Temperature-sensitive post-translational regulation of plant omega-3 fatty-acid desaturases is mediated by the endoplasmic reticulum-associated degradation pathway

Biotechnological advances in the production of unusual fatty acids in transgenic plants and recombinant microorganisms

Certain plants and microorganisms can produce high amounts of unusual fatty acids (UFAs) such as hydroxy, conjugated, cyclic, and very long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids, which have distinct physicochemical properties and significant applications in the food, feed, and oleochemical industries. Since many natural sources of UFAs are not ideal for large-scale agricultural production or fermentation, it is attractive to produce them through synthetic biology. Although several UFAs have been commercially or pre-commercially produced in transgenic plants and microorganisms, their contents in transgenic hosts are generally much lower than in natural sources. Moreover, reproducing this success for a wider spectrum of UFAs has remained challenging. This review discusses recent advancements in our understanding of the biosynthesis, accumulation, and heterologous production of UFAs, and addresses the challenges and potential strategies for achieving high UFA content in engineered plants and microorganisms.

Engineering Saccharomyces cerevisiae for the Production of Punicic Acid-Rich Yeast Biomass

Punicic acid (PuA), an unusual conjugated linolenic acid found in pomegranate, offers diverse health benefits and has potential applications in the food industry. Due to the limited availability of PuA from natural plant sources, there is growing interest in producing it through microbial fermentation. In this study, the yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae, which is classified as "generally recognized as safe", was engineered to produce PuA using a results-driven approach. Genes potentially involved in PuA synthesis were integrated directly into the yeast genome, targeting Ty retrotransposon sites. Screening of the yeast transformants, followed by optimization of culture conditions, resulted in the production of 26.7% PuA within the yeast's total fatty acids. Further analysis revealed that the strain's triacylglycerol fraction contained over 22% PuA. By incorporating this health-promoting lipid into the nutritional profile of S. cerevisiae, the engineered strain could serve as a sustainable source of yeast biomass with enhanced nutritional value.

Temperature and elevated CO2 alter soybean seed yield and quality, exhibiting transgenerational effects on seedling emergence and vigor

Introduction

Environmental conditions play a prime role in the growth and development of plant species, exerting a significant influence on their reproductive capacity. Soybean is sensitive to high temperatures during flowering and seed developmental stages. Little is known about the combined environmental effect of temperature and CO2 on seed yield and quality and its future generation.

Methods

A study was conducted to examine the effect of temperature (22/14°C (low), 30/22°C (optimum), and 38/30°C (high)), and CO2 (420 ppm (ambient; aCO2) and 720 ppm (elevated; eCO2)) on seed yield, quality, and transgenerational seedling vigor traits of soybean cultivars (DS25-1 and DS31-243) using Soil-Plant-Atmospheric-Research facility.

Results

A significant temperature effect was recorded among yield and quality attributes. At high-temperature, the 100-seed weights of DS25-1 and DS31-243 declined by 40% and 24%, respectively, over the optimum temperature at aCO2. The harvest index of varieties reduced by 70% when exposed to high temperature under both aCO2 and eCO2, compared to the optimum temperature at aCO2. The seed oil (- 2%) and protein (8%) content altered when developed under high temperature under aCO2. Maximum sucrose (7.5%) and stachyose (3.8%) accumulation in seeds were observed when developed under low temperatures and eCO2. When the growing temperature increased from optimum to high, the seed oleic acids increased (63%), while linoleic and linolenic acids decreased (- 28% and - 43%, respectively). Significant temperature and CO2 effects were observed in progenies with the highest maximum seedling emergence (80%), lesser time to 50% emergence (5.5 days), and higher seedling vigor from parents grown at low-temperature treatment under eCO2.

Discussion

Exposure of plants to 38/30°C was detrimental to soybean seed yield, and eCO2 levels did not compensate for this yield loss. The high temperature during seed developmental stages altered the chemical composition of the seed, leading to an increased content of monounsaturated fatty acids. The findings suggest that parental stress can significantly impact the development of offspring, indicating that epigenetic regulation or memory repose may be at play.

Heat stress during reproductive stages reduces camelina seed productivity and changes seed composition

Camelina (Camelina sativa L. Crantz) is a low-input oilseed crop with great potential in bioenergy and industrial oils. Improving tolerance to high temperatures is essential for camelina agronomic sustainability. Two genotypes, Suneson and Pryzeth, were exposed to a transient 14-day heat stress at 37 °C during the reproductive stages. Four cohorts of pods along the main stem, which were at different stages from fully developed pods (C1), young pods (C2), open flowers (C3) and flowering buds (C4) at the time of heat treatment, were examined for morphological and seed quality traits at maturity. The main stem length was shortened in both genotypes. Pods and seeds in all cohorts were negatively affected by heat, resulting in lower seed yield and reduced oil content. Seed size and seed weight had the greatest reduction in C1, pod size reduction was found the most in C3, and the number of fertile pods that contain at least one seed was reduced in C3 and C4. These results suggest that heat stress effects are developmental stage specific. Heat stress significantly reduced fertility during flowering and inhibited storage product biosynthesis and accumulation during seed filling which resulted in smaller and lighter seeds. Analyzing seed composition indicated that oil content decreased while protein content increased in seeds from heat treated plants. In addition, fatty acid composition was altered with the reduction of omega-3 α-linolenic acid and concomitantly increased omega-6 linoleic acid being the most significantly affected. Our results also revealed the different responses in the two genotypes examined, suggesting genetic variation in camelina germplasm which can be explored to improve heat tolerance. This study provides resources and guidance for future studies to understand genetic and physiological mechanisms of heat stress and to assist in improving the sustainability of camelina production facing climate change.

Quality assessment of flax advanced breeding lines varying in seed coat color and their potential use in the food and industrial applications

BACKGROUND

With the increasing consumer awareness of the strong relationship between food and health, flax became a promising functional food due to its bioactive nutraceutical composition. Intra-specific crosses of eight contrasting flax genotypes were performed previously, and within segregating F6 progeny families, we investigated a close-up composition of phytochemicals derived from whole seeds.

RESULTS

The considerable genetic variation among the flax F6 families suggested that intra-specific hybridization is essential in flax breeding to obtain and broaden genetic variability and largely affirmed the opportunity for selecting promising lines. Also, significant variations in the targeted metabolite contents and antioxidant properties were observed among brown and yellow-seeded families. Notably, brown-seeded families expressed the highest average values of saturated fatty acids, protein, fiber, tocopherol, phenolics, SDG, and SECO lignans. Yellow-seeded families represented the highest average content of unsaturated fatty acids and mucilage. The cultivation year significantly affects flaxseed's composition and functional properties, presumably due to temperature, humidity, and sunshine time differences. Interestingly, the seeds obtained in warmer conditions were more potent and had more chemical constituents. The favorable genetic correlations among all evaluated traits suggest the possibility of joint genetic selection for several nutritional and phytochemical characteristics in flax. The current study highlights the importance and utilization of 19 top families as their seeds and oil play imperative roles in the pharmaceuticals and food industries. The antioxidant capacity of the seeds showed that families 84B, 23B, 35Y, 95Y, 30B, 88B, and 78B serve as a natural source of dietary antioxidants beneficial to human health. To increase the oxidative stability of the flaxseed oil, the quality evaluation identified some families with low levels of linolenic acid.

CONCLUSIONS

These findings are essential to improving flaxseed's nutritional quality and therapeutic properties through a bulk breeding program.

Effect of Common ER Stress-Inducing Drugs on the Growth and Lipid Phenotypes of Chlamydomonas and Arabidopsis

Endoplasmic reticulum (ER) stress is caused by the stress-induced accumulation of unfolded proteins in the ER. Several compounds are used to induce the unfolded protein response (UPR) in animals, with different modes of action, but which ER stress-inducing drugs induce ER stress in microalgae or land plants is unclear. In this study, we examined the effects of seven chemicals that were reported to induce ER stress in animals on the growth, UPR gene expression and fatty acid profiles of Chlamydomonas reinhardtii (Chlamydomonas) and Arabidopsis thaliana (Arabidopsis): 2-deoxyglucose, dithiothreitol (DTT), tunicamycin (TM), thapsigargin, brefeldin A (BFA), monensin (MON) and eeyarestatin I. In both model photosynthetic organisms, DTT, TM, BFA and MON treatment induced ER stress, as indicated by the induction of spliced bZIP1 and bZIP60, respectively. In Chlamydomonas, DTT, TM and BFA treatment induced the production of transcripts related to lipid biosynthesis, but MON treatment did not. In Arabidopsis, DTT, TM, BFA and MON inhibited seed germination and seedling growth with the activation of bZIP60. These findings lay the foundation for using four types of ER stress-inducing drugs in photosynthetic organisms, and they help uncover the mode of action of each compound.

Cloning and characterisation of a Δ9 fatty acyl desaturase-like gene from the red claw crayfish (Cherax quadricarinatus) and its expression analysis under cold stress

Desaturase is one of the key enzymes in the unsaturated fatty acid synthesis pathway. Δ9 desaturase catalyzes the synthesis of oleic acid from stearic acid by introducing double bonds in the 9th and 10th carbon chains, thereby increasing the content of MUFAs in the body. In order to explore the main function of the Δ9 desaturase gene under low temperature stress, RACE-PCR technology was used in this study to clone the full-length sequence of the CqFAD9-like from the hepatopancreas of red claw crayfish, Cherax quadricarinatus. The full length of the sequence is 1236 bp, and the open reading frame is 1041 bp, encoding 346 amino acid residues. The 5 'UTR is 116 bp, the 3' UTR is 79 bp, and the 3 'UTR contains a PloyA tail. The predicted theoretical isoelectric point and molecular weight are 8.68 and 40.28 kDa, respectively. Homology analysis showed that the sequence had the highest similarity with FAD9 from crustaceans. The results of real-time PCR showed that the expression level of this gene was highest in the hepatopancreas, which was significantly higher than other tissues, followed by the ovaries, brain ganglion and stomach. At the same time, the expression of the CqFAD9-like in hepatopancreas of crayfish cultured at 25, 20, 15 and 9 °C for four weeks was detected. The results showed that expression of the FAD9 gene increased gradually with decreasing temperature, indicating that metabolic desaturation might play a regulatory role during cold stress.

Improving the Production of Punicic Acid in Baker's Yeast by Engineering Genes in Acyl Channeling Processes and Adjusting Precursor Supply

Punicic acid (PuA) is a high-value edible conjugated fatty acid with strong bioactivities and has important potential applications in nutraceutical, pharmaceutical, feeding, and oleochemical industries. Since the production of PuA is severely limited by the fact that its natural source (pomegranate seed oil) is not readily available on a large scale, there is considerable interest in understanding the biosynthesis and accumulation of this plant-based unusual fatty acid in transgenic microorganisms to support the rational design of biotechnological approaches for PuA production via fermentation. Here, we tested the effectiveness of genetic engineering and precursor supply in PuA production in the model yeast strain Saccharomyces cerevisiae. The results revealed that the combination of precursor feeding and co-expression of selected genes in acyl channeling processes created an effective "push-pull" approach to increase PuA content, which could prove valuable in future efforts to produce PuA in industrial yeast and other microorganisms via fermentation.

Hot topic: Thermosensing in plants

Plants alter their morphology and cellular homeostasis to promote resilience under a variety of heat regimes. Molecular processes that underlie these responses have been intensively studied and found to encompass diverse mechanisms operating across a broad range of cellular components, timescales and temperatures. This review explores recent progress throughout this landscape with a particular focus on thermosensing in the model plant Arabidopsis. Direct temperature sensors include the photosensors phytochrome B and phototropin, the clock component ELF3 and an RNA switch. In addition, there are heat-regulated processes mediated by ion channels, lipids and lipid-modifying enzymes, taking place at the plasma membrane and the chloroplast. In some cases, the mechanism of temperature perception is well understood but in others, this remains an open question. Potential novel thermosensing mechanisms are based on lipid and liquid-liquid phase separation. Finally, future research directions of high temperature perception and signalling pathways are discussed.

Temperature Acclimation of the Picoalga Ostreococcus tauri Triggers Early Fatty-Acid Variations and Involves a Plastidial ω3-Desaturase

Alteration of fatty-acid unsaturation is a universal response to temperature changes. Marine microalgae display the largest diversity of polyunsaturated fatty-acid (PUFA) whose content notably varies according to temperature. The physiological relevance and the molecular mechanisms underlying these changes are however, still poorly understood. The ancestral green picoalga Ostreococcus tauri displays original lipidic features that combines PUFAs from two distinctive microalgal lineages (Chlorophyceae, Chromista kingdom). In this study, optimized conditions were implemented to unveil early fatty-acid and desaturase transcriptional variations upon chilling and warming. We further functionally characterized the O. tauri ω3-desaturase which is closely related to ω3-desaturases from Chromista species. Our results show that the overall omega-3 to omega-6 ratio is swiftly and reversibly regulated by temperature variations. The proportion of the peculiar 18:5 fatty-acid and temperature are highly and inversely correlated pinpointing the importance of 18:5 temperature-dependent variations across kingdoms. Chilling rapidly and sustainably up-regulated most desaturase genes. Desaturases involved in the regulation of the C18-PUFA pool as well as the Δ5-desaturase appear to be major transcriptional targets. The only ω3-desaturase candidate, related to ω3-desaturases from Chromista species, is localized at chloroplasts in Nicotiana benthamiana and efficiently performs ω3-desaturation of C18-PUFAs in Synechocystis sp. PCC6803. Overexpression in the native host further unveils a broad impact on plastidial and non-plastidial glycerolipids illustrated by the alteration of omega-3/omega-6 ratio in C16-PUFA and VLC-PUFA pools. Global glycerolipid features of the overexpressor recall those of chilling acclimated cells.

Development of a Brassica napus (Canola) Crop Containing Fish Oil-Like Levels of DHA in the Seed Oil

Plant seeds have long been promoted as a production platform for novel fatty acids such as the ω3 long-chain (≥ C20) polyunsaturated fatty acids eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) commonly found in fish oil. In this article we describe the creation of a canola (Brassica napus) variety producing fish oil-like levels of DHA in the seed. This was achieved by the introduction of a microalgal/yeast transgenic pathway of seven consecutive enzymatic steps which converted the native substrate oleic acid to α-linolenic acid and, subsequently, to EPA, docosapentaenoic acid (DPA) and DHA. This paper describes construct design and evaluation, plant transformation, event selection, field testing in a wide range of environments, and oil profile stability of the transgenic seed. The stable, high-performing event NS-B50027-4 produced fish oil-like levels of DHA (9-11%) in open field trials of T3 to T7 generation plants in several locations in Australia and Canada. This study also describes the highest seed DHA levels reported thus far and is one of the first examples of a deregulated genetically modified crop with clear health benefits to the consumer.

Remodeling of the Histoplasma Capsulatum Membrane Induced by Monoclonal Antibodies

Antibodies play a central role in host immunity by directly inactivating or recognizing an invading pathogen to enhance different immune responses to combat the invader. However, the cellular responses of pathogens to the presence of antibodies are not well-characterized. Here, we used different mass spectrometry techniques to study the cellular responses of the pathogenic fungus Histoplasma capsulatum to monoclonal antibodies (mAb) against HSP60, the surface protein involved in infection. A proteomic analysis of H. capsulatum yeast cells revealed that mAb binding regulates a variety of metabolic and signaling pathways, including fatty acid metabolism, sterol metabolism, MAPK signaling and ubiquitin-mediated proteolysis. The regulation of the fatty acid metabolism was accompanied by increases in the level of polyunsaturated fatty acids, which further augmented the degree of unsaturated lipids in H. capsulatum's membranes and energy storage lipids, such as triacylglycerols, phosphatidylcholines, phosphatidylethanolamines and phosphatidylinositols. MAb treatment also regulated sterol metabolism by increasing the levels of cholesterol and ergosterol in the cells. We also showed that global changes in the lipid profiles resulted in an increased susceptibility of H. capsulatum to the ergosterol-targeting drug amphotericin B. Overall, our data showed that mAb induction of global changes in the composition of H. capsulatum membranes can potentially impact antifungal treatment during histoplasmosis.

Isolation and functional analyses of PvFAD2 and PvFAD3 involved in the biosynthesis of polyunsaturated fatty acids from Sacha Inchi (Plukenetia volubilis)

The development of ω-3 fatty acid-rich vegetable oils is essential to enrich the production of functional foods. Sacha Inchi (Plukenetia volubilis L.) is a unique oilseed crop with much potential. Its seeds contain rich polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs), especially linoleic acid (LA, C18:2) and α-linolenic acid (ALA, C18:3). Endoplasmic reticulum -located ω-6 and ω-3 fatty acid desaturases (FAD) are responsible for the biosynthesis of LA and ALA, respectively, in plant seeds. Here, we isolated two full-length FAD genes from Sacha Inchi, named PvFAD2 and PvFAD3, which encoded predicted amino acid residues of 384 and 379 in protein, respectively. Protein sequence and subcellular localization analysis revealed that they were located in the endoplasmic reticulum (ER). Heterologous expression in Saccharomyces cerevisiae confirmed that PvFAD2 and PvFAD3 could catalyze LA and ALA synthesis, respectively. The stability and catalytic efficiency of the PvFAD3 protein may be closely related to temperature. In transgenic tobacco, using seed-specific expression promoters, PvFAD2 and PvFAD3 significantly promotes the production of LA (from 68% to 70.5%) and ALA (from 0.7% to 3.1%) in seed oil. These results show that PvFAD2 and PvFAD3 do, indeed, function as crucial enzymes for PUFAs biosynthesis, and provide a key gene source for the sustainable production of lipids with tailored fatty acid compositions via genetic engineering in other oil crops.

Design of high-oleic tobacco (Nicotiana tabacum L.) seed oil by CRISPR-Cas9-mediated knockout of NtFAD2-2

BACKGROUND

Tobacco seed oil could be used as an appropriate feedstock for biodiesel production. However, the high linoleic acid content of tobacco seed oil makes it susceptible to oxidation. Altering the fatty acid profile by increasing the content of oleic acid could improve the properties of biodiesel produced from tobacco seed oil.

RESULTS

Four FAD2 genes, NtFAD2-1a, NtFAD2-1b, NtFAD2-2a, and NtFAD2-2b, were identified in allotetraploid tobacco genome. Phylogenetic analysis of protein sequences showed that NtFAD2-1a and NtFAD2-2a originated from N. tomentosiformis, while NtFAD2-1b and NtFAD2-2b from N. sylvestris. Expression analysis revealed that NtFAD2-2a and NtFAD2-2b transcripts were more abundant in developing seeds than in other tissues, while NtFAD2-1a and NtFAD2-1b showed low transcript levels in developing seed. Phylogenic analysis showed that NtFAD2-2a and NtFAD2-2b were seed-type FAD2 genes. Heterologous expression in yeast cells demonstrated that both NtFAD2-2a and NtFAD2-2b protein could introduce a double bond at the Δ12 position of fatty acid chain. The fatty acid profile analysis of tobacco fad2-2 mutant seeds derived from CRISPR-Cas9 edited plants showed dramatic increase of oleic acid content from 11% to over 79%, whereas linoleic acid decreased from 72 to 7%. In addition, the fatty acid composition of leaf was not affected in fad2-2 mutant plants.

CONCLUSION

Our data showed that knockout of seed-type FAD2 genes in tobacco could significantly increase the oleic acid content in seed oil. This research suggests that CRISPR-Cas9 system offers a rapid and highly efficient method in the tobacco seed lipid engineering programs.

Interspecific Variation in the Unsaturation Level of Seed Oils Were Associated With the Expression Pattern Shifts of Duplicated Desaturase Genes and the Potential Role of Other Regulatory Genes

Seed oils are of great economic importance both for human consumption and industrial applications. The nutritional quality and industrial value of seed oils are mostly determined by their fatty acid profiles, especially the relative proportions of unsaturated fatty acids. Tree peony seed oils have recently been recognized as novel edible oils enriched in α-linolenic acid (ALA). However, congeneric species, such as Paeonia ostii and P. ludlowii, showed marked variation in the relative proportions of different unsaturated fatty acids. By comparing the dynamics of fatty acid accumulation and the time-course gene expression patterns between P. ostii and P. ludlowii, we identified genes that were differentially expressed between two species in developing seeds, and showed congruent patterns of variation between expression levels and phenotypes. In addition to the well-known desaturase and acyltransferase genes associated with fatty acid desaturation, among them were some genes that were conservatively co-expressed with the desaturation pathway genes across phylogenetically distant ALA-rich species, including Camelina sativa and Perilla frutescens. Go enrichment analysis revealed that these genes were mainly involved in transcriptional regulation, protein post-translational modification and hormone biosynthesis and response, suggesting that the fatty acid synthesis and desaturation pathway might be subject to multiple levels of regulation.

Plant Unsaturated Fatty Acids: Biosynthesis and Regulation

In most plants, major unsaturated fatty acids (UFAs) are three C18 species, namely, oleic (18:1), linoleic (18:2), and α-linolenic (18:3) acids. These simple compounds play multiple crucial roles in planta and are also important economic traits of oil crops. The enzymatic steps of C18 UFA biosynthesis have been well established. However, the associated FA/lipid trafficking between the plastid and the endoplasmic reticulum remains largely unclear, as does the regulation of the expression and activities of the involved enzymes. In this review, we will revisit the biosynthesis of C18 UFAs with an emphasis on the trafficking, and present an overview of the key enzymes and their regulation. Of particular interest is the emerging regulatory network composed of transcriptional factors and upstream signaling pathways. The review thereby provides the promise of using physical, biochemical and/or genetic means to manipulate FA composition and increase oil yield in crop improvement.

Effects of Excess and Limited Phosphate on Biomass, Lipid and Fatty Acid Contents and the Expression of Four Fatty Acid Desaturase Genes in the Tropical Selenastraceaen Messastrum gracile SE-MC4

In this study, the effects of limited and excess phosphate on biomass content, oil content, fatty acid profile and the expression of three fatty acid desaturases in Messastrum gracile SE-MC4 were determined. It was found that total biomass (0.67-0.83 g L^-1), oil content (30.99-38.08%) and the duration for cells to reach stationary phase (25-27 days) were not considerably affected by phosphate limitation. However, excess phosphate slightly reduced total biomass and oil content to 0.50 g L^-1 and 25.36% respectively. The dominant fatty acids in M. gracile, pamitic acid (C16:0) and oleic acid (C18:1) which constitute more than 81% of the total fatty acids remained relatively high and constant across all phosphate concentrations. Reduction of phosphate concentration to 25% and below significantly increased total MUFA, whereas increasing phosphate concentration to ≥ 50% and ≥ 100% significantly increased total SFA and PUFA content respectively. The expression of omega-3 fatty acid desaturase (ω-3 FADi1, ω-3 FADi2) and omega-6 fatty acid desaturase (ω-6 FAD) was increased under phosphate limitation, especially at ≤ 12.5% phosphate, whereas levels of streoyl-ACP desaturase (SAD) transcripts were relatively unchanged across all phosphate concentrations. The first isoform of ω-3 FAD (ω-3 FADi) displayed a binary upregulation under limited (≤ 12.5%) and excess (200%) phosphate. The expression of ω-6 FAD, ω-3 FAD and SAD were inconsistent with the accumulation of oleic acid (C18:1), linoleic acid (C18:2) and alpha-linolenic acid (C18:3), suggesting that these genes may be regulated indirectly by phosphate availability via post-transcriptional or post-translational mechanisms.

Plasticity of fruit and oil traits in olive among different environments

Olive is a long-living perennial species with a wide geographical distribution, showing a large genetic and phenotypic variation in its growing area. There is an urgent need to uncover how olive phenotypic traits and plasticity can change regardless of the genetic background. A two-year study was conducted, based on the analysis of fruit and oil traits of 113 cultivars from five germplasm collections established in Mediterranean Basin countries and Argentina. Fruit and oil traits plasticity, broad-sense heritability and genotype by environment interaction were estimated. From variance and heritability analyses, it was shown that fruit fresh weight was mainly under genetic control, whereas oleic/(palmitic + linoleic) acids ratio was regulated by the environment and genotype by environment interaction had the major effect on oil content. Among the studied cultivars, different level of stability was observed, which allowed ranking the cultivars based on their plasticity for oil traits. High thermal amplitude, the difference of low and high year values of temperature, negatively affected the oil content and the oleic acid percentage. Information derived from this work will help to direct the selection of cultivars with the highest global fitness averaged over the environments rather than the highest fitness in each environment separately.

Cellular Organization and Regulation of Plant Glycerolipid Metabolism

Great strides have been made in understanding how membranes and lipid droplets are formed and maintained in land plants, yet much more is to be learned given the complexity of plant lipid metabolism. A complicating factor is the multi-organellar presence of biosynthetic enzymes and unique compositional requirements of different membrane systems. This necessitates a rich network of transporters and transport mechanisms that supply fatty acids, membrane lipids and storage lipids to their final cellular destination. Though we know a large number of the biosynthetic enzymes involved in lipid biosynthesis and a few transport proteins, the regulatory mechanisms, in particular, coordinating expression and/or activity of the majority remain yet to be described. Plants undergoing stress alter their membranes' compositions, and lipids such as phosphatidic acid have been implicated in stress signaling. Additionally, lipid metabolism in chloroplasts supplies precursors for jasmonic acid (JA) biosynthesis, and perturbations in lipid homeostasis has consequences on JA signaling. In this review, several aspects of plant lipid metabolism are discussed that are currently under investigation: cellular transport of lipids, regulation of lipid biosynthesis, roles of lipids in stress signaling, and lastly the structural and oligomeric states of lipid enzymes.

Tissue Distribution and Specific Contribution of Arabidopsis FAD7 and FAD8 Plastid Desaturases to the JA- and ABA-Mediated Cold Stress or Defense Responses

To overcome the difficulties to analyze membrane desaturases at the protein level, transgenic Arabidopsis plants expressing the plastidial AtFAD7 and AtFAD8 ω-3 desaturases fused to green fluorescent protein, under the control of their endogenous promoters, were generated and their tissue relative abundance was studied. Gene expression, glucuronidase promoter activity, immunoblot and confocal microscopy analyses indicated that AtFAD7 is the major ω-3 desaturase in leaves when compared to AtFAD8. This higher abundance of AtFAD7 was consistent with its higher promoter activity and could be related with its specificity for the abundant leaf galactolipids. AtFAD7 was also present in roots but at much lower level than leaves. AtFAD8 expression and protein abundance in leaves was consistent with its lower promoter activity, suggesting that transcriptional control modulates the abundance of both desaturases in leaves. AtFAD7 protein levels increased in response to wounding but not to jasmonate (JA), and decreased upon abscisic acid (ABA) treatment. Conversely, AtFAD8 protein levels increased upon cold or JA exposure and decreased at high temperatures, but did not respond to ABA or wounding. These results indicated specific and non-redundant roles for the plastidial ω-3 desaturases in defense, temperature stress or phytohormone mediated responses and a tight coordination of their activities between biotic and abiotic stress signaling pathways. Our data suggested that transcriptional regulation was crucial for this coordination. Finally, bimolecular fluorescence complementation analysis showed that both AtFAD7 and AtFAD8 interact with the AtFAD6 ω-6 desaturase in vivo, suggesting that quaternary complexes are involved in trienoic fatty acid production within the plastid membranes.

Effect of high night temperature on storage lipids and transcriptome changes in developing seeds of oilseed rape

Global warming causes a faster increase of night temperature than of day temperature in tropical and subtropical zones. Little is known about the effect of high night temperature on storage lipids and transcriptome changes in oilseed rape. This study compared the total fatty acids and fatty acid compositions in seeds of two oilseed rape cultivars between high and low night temperatures. Their transcriptome profiles were also analyzed. High night temperature significantly affected the total fatty acids and fatty acid compositions in seeds of both low and high oil content cultivars, namely Jiuer-13 and Zheyou-50, thereby resulting in 18.9% and 13.7% total fatty acid reductions, respectively. In particular, high night temperature decreased the relative proportions of C18:0 and C18:1 but increased the proportions of C18:2 and C18:3 in both cultivars. In-depth analysis of transcriptome profiles revealed that high night temperature up-regulated gibberellin signaling during the night-time. This up-regulation was associated with the active expression of genes involved in fatty acid catabolism, such as those in β-oxidation and glyoxylate metabolism pathways. Although the effect of temperature on plant lipids has been previously examined, the present study is the first to focus on night temperature and its effect on the fatty acid composition in seeds.

An Overview of Biomembrane Functions in Plant Responses to High-Temperature Stress

Biological membranes are highly ordered structures consisting of mosaics of lipids and proteins. Elevated temperatures can directly and effectively change the properties of these membranes, including their fluidity and permeability, through a holistic effect that involves changes in the lipid composition and/or interactions between lipids and specific membrane proteins. Ultimately, high temperatures can alter microdomain remodeling and instantaneously relay ambient cues to downstream signaling pathways. Thus, dynamic membrane regulation not only helps cells perceive temperature changes but also participates in intracellular responses and determines a cell's fate. Moreover, due to the specific distribution of extra- and endomembrane elements, the plasma membrane (PM) and membranous organelles are individually responsible for distinct developmental events during plant adaptation to heat stress. This review describes recent studies that focused on the roles of various components that can alter the physical state of the plasma and thylakoid membranes as well as the crucial signaling pathways initiated through the membrane system, encompassing both endomembranes and membranous organelles in the context of heat stress responses.

The FAD2 Gene in Plants: Occurrence, Regulation, and Role

Vegetable oils rich in oleic acid are more desirable than oils rich in polyunsaturated and saturated fatty acids. The biological switch of oleic acid to linoleic acid is facilitated by fatty acid desaturase 2 enzyme that is further classified into FAD2-1, FAD2-2, FAD2-3, and FAD2-4. The genes coding these enzymes have high sequence similarity, but differ mostly in their expression patterns. The seed-type FAD2 genes had evolved independently after segregation by duplication from constitutively expressed FAD2 genes. Temperature, light and wounding effectively regulate FAD2 expression in plants. FAD2 genes are expressed differently in different tissues of the plant, and the over-expression of FAD2 modifies physiological and vegetative characteristics. The activity of FAD2 leads to an increase in the content of dienoic fatty acids, and hence increases the resistance toward cold and salt stress. The thorough study of the FAD2 gene is important for understanding the expression, regulation and mechanism that will help in improving the quality of oil and stress resistance in plants.

Functional characterization of the chaperon-like protein Cdc48 in cryptogein-induced immune response in tobacco

Cdc48, a molecular chaperone conserved in different kingdoms, is a member of the AAA+ family contributing to numerous processes in mammals including proteins quality control and degradation, vesicular trafficking, autophagy and immunity. The functions of Cdc48 plant orthologues are less understood. We previously reported that Cdc48 is regulated by S-nitrosylation in tobacco cells undergoing an immune response triggered by cryptogein, an elicitin produced by the oomycete Phytophthora cryptogea. Here, we inv estigated the function of NtCdc48 in cryptogein signalling and induced hypersensitive-like cell death. NtCdc48 was found to accumulate in elicited cells at both the protein and transcript levels. Interestingly, only a small proportion of the overall NtCdc48 population appeared to be S-nitrosylated. Using gel filtration in native conditions, we confirmed that NtCdc48 was present in its hexameric active form. An immunoprecipitation-based strategy following my mass spectrometry analysis led to the identification of about a hundred NtCdc48 partners and underlined its contribution in cellular processes including targeting of ubiquitylated proteins for proteasome-dependent degradation, subcellular trafficking and redox regulation. Finally, the analysis of cryptogein-induced events in NtCdc48-overexpressing cells highlighted a correlation between NtCdc48 expression and hypersensitive cell death. Altogether, this study identified NtCdc48 as a component of cryptogein signalling and plant immunity.

Genome Wide Analysis of Fatty Acid Desaturation and Its Response to Temperature

Plants modify the polyunsaturated fatty acid content of their membrane and storage lipids in order to adapt to changes in temperature. In developing seeds, this response is largely controlled by the activities of the microsomal ω-6 and ω-3 fatty acid desaturases, FAD2 and FAD3. Although temperature regulation of desaturation has been studied at the molecular and biochemical levels, the genetic control of this trait is poorly understood. Here, we have characterized the response of Arabidopsis (Arabidopsis thaliana) seed lipids to variation in ambient temperature and found that heat inhibits both ω-6 and ω-3 desaturation in phosphatidylcholine, leading to a proportional change in triacylglycerol composition. Analysis of the 19 parental accessions of the multiparent advanced generation intercross (MAGIC) population showed that significant natural variation exists in the temperature responsiveness of ω-6 desaturation. A combination of quantitative trait locus (QTL) analysis and genome-wide association studies (GWAS) using the MAGIC population suggests that ω-6 desaturation is largely controlled by cis-acting sequence variants in the FAD2 5' untranslated region intron that determine the expression level of the gene. However, the temperature responsiveness of ω-6 desaturation is controlled by a separate QTL on chromosome 2. The identity of this locus is unknown, but genome-wide association studies identified potentially causal sequence variants within ∼40 genes in an ∼450-kb region of the QTL.

Identification of target genes and processes involved in erucic acid accumulation during seed development in the biodiesel feedstock Pennycress (Thlaspi arvense L.)

We studied erucic acid accumulation in the biodiesel feedstock Pennycress (Thlaspi arvense L.) as a first step towards the development of a sustainable strategy for biofuel production in the EU territory. To that end, two inbred Pennycress lines of European origin, "NASC" and "French," were cultivated in a controlled chamber and in experimental field plots, and their growth, seed production and seed oil characteristics analyzed. Differences in some agronomical traits like vernalization (winter-French versus spring-NASC), flowering time (delayed in the French line) and seed production (higher in the French line) were detected. Both lines showed a high amount (35-39%) of erucic acid (22:1^Δ13) in their seed oil. Biochemical characterization of the Pennycress seed oil indicated that TAG was the major reservoir of 22:1^Δ13. Incorporation of 22:1^Δ13 to TAG occurred very early during seed maturation, concomitant with a decrease of desaturase activity. This change in the acyl fluxes towards elongation was controlled by different genes at different levels. TaFAE1 gene, encoding the fatty acid elongase, seemed to be controlled at the transcriptional level with high expression at the early stages of seed development. On the contrary, the TaFAD2 gene that encodes the Δ12 fatty acid desaturase or TaDGAT1 that catalyzes TAG biosynthesis were controlled post-transcriptionally. TaWRI1, the master regulator of seed-oil biosynthesis, showed also high expression at the early stages of seed development. Our data identified genes and processes that might improve the biotechnological manipulation of Pennycress seeds for high-quality biodiesel production.

Functional identification of oleate 12-desaturase and ω-3 fatty acid desaturase genes from Perilla frutescens var. frutescens

We described identification, expression, subcellular localization, and functions of genes that encode fatty acid desaturase enzymes in Perilla frutescens var. frutescens. Perilla (Perilla frutescens var. frutescens) seeds contain approximately 40 % of oil, of which α-linolenic acid (18:3) comprise more than 60 % in seed oil and 56 % of total fatty acids (FAs) in leaf, respectively. In perilla, endoplasmic reticulum (ER)-localized and chloroplast-localized ω-3 FA desaturase genes (PfrFAD3 and PfrFAD7, respectively) have already been reported, however, microsomal oleate 12-desaturase gene (PfrFAD2) has not yet. Here, four perilla FA desaturase genes, PfrFAD2-1, PfrFAD2-2, PfrFAD3-2 and PfrFAD7-2, were newly identified and characterized using random amplification of complementary DNA ends and sequence data from RNAseq analysis, respectively. According to the data of transcriptome and gene cloning, perilla expresses two PfrFAD2 and PfrFAD3 genes, respectively, coding for proteins that possess three histidine boxes, transmembrane domains, and an ER retrieval motif at its C-terminal, and two chloroplast-localized ω-3 FA desaturase genes, PfrFAD7-1 and PfrFAD7-2. Arabidopsis protoplasts transformed with perilla genes fused to green fluorescence protein gene demonstrated that PfrFAD2-1 and PfrFAD3-2 were localized in the ER, and PfrFAD7-1 and PfrFAD7-2 were localized in the chloroplasts. PfrFAD2 and perilla ω-3 FA desaturases were functional in budding yeast (Saccharomyces cerevisiae) indicated by the presence of 18:2 and 16:2 in yeast harboring the PfrFAD2 gene. 18:2 supplementation of yeast harboring ω-3 FA desaturase gene led to the production of 18:3. Therefore, perilla expresses two functional FAD2 and FAD3 genes, and two chloroplast-localized ω-3 FA desaturase genes, which support an evidence that P. frutescens cultivar is allotetraploid plant.

Protein S-nitrosylation in photosynthetic organisms: A comprehensive overview with future perspectives

BACKGROUND

The free radical nitric oxide (NO) and derivative reactive nitrogen species (RNS) play essential roles in cellular redox regulation mainly through protein S-nitrosylation, a redox post-translational modification in which specific cysteines are converted to nitrosothiols.

SCOPE OF VIEW

This review aims to discuss the current state of knowledge, as well as future perspectives, regarding protein S-nitrosylation in photosynthetic organisms.

MAJOR CONCLUSIONS

NO, synthesized by plants from different sources (nitrite, arginine), provides directly or indirectly the nitroso moiety of nitrosothiols. Biosynthesis, reactivity and scavenging systems of NO/RNS, determine the NO-based signaling including the rate of protein nitrosylation. Denitrosylation reactions compete with nitrosylation in setting the levels of nitrosylated proteins in vivo.

GENERAL SIGNIFICANCE

Based on a combination of proteomic, biochemical and genetic approaches, protein nitrosylation is emerging as a pervasive player in cell signaling networks. Specificity of protein nitrosylation and integration among different post-translational modifications are among the major challenges for future experimental studies in the redox biology field. This article is part of a Special Issue entitled: Plant Proteomics--a bridge between fundamental processes and crop production, edited by Dr. Hans-Peter Mock.

Deep Sequencing of the Fruit Transcriptome and Lipid Accumulation in a Non-Seed Tissue of Chinese Tallow, a Potential Biofuel Crop

Chinese tallow (Triadica sebifera) is a valuable oilseed-producing tree that can grow in a variety of conditions without competing for food production, and is a promising biofuel feedstock candidate. The fruits are unique in that they contain both saturated and unsaturated fat present in the tallow and seed layer, respectively. The tallow layer is poorly studied and is considered only as an external fatty deposition secreted from the seed. In this study we show that tallow is in fact a non-seed cellular tissue capable of triglyceride synthesis. Knowledge of lipid synthesis and storage mechanisms in tissues other than seed is limited but essential to generate oil-rich biomass crops. Here, we describe the annotated transcriptome assembly generated from the fruit coat, tallow and seed tissues of Chinese tallow. The final assembly was functionally annotated, allowing for the identification of candidate genes and reconstruction of lipid pathways. A tallow tissue-specific paralog for the transcription factor gene WRINKLED1 (WRI1) and lipid droplet-associated protein genes, distinct from those expressed in seed tissue, were found to be active in tallow, underpinning the mode of oil synthesis and packaging in this tissue. Our data have established an excellent knowledge base that can provide genetic and biochemical insights for engineering non-seed tissues to accumulate large amounts of oil. In addition to the large data set of annotated transcripts, the study also provides gene-based simple sequence repeat and single nucleotide polymorphism markers.

Levels of polyunsaturated fatty acids correlate with growth rate in plant cell cultures

In higher plants, fatty acids (FAs) with 18 carbons (18C) represent about 70% of total FAs, the most abundant species being 18:2 and 18:3. These two polyunsaturated FAs (PUFAs) represent about 55% of total FAs in Arabidopsis cell suspension cultures, whereas 18:1 represents about 10%. The level of PUFAs may vary, depending on ill-defined factors. Here, we compared various sets of plant cell cultures and noticed a correlation between the growth rate of a cell population and the level of unsaturation of 18C FAs. These observations suggest that the final level of PUFAs might depend in part on the rate of cell division, and that FAD2 and FAD3 desaturases, which are respectively responsible for the formation of 18:2 and 18:3 on phospholipids, have limiting activities in fast-growing cultures. In plant cell culture, phosphate (Pi) deprivation is known to impair cell division and to trigger lipid remodeling. We observed that Pi starvation had no effect on the expression of FAD genes, and that the level of PUFAs in this situation was also correlated with the growth rate. Thus, the level of PUFAs appears as a hallmark in determining cell maturity and aging.

Development and analysis of a highly flexible multi-gene expression system for metabolic engineering in Arabidopsis seeds and other plant tissues

Production of novel value-added compounds in transgenic crops has become an increasingly viable approach in recent years. However, in many cases, product yield still falls short of the levels necessary for optimal profitability. Determination of the limiting factors is thus of supreme importance for the long-term viability of this approach. A significant challenge to most metabolic engineering projects is the need for strong coordinated co-expression of multiple transgenes. Strong constitutive promoters have been well-characterized during the >30 years since plant transformation techniques were developed. However, organ- or tissue-specific promoters are poorly characterized in many cases. Oilseeds are one such example. Reports spanning at least 20 years have described the use of certain seed-specific promoters to drive expression of individual transgenes. Multi-gene engineering strategies are often hampered by sub-optimal expression levels or improper tissue-specificity of particular promoters, or rely on the use of multiple copies of the same promoter, which can result in DNA instability or transgene silencing. We describe here a flexible system of plasmids that allows for expression of 1-7 genes per binary plasmid, and up to 18 genes altogether after multiple rounds of transformation or sexual crosses. This vector system includes six seed-specific promoters and two constitutive promoters. Effective constitutive and seed-specific RNA interference gene-suppression cloning vectors were also constructed for silencing of endogenous genes. Taken together, this molecular toolkit allows combinatorial cloning for multiple transgene expression in seeds, vegetative organs, or both simultaneously, while also providing the means to coordinately overexpress some genes while silencing others.

Lipid trafficking at endoplasmic reticulum-chloroplast membrane contact sites

Glycerolipid synthesis in plant cells is characterized by an intense trafficking of lipids between the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) and chloroplasts. Initially, fatty acids are synthesized within chloroplasts and are exported to the ER where they are used to build up phospholipids and triacylglycerol. Ultimately, derivatives of these phospholipids return to chloroplasts to form galactolipids, monogalactosyldiacylglycerol and digalactosyldiacylglycerol, the main and essential lipids of photosynthetic membranes. Lipid trafficking was proposed to transit through membrane contact sites (MCSs) connecting both organelles. Here, we review recent insights into ER-chloroplast MCSs and lipid trafficking between chloroplasts and the ER.

NO signaling in plant immunity: a tale of messengers

Nitric oxide (NO) is a free radical gas involved in a myriad of plant physiological processes including immune responses. How NO mediates its biological effects in plant facing microbial pathogen attack is an unresolved question. Insights into the molecular mechanisms by which it propagates signals reveal the contribution of this simple gas in complex signaling pathways shared with reactive oxygen species (ROS) and the second messenger Ca(2+). Understanding of the subtle cross-talks operating between these signals was greatly improved by the recent identification and the functional analysis of proteins regulated through S-nitrosylation, a major NO-dependent post-translational protein modification. Overall, these findings suggest that NO is probably an important component of the mechanism coordinating and regulating Ca(2+) and ROS signaling in plant immunity.

Genome and physiology of the ascomycete filamentous fungus Xeromyces bisporus, the most xerophilic organism isolated to date

Xeromyces bisporus can grow on sugary substrates down to 0.61, an extremely low water activity. Its genome size is approximately 22 Mb. Gene clusters encoding for secondary metabolites were conspicuously absent; secondary metabolites were not detected experimentally. Thus, in its 'dry' but nutrient-rich environment, X. bisporus appears to have relinquished abilities for combative interactions. Elements to sense/signal osmotic stress, e.g. HogA pathway, were present in X. bisporus. However, transcriptomes at optimal (∼ 0.89) versus low aw (0.68) revealed differential expression of only a few stress-related genes; among these, certain (not all) steps for glycerol synthesis were upregulated. Xeromyces bisporus increased glycerol production during hypo- and hyper-osmotic stress, and much of its wet weight comprised water and rinsable solutes; leaked solutes may form a protective slime. Xeromyces bisporus and other food-borne moulds increased membrane fatty acid saturation as water activity decreased. Such modifications did not appear to be transcriptionally regulated in X. bisporus; however, genes modulating sterols, phospholipids and the cell wall were differentially expressed. Xeromyces bisporus was previously proposed to be a 'chaophile', preferring solutes that disorder biomolecular structures. Both X. bisporus and the closely related xerophile, Xerochrysium xerophilum, with low membrane unsaturation indices, could represent a phylogenetic cluster of 'chaophiles'.

FAD2 and FAD3 desaturases form heterodimers that facilitate metabolic channeling in vivo

Plant desaturases comprise two independently evolved classes, a structurally well characterized soluble class responsible for the production of monoenes in the plastids of higher plants and the poorly structurally characterized integral membrane class that has members in the plastid and endoplasmic reticulum that are responsible for producing mono- and polyunsaturated fatty acids. Both require iron and oxygen for activity and are inhibited by azide and cyanide underscoring their common chemical imperatives. We previously showed that the Δ(9) acyl-CoA integral membrane desaturase Ole1p from Saccharomyces cerevisiae exhibits dimeric organization, like the soluble plastidial acyl-ACP desaturases. Here we use two independent bimolecular complementation assays, i.e. yeast two-hybrid analysis and Arabidopsis leaf protoplast split luciferase assay, to demonstrate that members of the plant integral membrane fatty acid desaturase (FAD) family, FAD2, FAD3, FAD6, FAD7, and FAD8, self-associate. Further, the endoplasmic reticulum-localized desaturase FAD2 can associate with FAD3, as can the plastid-localized FAD6 desaturase with either FAD7 or FAD8. These pairings appear to be specific because pairs such as FAD3 and FAD7 (or FAD8) and FAD2 and FAD6 do not interact despite their high amino acid similarity. These results are consistent also with their known endoplasmic reticulum and plastid subcellular localizations. Chemical cross-linking experiments confirm that FAD2 and FAD3 can form dimers like the yeast Ole1p and, when coexpressed, can form FAD2-FAD3 heterodimers. Metabolic flux analysis of yeast coexpressing FAD2 and FAD3 indicates that heterodimers can form a metabolic channel in which 18:1-PC is converted to 18:3-PC without releasing a free 18:2-PC intermediate.

Cloning and functional analysis of HpFAD2 and HpFAD3 genes encoding Δ12- and Δ15-fatty acid desaturases in Hansenula polymorpha

Two fatty acid desaturase genes have been cloned: HpFAD2 and HpFAD3 encode Hansenula polymorpha Δ12-fatty acid desaturase (HpFad2) and Δ15-fatty acid desaturase (HpFad3), which are responsible for the production of linoleic acid (LA, C18:2, Δ9, Δ12) and α-linolenic acid (ALA, αC18:3, Δ9, Δ12, Δ15), respectively. The open reading frame of the HpFAD2 and HpFAD3 genes is 1215bp and 1239bp, encoding 405 and 413 amino acids, respectively. The putative amino acid sequences of HpFad2 and HpFad3 share more than 60% similarity and three conserved histidine-box motifs with other known yeast Fad homologs. Hpfad2Δ disruptant cannot produce C18:2 and αC18:3, while the deletion of HpFAD3 only causes the absence of αC18:3. Heterologous expression of either the HpFAD2 or the HpFAD3 gene in Saccharomyces cerevisiae resulted in the presence of C18:2 and αC18:3 when the C18:2 precursor was added. Taken together, these observations indicate that HpFAD2 and HpFAD3 indeed encode Δ12- and Δ15-fatty acid desaturases that function as the only ones responsible for desaturation of oleic acid (C18:1) and linoleic acid (C18:2), respectively, in H. polymorpha. Because a Fatty Acid Regulated (FAR) region and a Low Oxygen Response Element (LORE), which are responsible for regulation of a Δ9-fatty acid desaturase gene (ScOLE1) in S. cerevisiae, are present in the upstream regions of both genes, we investigated whether the transcriptional levels of HpFAD2 and HpFAD3 are affected by supplementation with nutrient unsaturated fatty acids or by low oxygen conditions. Whereas both genes were up-regulated under low oxygen conditions, only HpFAD3 transcription was repressed by an excess of C18:1, C18:2 and C18:3, while the HpFAD2 transcript level did not significantly change. These observations indicate that HpFAD2 expression is not controlled at the transcriptional level by fatty acids even though it contains a FAR-like region. This study indicates that HpFAD2 may be regulated by post-transcriptional mechanisms, whereas HpFAD3 may be mainly controlled at a transcriptional level.

Plasticity and constraints on fatty acid composition in the phospholipids and triacylglycerols of Arabidopsis accessions grown at different temperatures

BACKGROUND

Natural selection acts on multiple traits in an organism, and the final outcome of adaptive evolution may be constrained by the interaction of physiological and functional integration of those traits. Fatty acid composition is an important determinant of seed oil quality. In plants the relative proportions of unsaturated fatty acids in phospholipids and seed triacylglycerols often increases adaptively in response to lower growing temperatures to increase fitness. Previous work produced evidence of genetic constraints between phospholipids and triacylglycerols in the widely studied Arabidopsis lines Col and Ler, but because these lines are highly inbred, the correlations might be spurious. In this study, we grew 84 wild Arabidopsis accessions at two temperatures to show that genetic correlation between the fatty acids of the two lipid types is not expected and one should not influence the other and seed oil evolution and also tested for the adaptive response of fatty acids to latitude and temperature.

RESULTS

As expected no significant correlations between the two lipids classes at either growing temperature were observed. The saturated fatty acids and erucic acid of triacylglycerols followed a significant latitudinal cline, while the fatty acids in phospholipids did not respond to latitude as expected. The expected plastic response to temperature was observed for all the triacylglycerol fatty acids whereas only oleic acid showed the expected pattern in phospholipids. Considerable phenotypic variation of the fatty acids in both the lipid types was seen.

CONCLUSION

We report the first evidence supporting adaptive evolution of seed triacylglycerols in Arabidopsis on a latitudinal cline as seen in other species and also their plastic adaptive response to growing temperature. We show that as expected there is no genetic correlations between the fatty acids in triacylglycerols and phospholipids, indicating selection can act on seed triacylglycerols without being constrained by the fatty acid requirements of the phospholipids. Phospholipid fatty acids do not respond to latitude and temperature as seen elsewhere and needs further investigation. Thus, the adaptive response of Arabidopsis and the genetic tools available for manipulating Arabidopsis, makes it an excellent system for studying seed oil evolution and also for breeding seed oil crops especially the Brassica species.

Nitric oxide-dependent posttranslational modification in plants: an update

Nitric oxide (NO) has been demonstrated as an essential regulator of several physiological processes in plants. The understanding of the molecular mechanism underlying its critical role constitutes a major field of research. NO can exert its biological function through different ways, such as the modulation of gene expression, the mobilization of second messengers, or interplays with protein kinases. Besides this signaling events, NO can be responsible of the posttranslational modifications (PTM) of target proteins. Several modifications have been identified so far, whereas metal nitrosylation, the tyrosine nitration and the S-nitrosylation can be considered as the main ones. Recent data demonstrate that these PTM are involved in the control of a wide range of physiological processes in plants, such as the plant immune system. However, a great deal of effort is still necessary to pinpoint the role of each PTM in plant physiology. Taken together, these new advances in proteomic research provide a better comprehension of the role of NO in plant signaling.

Nitric oxide-dependent posttranslational modification in plants: an update

Nitric oxide (NO) has been demonstrated as an essential regulator of several physiological processes in plants. The understanding of the molecular mechanism underlying its critical role constitutes a major field of research. NO can exert its biological function through different ways, such as the modulation of gene expression, the mobilization of second messengers, or interplays with protein kinases. Besides this signaling events, NO can be responsible of the posttranslational modifications (PTM) of target proteins. Several modifications have been identified so far, whereas metal nitrosylation, the tyrosine nitration and the S-nitrosylation can be considered as the main ones. Recent data demonstrate that these PTM are involved in the control of a wide range of physiological processes in plants, such as the plant immune system. However, a great deal of effort is still necessary to pinpoint the role of each PTM in plant physiology. Taken together, these new advances in proteomic research provide a better comprehension of the role of NO in plant signaling.

Nitric oxide inhibits the ATPase activity of the chaperone-like AAA+ ATPase CDC48, a target for S-nitrosylation in cryptogein signalling in tobacco cells

NO has important physiological functions in plants, including the adaptative response to pathogen attack. We previously demonstrated that cryptogein, an elicitor of defence reaction produced by the oomycete Phytophthora cryptogea, triggers NO synthesis in tobacco. To decipher the role of NO in tobacco cells elicited by cryptogein, in the present study we performed a proteomic approach in order to identify proteins undergoing S-nitrosylation. We provided evidence that cryptogein induced the S-nitrosylation of several proteins and identified 11 candidates, including CDC48 (cell division cycle 48), a member of the AAA+ ATPase (ATPase associated with various cellular activities) family. In vitro, NtCDC48 (Nicotiana tabacum CDC48) was shown to be poly-S-nitrosylated by NO donors and we could identify Cys(110), Cys(526) and Cys(664) as a targets for S-nitrosylation. Cys(526) is located in the Walker A motif of the D2 domain, that is involved in ATP binding and was previously reported to be regulated by oxidative modification in Drosophila. We investigated the consequence of NtCDC48 S-nitrosylation and found that NO abolished NtCDC48 ATPase activity and induced slight conformation changes in the vicinity of Cys(526). Similarly, substitution of Cys(526) by an alanine residue had an impact on NtCDC48 activity. More generally, the present study identified CDC48 as a new candidate for S-nitrosylation in plants facing biotic stress and further supports the importance of Cys(526) in the regulation of CDC48 by oxidative/nitrosative agents.

Combinations of mutant FAD2 and FAD3 genes to produce high oleic acid and low linolenic acid soybean oil

High oleic acid soybeans were produced by combining mutant FAD2-1A and FAD2-1B genes. Despite having a high oleic acid content, the linolenic acid content of these soybeans was in the range of 4-6 %, which may be high enough to cause oxidative instability of the oil. Therefore, a study was conducted to incorporate one or two mutant FAD3 genes into the high oleic acid background to further reduce the linolenic acid content. As a result, soybean lines with high oleic acid and low linolenic acid (HOLL) content were produced using different sources of mutant FAD2-1A genes. While oleic acid content of these HOLL lines was stable across two testing environments, the reduction of linolenic acid content varied depending on the number of mutant FAD3 genes combined with mutant FAD2-1 genes, on the severity of mutation in the FAD2-1A gene, and on the testing environment. Combination of two mutant FAD2-1 genes and one mutant FAD3 gene resulted in less than 2 % linolenic acid content in Portageville, Missouri (MO) while four mutant genes were needed to achieve the same linolenic acid in Columbia, MO. This study generated non-transgenic soybeans with the highest oleic acid content and lowest linolenic acid content reported to date, offering a unique alternative to produce a fatty acid profile similar to olive oil.

Contribution of the different omega-3 fatty acid desaturase genes to the cold response in soybean

This study analysed the contribution of each omega-3 desaturase to the cold response in soybean. Exposure to cold temperatures (5 °C) did not result in great modifications of the linolenic acid content in leaf membrane lipids. However, an increase in the GmFAD3A transcripts was observed both in plant leaves and soybean cells whereas no changes in GmFAD3B or GmFAD3C expression levels were detected. This increase was reversible and accompanied by the accumulation of an mRNA encoding a truncated form of GmFAD3A (GmFAD3A-T), which originated from alternative splicing of GmFAD3A in response to cold. When the expression of plastidial omega-3 desaturases was analysed, a transient accumulation of GmFAD7-2 mRNA was detected upon cold exposure in mature soybean trifoliate leaves while GmFAD7-1 transcripts remained unchanged. No modification of the GmFAD8-1 and GmFAD8-2 transcripts was observed. The functionality of GmFAD3A, GmFAD3B, GmFAD3C and GmFAD3A-T was examined by heterologous expression in yeast. No activity was detected with GmFAD3A-T, consistent with the absence of one of the His boxes necessary for desaturase activity. The linolenic acid content of Sacharomyces cerevisiae cells overexpressing GmFAD3A or GmFAD3B was higher when the cultures were incubated at cooler temperatures, suggesting that reticular desaturases of the GmFAD3 family, and more specifically GmFAD3A, may play a role in the cold response, even in leaves. The data point to a regulatory mechanism of omega-3 fatty acid desaturases in soybean affecting specific isoforms in both the plastid and the endoplasmic reticulum to maintain appropriate levels of linolenic acid under low temperature conditions.

Glyoxylate reductase isoform 1 is localized in the cytosol and not peroxisomes in plant cells

Glyoxylate reductase (GLYR) is a key enzyme in plant metabolism which catalyzes the detoxification of both photorespiratory glyoxylate and succinic semialdehdye, an intermediate of the γ-aminobutyrate (GABA) pathway. Two isoforms of GLYR exist in plants, GLYR1 and GLYR2, and while GLYR2 is known to be localized in plastids, GLYR1 has been reported to be localized in either peroxisomes or the cytosol. Here, we reappraised the intracellular localization of GLYR1 in Arabidopsis thaliana L. Heynh (ecotype Lansberg erecta) using both transiently-transformed suspension cells and stably-transformed plants, in combination with fluorescence microscopy. The results indicate that GLYR1 is localized exclusively to the cytosol regardless of the species, tissue and/or cell type, or exposure of plants to environmental stresses that would increase flux through the GABA pathway. Moreover, the C-terminal tripeptide sequence of GLYR1, -SRE, despite its resemblance to a type 1 peroxisomal targeting signal, is not sufficient for targeting to peroxisomes. Collectively, these results define the cytosol as the intracellular location of GLYR1 and provide not only important insight to the metabolic roles of GLYR1 and the compartmentation of the GABA and photorespiratory pathways in plant cells, but also serve as a useful reference for future studies of proteins proposed to be localized to peroxisomes and/or the cytosol.

Two high linolenic mutants of Arabidopsis thaliana contain megabase-scale genome duplications encompassing the FAD3 locus

Understanding the quantitative control of fatty acid desaturation during the biosynthesis of seed storage oil has become a priority area for research, as a consequence of its importance for both human health and the substitution of mineral oil for industrial applications. We have analysed the genome structure of two mutants in Arabidopsis thaliana that show substantially elevated content of the omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acid linolenic acid in their seed oil. In one, rfc4, sequences totalling approximately 2 Mb from chromosome 2 have been duplicated and inserted into chromosome 3. In the other mutant, ife, chromosome 2 sequences totalling approximately 1.4 Mb have been duplicated and inserted into a linked position. In both cases, the duplications encompass the FAD3 locus, which encodes the linoleate desaturase responsible for the biosynthesis of linolenic acid for accumulation in seed storage oil. The results show that mutagens such as fast neutrons (used for the induction of rfc4) and T-DNA (used for the induction of ife, which is not linked to the T-DNA present in the line) can result in the duplication of very large genome segments. They also show that increasing the dosage of the FAD3-containing genomic region results in an increase in the linolenic acid content of seed oil. Consequently, screening methods for duplication of FAD3 orthologues in oil crops may be an appropriate approach for the identification of germplasm for breeding varieties with increased proportions of linolenic acid in the oil that they produce.

Homeostasis of plasma membrane viscosity in fluctuating temperatures

Temperature has a direct effect at the cellular level on an organism. For instance, in the case of biomembranes, cooling causes lipids to lose entropy and pack closely together. Reducing temperature should, in the absence of other factors, increase the viscosity of a lipid membrane. We have investigated the effect of temperature variation on plasma membrane (PM) viscosity. We used dispersion tracking of photoactivated green fluorescent protein (GFP) and fluorescence recovery after photobleaching in wild-type and desaturase mutant Arabidopsis thaliana plants along with membrane lipid saturation analysis to monitor the effect of temperature and membrane lipid composition on PM viscosity. Plasma membrane viscosity in A. thaliana is negatively correlated with ambient temperature only under constant-temperature conditions. In the more natural environment of temperature cycles, plants actively manage PM viscosity to counteract the direct effects of temperature. Plasma membrane viscosity is regulated by altering the proportion of desaturated fatty acids. In cold conditions, cell membranes accumulate desaturated fatty acids, which decreases membrane viscosity and vice versa. Moreover, we show that control of fatty acid desaturase 2 (FAD2)-dependent lipid desaturation is essential for this homeostasis of membrane viscosity. Finally, a lack of FAD2 function results in aberrant temperature responses.

Structure-function analysis of diacylglycerol acyltransferase sequences from 70 organisms

BACKGROUND

Diacylglycerol acyltransferase families (DGATs) catalyze the final and rate-limiting step of triacylglycerol (TAG) biosynthesis in eukaryotic organisms. Understanding the roles of DGATs will help to create transgenic plants with value-added properties and provide clues for therapeutic intervention for obesity and related diseases. The objective of this analysis was to identify conserved sequence motifs and amino acid residues for better understanding of the structure-function relationship of these important enzymes.

RESULTS

117 DGAT sequences from 70 organisms including plants, animals, fungi and human are obtained from database search using tung tree DGATs. Phylogenetic analysis separates these proteins into DGAT1 and DGAT2 subfamilies. These DGATs are integral membrane proteins with more than 40% of the total amino acid residues being hydrophobic. They have similar properties and amino acid composition except that DGAT1s are approximately 20 kDa larger than DGAT2s. DGAT1s and DGAT2s have 41 and 16 completely conserved amino acid residues, respectively, although only two of them are shared by all DGATs. These residues are distributed in 7 and 6 sequence blocks for DGAT1s and DGAT2s, respectively, and located at the carboxyl termini, suggesting the location of the catalytic domains. These conserved sequence blocks do not contain the putative neutral lipid-binding domain, mitochondrial targeting signal, or ER retrieval motif. The importance of conserved residues has been demonstrated by site-directed and natural mutants.

CONCLUSIONS

This study has identified conserved sequence motifs and amino acid residues in all 117 DGATs and the two subfamilies. None of the completely conserved residues in DGAT1s and DGAT2s is present in recently reported isoforms in the multiple sequences alignment, raising an important question how proteins with completely different amino acid sequences could perform the same biochemical reaction. The sequence analysis should facilitate studying the structure-function relationship of DGATs with the ultimate goal to identify critical amino acid residues for engineering superb enzymes in metabolic engineering and selecting enzyme inhibitors in therapeutic application for obesity and related diseases.