD8+ and CD4+ T fractions of TCR-T cells exhibited cytotoxic effects against NY-ESO-1-expressing tumor cells. Three patients and six patients were allocated to cohort 1 and cohort 2, respectively. Three of the six patients who received 5×109 cells showed tumor response, while three patients developed early-onset cytokine release syndrome (CRS). One of the patients developed a grade 3 lung injury associated with the infiltration of the TCR-T cells. No siRNA-related adverse events other than CRS were observed. Cytokines including interleukin 6 I and monocyte chemotactic protein-1/chemokine (C-C motif) ligand (CCL2)increased in the sera of patients with CRS. In vitro analysis showed these cytokines were not secreted from the T cells infused. A significant fraction of the manufactured T cells in patients with CRS was found to express either CD244, CD39, or both at high levels.

CONCLUSIONS

The trial showed that endogenous TCR-silenced and affinity-enhanced NY-ESO-1 TCR-T cells were safely administered except for grade 3 lung injury. The TCR-T cell infusion exhibited significant tumor response and early-onset CRS in patients with tumors that express NY-ESO-1 at high levels. The differentiation properties of the manufactured T cells may be prognostic for TCR-T-related CRS.

TRIAL REGISTRATION NUMBER

NCT02366546.