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Huang T, Guo D, Luo X, Chen R, Wang W, Xu H, Chen S, Lin F. Influence of Two Hexose Transporters on Substrate Affinity and Pathogenicity in Magnaporthe oryzae. Microorganisms 2024; 12:681. [PMID: 38674624 PMCID: PMC11052475 DOI: 10.3390/microorganisms12040681] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/20/2024] [Revised: 03/18/2024] [Accepted: 03/23/2024] [Indexed: 04/28/2024] Open
Abstract
Hexose transporters (HXT) play a crucial role in the pathogenicity of Magnaporthe oryzae, serving not only as key facilitators for acquiring and transporting sugar nutrients to support pathogen development, but also as sugar sensors which receive transduction signals. The objective of this study is to investigate the impact of MoHXT1-3 on rice pathogenicity and hexose affinity. MoHXT1-3 deletion mutants were generated using CRISPR/Cas9 technology, and their affinity for hexose was evaluated through yeast complementation assays and electrophysiological experiments in Xenopus oocytes. The results suggest that MoHXT1 does not contribute to melanin formation or hexose transportation processes. Conversely, MoHXT2, despite displaying lower affinity towards the hexoses tested in comparison to MoHXT3, is likely to have a more substantial impact on pathogenicity. The analysis of the transcription profiles demonstrated that the deletion of MoHXT2 caused a decrease in the expression of MoHXT3, whereas the knockout of MoHXT3 resulted in an upregulation of MoHXT2 transcription. It is noteworthy that the MoHXT2M145K variant displayed an incapacity to transport hexoses. This investigation into the functional differences in hexose transporters in Magnaporthe oryzae provides insights into potential advances in new strategies to target hexose transporters to combat rice blast by blocking carbon nutrient supply.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tinghong Huang
- National Key Laboratory of Green Pesticide/Key Laboratory of Natural Pesticide and Chemical Biology, Ministry of Education, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou 510642, China
| | - Dekang Guo
- National Key Laboratory of Green Pesticide/Key Laboratory of Natural Pesticide and Chemical Biology, Ministry of Education, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou 510642, China
| | - Xiao Luo
- National Key Laboratory of Green Pesticide/Key Laboratory of Natural Pesticide and Chemical Biology, Ministry of Education, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou 510642, China
| | - Ronghua Chen
- National Key Laboratory of Green Pesticide/Key Laboratory of Natural Pesticide and Chemical Biology, Ministry of Education, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou 510642, China
| | - Wenjuan Wang
- Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of High Technology for Plant Protection, Guangzhou 510642, China
| | - Hanhong Xu
- National Key Laboratory of Green Pesticide/Key Laboratory of Natural Pesticide and Chemical Biology, Ministry of Education, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou 510642, China
| | - Shen Chen
- Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of High Technology for Plant Protection, Guangzhou 510642, China
| | - Fei Lin
- National Key Laboratory of Green Pesticide/Key Laboratory of Natural Pesticide and Chemical Biology, Ministry of Education, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou 510642, China
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Wang Y, Zhu X, Wang J, Shen C, Wang W. Identification of Mycoparasitism-Related Genes against the Phytopathogen Botrytis cinerea via Transcriptome Analysis of Trichoderma harzianum T4. J Fungi (Basel) 2023; 9:jof9030324. [PMID: 36983492 PMCID: PMC10055783 DOI: 10.3390/jof9030324] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/30/2023] [Revised: 02/15/2023] [Accepted: 02/28/2023] [Indexed: 03/08/2023] Open
Abstract
Trichoderma harzianum is a well-known biological control agent (BCA) that is effective against a variety of plant pathogens. In previous studies, we found that T. harzianum T4 could effectively control the gray mold in tomatoes caused by Botrytis cinerea. However, the research on its biocontrol mechanism is not comprehensive, particularly regarding the mechanism of mycoparasitism. In this study, in order to further investigate the mycoparasitism mechanism of T. harzianum T4, transcriptomic sequencing and real-time fluorescence quantitative PCR (RT-qPCR) were used to identify the differentially expressed genes (DEGs) of T. harzianum T4 at 12, 24, 48 and 72 h of growth in the cell wall of B. cinerea (BCCW) or a sucrose medium. A total of 2871 DEGs and 2148 novel genes were detected using transcriptome sequencing. Through GO and KEGG enrichment analysis, we identified genes associated with mycoparasitism at specific time periods, such as encoding kinases, signal transduction proteins, carbohydrate active enzymes, hydrolytic enzymes, transporters, antioxidant enzymes, secondary metabolite synthesis, resistance proteins, detoxification genes and genes associated with extended hyphal longevity. To validate the transcriptome data, RT-qCPR was performed on the transcriptome samples. The RT-qPCR results show that the expression trend of the genes was consistent with the RNA-Seq data. In order to validate the screened genes associated with mycoparasitism, we performed a dual-culture antagonism test on T. harzianum and B. cinerea. The results of the dual-culture RT-qPCR showed that 15 of the 24 genes were upregulated during and after contact between T. harzianum T4 and B. cinerea (the same as BCCW), which further confirmed that these genes were involved in the mycoparasitism of T. harzianum T4. In conclusion, the transcriptome data provided in this study will not only improve the annotation information of gene models in T. harzianum T4 genome, but also provide important transcriptome information regarding the process of mycoparasitism at specific time periods, which can help us to further understand the mechanism of mycoparasitism, thus providing a potential molecular target for T. harzianum T4 as a biological control agent.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yaping Wang
- State Key Laboratory of Bioreactor Engineering, East China University of Science and Technology, Shanghai 200237, China
| | - Xiaochong Zhu
- State Key Laboratory of Bioreactor Engineering, East China University of Science and Technology, Shanghai 200237, China
| | - Jian Wang
- State Key Laboratory of Bioreactor Engineering, East China University of Science and Technology, Shanghai 200237, China
| | - Chao Shen
- State Key Laboratory of Bioreactor Engineering, East China University of Science and Technology, Shanghai 200237, China
| | - Wei Wang
- State Key Laboratory of Bioreactor Engineering, East China University of Science and Technology, Shanghai 200237, China
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Liu YH, Song YH, Ruan YL. Sugar conundrum in plant-pathogen interactions: roles of invertase and sugar transporters depend on pathosystems. JOURNAL OF EXPERIMENTAL BOTANY 2022; 73:1910-1925. [PMID: 35104311 PMCID: PMC8982439 DOI: 10.1093/jxb/erab562] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/26/2021] [Accepted: 12/25/2021] [Indexed: 06/12/2023]
Abstract
It has been increasingly recognized that CWIN (cell wall invertase) and sugar transporters including STP (sugar transport protein) and SWEET (sugar will eventually be exported transporters) play important roles in plant-pathogen interactions. However, the information available in the literature comes from diverse systems and often yields contradictory findings and conclusions. To solve this puzzle, we provide here a comprehensive assessment of the topic. Our analyses revealed that the regulation of plant-microbe interactions by CWIN, SWEET, and STP is conditioned by the specific pathosystems involved. The roles of CWINs in plant resistance are largely determined by the lifestyle of pathogens (biotrophs versus necrotrophs or hemibiotrophs), possibly through CWIN-mediated salicylic acid or jasmonic acid signaling and programmed cell death pathways. The up-regulation of SWEETs and STPs may enhance or reduce plant resistance, depending on the cellular sites from which pathogens acquire sugars from the host cells. Finally, plants employ unique mechanisms to defend against viral infection, in part through a sugar-based regulation of plasmodesmatal development or aperture. Our appraisal further calls for attention to be paid to the involvement of microbial sugar metabolism and transport in plant-pathogen interactions, which is an integrated but overlooked component of such interactions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yong-Hua Liu
- School of Horticulture, Hainan University, Haikou, China
- Key Laboratory for Quality Regulation of Tropical Horticultural Crops of Hainan Province, Haikou, China
| | - You-Hong Song
- Innovation Cluster of Crop Molecular Biology and Breeding, Anhui Agricultural University, Hefei, China
- School of Agronomy, Anhui Agricultural University, Hefei, China
| | - Yong-Ling Ruan
- Innovation Cluster of Crop Molecular Biology and Breeding, Anhui Agricultural University, Hefei, China
- School of Environmental and Life Sciences, The University of Newcastle, Callaghan, NSW, Australia
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Tan S, Chen Y, Zhou G, Liu J. Transcriptome Analysis of Colletotrichum fructicola Infecting Camellia oleifera Indicates That Two Distinct Geographical Fungi Groups Have Different Destructive Proliferation Capacities Related to Purine Metabolism. PLANTS (BASEL, SWITZERLAND) 2021; 10:plants10122672. [PMID: 34961144 PMCID: PMC8708221 DOI: 10.3390/plants10122672] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/14/2021] [Revised: 11/19/2021] [Accepted: 11/19/2021] [Indexed: 05/02/2023]
Abstract
Anthracnose, caused by Colletotrichum spp., is a significant disease affecting oil tea (Camellia oleifera Abel.). Extensive molecular studies have demonstrated that Colletotrichum fructicola is the dominant pathogen of oil tea anthracnose in China. This study aims to investigate differences in molecular processes and regulatory genes at a late stage of infection of C. fructicola, to aid in understanding differences in pathogenic mechanisms of C. fructicola of different geographic populations. We compared the pathogenicity of C. fructicola from different populations (Wuzhishan, Hainan province, and Shaoyang, Hunan province) and gene expression of representative strains of the two populations before and after inoculation in oil tea using RNA sequencing. The results revealed that C. fructicola from Wuzhishan has a more vital ability to impact oil tea leaf tissue. Following infection with oil tea leaves, up-regulated genes in the strains from two geographic populations were associated with galactosidase activity, glutamine family amino acid metabolism, arginine, and proline metabolism. Additionally, up-regulated gene lists associated with infection by Wuzhishan strains were significantly enriched in purine metabolism pathways, while Shaoyang strains were not. These results indicate that more transcriptional and translational activity and the greater regulation of the purine metabolism pathway in the C. fructicola of the Wuzhishan strain might contribute to its stronger pathogenicity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shimeng Tan
- Key Laboratory of National Forestry and Grassland Administration on Control of Artificial Forest Diseases and Pests in South China, Central South University of Forestry and Technology, Changsha 410004, China; (S.T.); (Y.C.); (G.Z.)
- Hunan Provincial Key Laboratory for Control of Forest Diseases and Pests, Central South University of Forestry and Technology, Changsha 410004, China
- Key Laboratory for Non-Wood Forest Cultivation and Conservation of Ministry of Education, Central South University of Forestry and Technology, Changsha 410004, China
- College of Biological Science and Technology, Central South University of Forestry and Technology, Changsha 410004, China
| | - Yanying Chen
- Key Laboratory of National Forestry and Grassland Administration on Control of Artificial Forest Diseases and Pests in South China, Central South University of Forestry and Technology, Changsha 410004, China; (S.T.); (Y.C.); (G.Z.)
- Hunan Provincial Key Laboratory for Control of Forest Diseases and Pests, Central South University of Forestry and Technology, Changsha 410004, China
- Key Laboratory for Non-Wood Forest Cultivation and Conservation of Ministry of Education, Central South University of Forestry and Technology, Changsha 410004, China
- College of Forestry, Central South University of Forestry and Technology, Changsha 410004, China
| | - Guoying Zhou
- Key Laboratory of National Forestry and Grassland Administration on Control of Artificial Forest Diseases and Pests in South China, Central South University of Forestry and Technology, Changsha 410004, China; (S.T.); (Y.C.); (G.Z.)
- Hunan Provincial Key Laboratory for Control of Forest Diseases and Pests, Central South University of Forestry and Technology, Changsha 410004, China
- Key Laboratory for Non-Wood Forest Cultivation and Conservation of Ministry of Education, Central South University of Forestry and Technology, Changsha 410004, China
- College of Biological Science and Technology, Central South University of Forestry and Technology, Changsha 410004, China
| | - Junang Liu
- Key Laboratory of National Forestry and Grassland Administration on Control of Artificial Forest Diseases and Pests in South China, Central South University of Forestry and Technology, Changsha 410004, China; (S.T.); (Y.C.); (G.Z.)
- Hunan Provincial Key Laboratory for Control of Forest Diseases and Pests, Central South University of Forestry and Technology, Changsha 410004, China
- Key Laboratory for Non-Wood Forest Cultivation and Conservation of Ministry of Education, Central South University of Forestry and Technology, Changsha 410004, China
- College of Forestry, Central South University of Forestry and Technology, Changsha 410004, China
- Correspondence:
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Havukainen S, Pujol-Giménez J, Valkonen M, Westerholm-Parvinen A, Hediger MA, Landowski CP. Electrophysiological characterization of a diverse group of sugar transporters from Trichoderma reesei. Sci Rep 2021; 11:14678. [PMID: 34282161 PMCID: PMC8290022 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-021-93552-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/23/2021] [Accepted: 06/21/2021] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Trichoderma reesei is an ascomycete fungus known for its capability to secrete high amounts of extracellular cellulose- and hemicellulose-degrading enzymes. These enzymes are utilized in the production of second-generation biofuels and T. reesei is a well-established host for their production. Although this species has gained considerable interest in the scientific literature, the sugar transportome of T. reesei remains poorly characterized. Better understanding of the proteins involved in the transport of different sugars could be utilized for engineering better enzyme production strains. In this study we aimed to shed light on this matter by characterizing multiple T. reesei transporters capable of transporting various types of sugars. We used phylogenetics to select transporters for expression in Xenopus laevis oocytes to screen for transport activities. Of the 18 tested transporters, 8 were found to be functional in oocytes. 10 transporters in total were investigated in oocytes and in yeast, and for 3 of them no transport function had been described in literature. This comprehensive analysis provides a large body of new knowledge about T. reesei sugar transporters, and further establishes X. laevis oocytes as a valuable tool for studying fungal sugar transporters.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sami Havukainen
- Protein Production Team, VTT Technical Research Center of Finland Ltd, Tietotie 2, 02150, Espoo, Finland
| | - Jonai Pujol-Giménez
- Membrane Transport Discovery Lab, Department of Biomedical Research, Inselspital, University of Bern, 3010, Bern, Switzerland
| | - Mari Valkonen
- Protein Production Team, VTT Technical Research Center of Finland Ltd, Tietotie 2, 02150, Espoo, Finland
| | - Ann Westerholm-Parvinen
- Protein Production Team, VTT Technical Research Center of Finland Ltd, Tietotie 2, 02150, Espoo, Finland
| | - Matthias A Hediger
- Membrane Transport Discovery Lab, Department of Biomedical Research, Inselspital, University of Bern, 3010, Bern, Switzerland
| | - Christopher P Landowski
- Protein Production Team, VTT Technical Research Center of Finland Ltd, Tietotie 2, 02150, Espoo, Finland.
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Yuan Q, Yan Y, Sohail MA, Liu H, Huang J, Hsiang T, Zheng L. A Novel Hexose Transporter ChHxt6 Is Required for Hexose Uptake and Virulence in Colletotrichum higginsianum. Int J Mol Sci 2021; 22:ijms22115963. [PMID: 34073109 PMCID: PMC8199336 DOI: 10.3390/ijms22115963] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/10/2021] [Revised: 05/25/2021] [Accepted: 05/27/2021] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Colletotrichum higginsianum is an important hemibiotrophic plant pathogen that causes crucifer anthracnose worldwide. To date, some hexose transporters have been identified in fungi. However, the functions of hexose transporters in virulence are not clear in hemibiotrophic phytopathogens. In this study, we identified and characterized a new hexose transporter gene named ChHxt6 from a T-DNA insertion pathogenicity-deficient mutant G256 in C. higginsianum. Expression profiling analysis revealed that six ChHxt genes, ChHxt1 to ChHxt6, exhibited specific expression patterns in different infection phases of C. higginsianum. The ChHxt1 to ChHxt6 were separately deleted using the principle of homologous recombination. ChHxt1 to ChHxt6 deletion mutants grew normally on PDA plates, but only the virulence of ChHxt4 and ChHxt6 deletion mutants was reduced. ChHxt4 was required for fungal infection in both biotrophic and necrotrophic stages, while ChHxt6 was important for formation of necrotrophic hyphae during infection. In addition, ChHxts were functional in uptake of different hexoses, but only ChHxt6-expressing cells could grow on all five hexoses, indicating that the ChHxt6 was a central hexose transporter and crucial for hexose uptake. Site-directed mutation of T169S and P221L positions revealed that these two positions were necessary for hexose transport, whereas only the mutation Thr169 caused reduced virulence and defect in formation of necrotrophic hyphae. Taken together, ChHxt6 might regulate fungal virulence by modulating the utilization of hexose.
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Affiliation(s)
- Qinfeng Yuan
- Hubei Key Laboratory of Plant Pathology, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan 430070, China; (Q.Y.); (Y.Y.); (M.A.S.); (H.L.); (J.H.)
| | - Yaqin Yan
- Hubei Key Laboratory of Plant Pathology, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan 430070, China; (Q.Y.); (Y.Y.); (M.A.S.); (H.L.); (J.H.)
| | - Muhammad Aamir Sohail
- Hubei Key Laboratory of Plant Pathology, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan 430070, China; (Q.Y.); (Y.Y.); (M.A.S.); (H.L.); (J.H.)
| | - Hao Liu
- Hubei Key Laboratory of Plant Pathology, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan 430070, China; (Q.Y.); (Y.Y.); (M.A.S.); (H.L.); (J.H.)
| | - Junbin Huang
- Hubei Key Laboratory of Plant Pathology, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan 430070, China; (Q.Y.); (Y.Y.); (M.A.S.); (H.L.); (J.H.)
| | - Tom Hsiang
- School of Environmental Sciences, University of Guelph, Guelph, ON N1G 2W1, Canada;
| | - Lu Zheng
- Hubei Key Laboratory of Plant Pathology, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan 430070, China; (Q.Y.); (Y.Y.); (M.A.S.); (H.L.); (J.H.)
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +86-130-0718-2619
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Knock-down of glucose transporter and sucrose non-fermenting gene in the hemibiotrophic fungus Colletotrichum falcatum causing sugarcane red rot. Mol Biol Rep 2021; 48:2053-2061. [PMID: 33660095 DOI: 10.1007/s11033-021-06140-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/18/2020] [Accepted: 01/08/2021] [Indexed: 02/05/2023]
Abstract
Red rot caused by Colletotrichum falcatum, is one of the economically important disease of sugarcane and breeding for resistant varieties is considered to be the major solution to manage the disease. However, breakdown of red rot resistance become usual phenomenon due to development of newer races by culture adaptation on newly released varieties. Hence it is needed to characterize the genes responsible for pathogen virulence in order to take care of host resistance or to manage the disease by other methods. The transcript studies gave foundation to characterize the huge number of pathogenicity determinants and their role in pathogenesis. Here we studied role of two important genes viz., Glucose Transporter (GT) and Sucrose Non-Fermenting1 (SNF1) during pathogenesis of C. falcatum, which said to be involved in carbon source metabolism. Sugar metabolism has a vital role in disease progression of C. falcatum by regulating their cell growth, metabolism and development of the pathogen during various stages of infection. The present study was aimed to find out the role of GT and SNF1 genes in response to pathogenicity by RNA silencing (RNAi) approach. Knock-down of the target pathogenicity gene homologs in standard C. falcatum isolate Cf671 was carried out by amplifying sense and antisense fragments of targets individually using pSilent-1 vector. The expression cassette was cloned into the binary vector pCAMBIA1300 followed by fungal transformation through Agarobacterium mediated transformation. Resulted mutants of both the genes showed less virulence compared to wild type isolate. Simultaneously, both the mutants did not produce spores. Moreover, the molecular confirmation of the mutants displayed the expression of hygromycin gene with reduced expression of the target gene during host-pathogen interaction. Knockdown of the pathogenicity related genes (GT and SNF1) by RNAi approach corroborate the possible role of the genes in causing the disease.
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Li J, Liu Q, Li J, Lin L, Li X, Zhang Y, Tian C. RCO-3 and COL-26 form an external-to-internal module that regulates the dual-affinity glucose transport system in Neurospora crassa. BIOTECHNOLOGY FOR BIOFUELS 2021; 14:33. [PMID: 33509260 PMCID: PMC7841889 DOI: 10.1186/s13068-021-01877-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/12/2020] [Accepted: 01/07/2021] [Indexed: 05/13/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Low- and high-affinity glucose transport system is a conserved strategy of microorganism to cope with environmental glucose fluctuation for their growth and competitiveness. In Neurospora crassa, the dual-affinity glucose transport system consists of a low-affinity glucose transporter GLT-1 and two high-affinity glucose transporters HGT-1/HGT-2, which play diverse roles in glucose transport, carbon metabolism, and cellulase expression regulation. However, the regulation of this dual-transporter system in response to environmental glucose fluctuation is not yet clear. RESULTS In this study, we report that a regulation module consisting of a downstream transcription factor COL-26 and an upstream non-transporting glucose sensor RCO-3 regulates the dual-affinity glucose transport system in N. crassa. COL-26 directly binds to the promoter regions of glt-1, hgt-1, and hgt-2, whereas RCO-3 is an upstream factor of the module whose deletion mutant resembles the Δcol-26 mutant phenotypically. Transcriptional profiling analysis revealed that Δcol-26 and Δrco-3 mutants had similar transcriptional profiles, and both mutants had impaired response to a glucose gradient. We also showed that the AMP-activated protein kinase (AMPK) complex is involved in regulation of the glucose transporters. AMPK is required for repression of glt-1 expression in starvation conditions by inhibiting the activity of RCO-3. CONCLUSIONS RCO-3 and COL-26 form an external-to-internal module that regulates the glucose dual-affinity transport system. Transcription factor COL-26 was identified as the key regulator. AMPK was also involved in the regulation of the dual-transporter system. Our findings provide novel insight into the molecular basis of glucose uptake and signaling in filamentous fungi, which may aid in the rational design of fungal strains for industrial purposes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jinyang Li
- Key Laboratory of Systems Microbial Biotechnology, Tianjin Institute of Industrial Biotechnology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Tianjin, 300308 China
- University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, 100049 China
| | - Qian Liu
- Key Laboratory of Systems Microbial Biotechnology, Tianjin Institute of Industrial Biotechnology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Tianjin, 300308 China
| | - Jingen Li
- Key Laboratory of Systems Microbial Biotechnology, Tianjin Institute of Industrial Biotechnology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Tianjin, 300308 China
| | - Liangcai Lin
- Key Laboratory of Systems Microbial Biotechnology, Tianjin Institute of Industrial Biotechnology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Tianjin, 300308 China
| | - Xiaolin Li
- Key Laboratory of Systems Microbial Biotechnology, Tianjin Institute of Industrial Biotechnology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Tianjin, 300308 China
- State Key Laboratory of Agrobiotechnology and MOA Key Laboratory of Soil Microbiology, College of Biological Sciences, China Agricultural University, Beijing, 100193 China
| | - Yongli Zhang
- Key Laboratory of Systems Microbial Biotechnology, Tianjin Institute of Industrial Biotechnology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Tianjin, 300308 China
- University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, 100049 China
| | - Chaoguang Tian
- Key Laboratory of Systems Microbial Biotechnology, Tianjin Institute of Industrial Biotechnology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Tianjin, 300308 China
- University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, 100049 China
- National Technology Innovation Center of Synthetic Biology, Tianjin, 300308 China
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König A, Müller R, Mogavero S, Hube B. Fungal factors involved in host immune evasion, modulation and exploitation during infection. Cell Microbiol 2020; 23:e13272. [PMID: 32978997 DOI: 10.1111/cmi.13272] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/20/2020] [Revised: 07/20/2020] [Accepted: 07/26/2020] [Indexed: 01/09/2023]
Abstract
Human and plant pathogenic fungi have a major impact on public health and agriculture. Although these fungi infect very diverse hosts and are often highly adapted to specific host niches, they share surprisingly similar mechanisms that mediate immune evasion, modulation of distinct host targets and exploitation of host nutrients, highlighting that successful strategies have evolved independently among diverse fungal pathogens. These attributes are facilitated by an arsenal of fungal factors. However, not a single molecule, but rather the combined effects of several factors enable these pathogens to establish infection. In this review, we discuss the principles of human and plant fungal pathogenicity mechanisms and discuss recent discoveries made in this field.
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Affiliation(s)
- Annika König
- Department of Microbial Pathogenicity Mechanisms, Leibniz Institute for Natural Product Research and Infection Biology - Hans Knoell Institute, Jena, Germany
| | - Rita Müller
- Department of Microbial Pathogenicity Mechanisms, Leibniz Institute for Natural Product Research and Infection Biology - Hans Knoell Institute, Jena, Germany
| | - Selene Mogavero
- Department of Microbial Pathogenicity Mechanisms, Leibniz Institute for Natural Product Research and Infection Biology - Hans Knoell Institute, Jena, Germany
| | - Bernhard Hube
- Department of Microbial Pathogenicity Mechanisms, Leibniz Institute for Natural Product Research and Infection Biology - Hans Knoell Institute, Jena, Germany.,Center for Sepsis Control and Care, University Hospital Jena, Jena, Germany.,Institute of Microbiology, Friedrich Schiller University, Jena, Germany
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Misra VA, Wafula EK, Wang Y, dePamphilis CW, Timko MP. Genome-wide identification of MST, SUT and SWEET family sugar transporters in root parasitic angiosperms and analysis of their expression during host parasitism. BMC PLANT BIOLOGY 2019; 19:196. [PMID: 31088371 PMCID: PMC6515653 DOI: 10.1186/s12870-019-1786-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/12/2018] [Accepted: 04/17/2019] [Indexed: 05/11/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Root parasitic weeds are a major constraint to crop production worldwide causing significant yearly losses in yield and economic value. These parasites cause their destruction by attaching to their hosts with a unique organ, the haustorium, that allows them to obtain the nutrients (sugars, amino acids, etc.) needed to complete their lifecycle. Parasitic weeds differ in their nutritional requirements and degree of host dependency and the differential expression of sugar transporters is likely to be a critical component in the parasite's post-attachment survival. RESULTS We identified gene families encoding monosaccharide transporters (MSTs), sucrose transporters (SUTs), and SWEETs (Sugars Will Eventually be Exported Transporters) in three root-parasitic weeds differing in host dependency: Triphysaria versicolor (facultative hemiparasite), Phelipanche aegyptiaca (holoparasite), and Striga hermonthica (obligate hemiparasite). The phylogenetic relationship and differential expression profiles of these genes throughout parasite development were examined to uncover differences existing among parasites with different levels of host dependence. Differences in estimated gene numbers are found among the three parasites, and orthologs within the different sugar transporter gene families are found to be either conserved among the parasites in their expression profiles throughout development, or to display parasite-specific differences in developmentally-timed expression. For example, MST genes in the pGLT clade express most highly before host connection in Striga and Triphysaria but not Phelipanche, whereas genes in the MST ERD6-like clade are highly expressed in the post-connection growth stages of Phelipanche but highest in the germination and reproduction stages in Striga. Whether such differences reflect changes resulting from differential host dependence levels is not known. CONCLUSIONS While it is tempting to speculate that differences in estimated gene numbers and expression profiles among members of MST, SUT and SWEET gene families in Phelipanche, Striga and Triphysaria reflect the parasites' levels of host dependence, additional evidence that altered transporter gene expression is causative versus consequential is needed. Our findings identify potential targets for directed manipulation that will allow for a better understanding of the nutrient transport process and perhaps a means for controlling the devastating effects of these parasites on crop productivity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Vikram A. Misra
- Department of Biology, University of Virginia, Gilmer Hall 044, Charlottesville, VA 22904 USA
| | - Eric K. Wafula
- Department of Biology, Penn State University, University Park, PA 16802 USA
| | - Yu Wang
- Department of Biology, University of Virginia, Gilmer Hall 044, Charlottesville, VA 22904 USA
- Present Address: Center for Quantitative Sciences, Vanderbilt University, 2220 Pierce Avenue, 571 Preston Research Building, Nashville, TN 37232-6848 USA
| | | | - Michael P. Timko
- Department of Biology, University of Virginia, Gilmer Hall 044, Charlottesville, VA 22904 USA
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11
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Kanwar P, Jha G. Alterations in plant sugar metabolism: signatory of pathogen attack. PLANTA 2019; 249:305-318. [PMID: 30267150 DOI: 10.1007/s00425-018-3018-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/01/2018] [Accepted: 09/23/2018] [Indexed: 05/03/2023]
Abstract
This review summarizes the current understanding, future challenges and ongoing quest on sugar metabolic alterations that influence the outcome of plant-pathogen interactions. Intricate cellular and molecular events occur during plant-pathogen interactions. They cause major metabolic perturbations in the host and alterations in sugar metabolism play a pivotal role in governing the outcome of various kinds of plant-pathogen interactions. Sugar metabolizing enzymes and transporters of both host and pathogen origin get differentially regulated during the interactions. Both plant and pathogen compete for utilizing the host sugar metabolic machinery and in turn promote resistant or susceptible responses. However, the kind of sugar metabolism alteration that is beneficial for the host or pathogen is yet to be properly understood. Recently developed tools and methodologies are facilitating research to understand the intricate dynamics of sugar metabolism during the interactions. The present review elaborates current understanding, future challenges and ongoing quest on sugar metabolism, mobilization and regulation during various plant-pathogen interactions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Poonam Kanwar
- National Institute of Plant Genome Research, Aruna Asaf Ali Marg, New Delhi, 110067, India
| | - Gopaljee Jha
- National Institute of Plant Genome Research, Aruna Asaf Ali Marg, New Delhi, 110067, India.
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12
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Yoshino K, Yamamoto K, Hara K, Sonoda M, Yamamoto Y, Sakamoto K. The conservation of polyol transporter proteins and their involvement in lichenized Ascomycota. Fungal Biol 2019; 123:318-329. [PMID: 30928040 DOI: 10.1016/j.funbio.2019.01.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/04/2018] [Revised: 12/30/2018] [Accepted: 01/21/2019] [Indexed: 01/08/2023]
Abstract
In lichen symbiosis, polyol transfer from green algae is important for acquiring the fungal carbon source. However, the existence of polyol transporter genes and their correlation with lichenization remain unclear. Here, we report candidate polyol transporter genes selected from the genome of the lichen-forming fungus (LFF) Ramalina conduplicans. A phylogenetic analysis using characterized polyol and monosaccharide transporter proteins and hypothetical polyol transporter proteins of R. conduplicans and various ascomycetous fungi suggested that the characterized yeast' polyol transporters form multiple clades with the polyol transporter-like proteins selected from the diverse ascomycetous taxa. Thus, polyol transporter genes are widely conserved among Ascomycota, regardless of lichen-forming status. In addition, the phylogenetic clusters suggested that LFFs belonging to Lecanoromycetes have duplicated proteins in each cluster. Consequently, the number of sequences similar to characterized yeast' polyol transporters were evaluated using the genomes of 472 species or strains of Ascomycota. Among these, LFFs belonging to Lecanoromycetes had greater numbers of deduced polyol transporter proteins. Thus, various polyol transporters are conserved in Ascomycota and polyol transporter genes appear to have expanded during the evolution of Lecanoromycetes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kanami Yoshino
- Division of Environmental Horticulture, Graduate School of Horticulture, Chiba University, 648 Matsudo, Matsudo, Chiba, 271-0092, Japan.
| | - Kohei Yamamoto
- Tochigi Prefectural Museum, 2-2 Mutsumi-cho, Utsunomiya, Tochigi, 320-0865, Japan.
| | - Kojiro Hara
- Faculty of Bioresource Sciences, Akita Prefectural University, 241-438 Kaidobata-nishi, Shimoshinjo-nakano, Akita, 010-0195, Japan.
| | - Masatoshi Sonoda
- Division of Environmental Horticulture, Graduate School of Horticulture, Chiba University, 648 Matsudo, Matsudo, Chiba, 271-0092, Japan.
| | - Yoshikazu Yamamoto
- Faculty of Bioresource Sciences, Akita Prefectural University, 241-438 Kaidobata-nishi, Shimoshinjo-nakano, Akita, 010-0195, Japan.
| | - Kazunori Sakamoto
- Division of Environmental Horticulture, Graduate School of Horticulture, Chiba University, 648 Matsudo, Matsudo, Chiba, 271-0092, Japan.
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13
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Schuler D, Höll C, Grün N, Ulrich J, Dillner B, Klebl F, Ammon A, Voll LM, Kämper J. Galactose metabolism and toxicity in Ustilago maydis. Fungal Genet Biol 2018; 114:42-52. [PMID: 29580862 DOI: 10.1016/j.fgb.2018.03.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/01/2017] [Revised: 03/07/2018] [Accepted: 03/22/2018] [Indexed: 10/17/2022]
Abstract
In most organisms, galactose is metabolized via the Leloir pathway, which is conserved from bacteria to mammals. Utilization of galactose requires a close interplay of the metabolic enzymes, as misregulation or malfunction of individual components can lead to the accumulation of toxic intermediate compounds. For the phytopathogenic basidiomycete Ustilago maydis, galactose is toxic for wildtype strains, i.e. leads to growth repression despite the presence of favorable carbon sources as sucrose. The galactose sensitivity can be relieved by two independent modifications: (1) by disruption of Hxt1, which we identify as the major transporter for galactose, and (2) by a point mutation in the gene encoding the galactokinase Gal1, the first enzyme of the Leloir pathway. The mutation in gal1(Y67F) leads to reduced enzymatic activity of Gal1 and thus may limit the formation of putatively toxic galactose-1-phosphate. However, systematic deletions and double deletions of different genes involved in galactose metabolism point to a minor role of galactose-1-phosphate in galactose toxicity. Our results show that molecular triggers for galactose toxicity in U. maydis differ from yeast and mammals.
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Affiliation(s)
- David Schuler
- Karlsruhe Institute of Technology, Institute for Applied Biosciences, Department of Genetics, Fritz Haber Weg 4, 76131 Karlsruhe, Germany
| | - Christina Höll
- Karlsruhe Institute of Technology, Institute for Applied Biosciences, Department of Genetics, Fritz Haber Weg 4, 76131 Karlsruhe, Germany
| | - Nathalie Grün
- Karlsruhe Institute of Technology, Institute for Applied Biosciences, Department of Genetics, Fritz Haber Weg 4, 76131 Karlsruhe, Germany
| | - Jonas Ulrich
- Karlsruhe Institute of Technology, Institute for Applied Biosciences, Department of Genetics, Fritz Haber Weg 4, 76131 Karlsruhe, Germany
| | - Bastian Dillner
- Karlsruhe Institute of Technology, Institute for Applied Biosciences, Department of Genetics, Fritz Haber Weg 4, 76131 Karlsruhe, Germany
| | - Franz Klebl
- FAU Erlangen-Nuremberg, Department of Biology, Molecular Plant Physiology, Staudtstrasse 5, 91058 Erlangen, Germany
| | - Alexandra Ammon
- Philips-University of Marburg, Department of Biology, Plant Physiology and Photo Biology, Karl von Frisch Strasse 8, 35043 Marburg, Germany
| | - Lars M Voll
- Philips-University of Marburg, Department of Biology, Plant Physiology and Photo Biology, Karl von Frisch Strasse 8, 35043 Marburg, Germany
| | - Jörg Kämper
- Karlsruhe Institute of Technology, Institute for Applied Biosciences, Department of Genetics, Fritz Haber Weg 4, 76131 Karlsruhe, Germany.
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Veillet F, Gaillard C, Lemonnier P, Coutos-Thévenot P, La Camera S. The molecular dialogue between Arabidopsis thaliana and the necrotrophic fungus Botrytis cinerea leads to major changes in host carbon metabolism. Sci Rep 2017; 7:17121. [PMID: 29215097 PMCID: PMC5719352 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-017-17413-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/31/2017] [Accepted: 11/22/2017] [Indexed: 12/26/2022] Open
Abstract
Photoassimilates play crucial roles during plant-pathogen interactions, as colonizing pathogens rely on the supply of sugars from hosts. The competition for sugar acquisition at the plant-pathogen interface involves different strategies from both partners which are critical for the outcome of the interaction. Here, we dissect individual mechanisms of sugar uptake during the interaction of Arabidopsis thaliana with the necrotrophic fungus Botrytis cinerea using millicell culture insert, that enables molecular communication without physical contact. We demonstrate that B. cinerea is able to actively absorb glucose and fructose with equal capacities. Challenged Arabidopsis cells compete for extracellular monosaccharides through transcriptional reprogramming of host sugar transporter genes and activation of a complex sugar uptake system which displays differential specificity and affinity for hexoses. We provide evidence that the molecular dialogue between Arabidopsis cells and B. cinerea triggers major changes in host metabolism, including apoplastic sucrose degradation and consumption of carbohydrates and oxygen, suggesting an enhanced activity of the glycolysis and the cellular respiration. We conclude that beside a role in sugar deprivation of the pathogen by competing for sugar availability in the apoplast, the enhanced uptake of hexoses also contributes to sustain the increased activity of respiratory metabolism to fuel plant defences.
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Affiliation(s)
- Florian Veillet
- Laboratoire Ecologie et Biologie des Interactions, Equipe "SEVE-Sucres et Echanges Végétaux-Environnement", Université de Poitiers, UMR CNRS 7267, F-86073, Poitiers, France
| | - Cécile Gaillard
- Laboratoire Ecologie et Biologie des Interactions, Equipe "SEVE-Sucres et Echanges Végétaux-Environnement", Université de Poitiers, UMR CNRS 7267, F-86073, Poitiers, France
| | - Pauline Lemonnier
- Laboratoire Ecologie et Biologie des Interactions, Equipe "SEVE-Sucres et Echanges Végétaux-Environnement", Université de Poitiers, UMR CNRS 7267, F-86073, Poitiers, France
- Department of Plant Biology and Institute for Genomic Biology, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, Illinois, 61801, USA
| | - Pierre Coutos-Thévenot
- Laboratoire Ecologie et Biologie des Interactions, Equipe "SEVE-Sucres et Echanges Végétaux-Environnement", Université de Poitiers, UMR CNRS 7267, F-86073, Poitiers, France
| | - Sylvain La Camera
- Laboratoire Ecologie et Biologie des Interactions, Equipe "SEVE-Sucres et Echanges Végétaux-Environnement", Université de Poitiers, UMR CNRS 7267, F-86073, Poitiers, France.
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15
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Ah-Fong AMV, Shrivastava J, Judelson HS. Lifestyle, gene gain and loss, and transcriptional remodeling cause divergence in the transcriptomes of Phytophthora infestans and Pythium ultimum during potato tuber colonization. BMC Genomics 2017; 18:764. [PMID: 29017458 PMCID: PMC5635513 DOI: 10.1186/s12864-017-4151-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/28/2017] [Accepted: 10/02/2017] [Indexed: 11/11/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND How pathogen genomes evolve to support distinct lifestyles is not well-understood. The oomycete Phytophthora infestans, the potato blight agent, is a largely biotrophic pathogen that feeds from living host cells, which become necrotic only late in infection. The related oomycete Pythium ultimum grows saprophytically in soil and as a necrotroph in plants, causing massive tissue destruction. To learn what distinguishes their lifestyles, we compared their gene contents and expression patterns in media and a shared host, potato tuber. RESULTS Genes related to pathogenesis varied in temporal expression pattern, mRNA level, and family size between the species. A family's aggregate expression during infection was not proportional to size due to transcriptional remodeling and pseudogenization. Ph. infestans had more stage-specific genes, while Py. ultimum tended towards more constitutive expression. Ph. infestans expressed more genes encoding secreted cell wall-degrading enzymes, but other categories such as secreted proteases and ABC transporters had higher transcript levels in Py. ultimum. Species-specific genes were identified including new Pythium genes, perforins, which may disrupt plant membranes. Genome-wide ortholog analyses identified substantial diversified expression, which correlated with sequence divergence. Pseudogenization was associated with gene family expansion, especially in gene clusters. CONCLUSION This first large-scale analysis of transcriptional divergence within oomycetes revealed major shifts in genome composition and expression, including subfunctionalization within gene families. Biotrophy and necrotrophy seem determined by species-specific genes and the varied expression of shared pathogenicity factors, which may be useful targets for crop protection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Audrey M. V. Ah-Fong
- Department of Plant Pathology and Microbiology, University of California, Riverside, CA 92521 USA
| | - Jolly Shrivastava
- Department of Plant Pathology and Microbiology, University of California, Riverside, CA 92521 USA
| | - Howard S. Judelson
- Department of Plant Pathology and Microbiology, University of California, Riverside, CA 92521 USA
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16
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Abstract
To respond to the changing environment, cells must be able to sense external conditions. This is important for many processes including growth, mating, the expression of virulence factors, and several other regulatory effects. Nutrient sensing at the plasma membrane is mediated by different classes of membrane proteins that activate downstream signaling pathways: nontransporting receptors, transceptors, classical and nonclassical G-protein-coupled receptors, and the newly defined extracellular mucin receptors. Nontransporting receptors have the same structure as transport proteins, but have lost the capacity to transport while gaining a receptor function. Transceptors are transporters that also function as a receptor, because they can rapidly activate downstream signaling pathways. In this review, we focus on these four types of fungal membrane proteins. We mainly discuss the sensing mechanisms relating to sugars, ammonium, and amino acids. Mechanisms for other nutrients, such as phosphate and sulfate, are discussed briefly. Because the model yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae has been the most studied, especially regarding these nutrient-sensing systems, each subsection will commence with what is known in this species.
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17
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Molecular Characterization of Pathogenicity Gene Homologs in Colletotrichum falcatum Causing Red Rot in Sugarcane. SUGAR TECH 2017. [DOI: 10.1007/s12355-017-0512-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/05/2023]
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18
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Christie N, Myburg AA, Joubert F, Murray SL, Carstens M, Lin YC, Meyer J, Crampton BG, Christensen SA, Ntuli JF, Wighard SS, Van de Peer Y, Berger DK. Systems genetics reveals a transcriptional network associated with susceptibility in the maize-grey leaf spot pathosystem. THE PLANT JOURNAL : FOR CELL AND MOLECULAR BIOLOGY 2017; 89:746-763. [PMID: 27862526 DOI: 10.1111/tpj.13419] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/29/2016] [Revised: 10/20/2016] [Accepted: 11/04/2016] [Indexed: 05/20/2023]
Abstract
We used a systems genetics approach to elucidate the molecular mechanisms of the responses of maize to grey leaf spot (GLS) disease caused by Cercospora zeina, a threat to maize production globally. Expression analysis of earleaf samples in a subtropical maize recombinant inbred line population (CML444 × SC Malawi) subjected in the field to C. zeina infection allowed detection of 20 206 expression quantitative trait loci (eQTLs). Four trans-eQTL hotspots coincided with GLS disease QTLs mapped in the same field experiment. Co-expression network analysis identified three expression modules correlated with GLS disease scores. The module (GY-s) most highly correlated with susceptibility (r = 0.71; 179 genes) was enriched for the glyoxylate pathway, lipid metabolism, diterpenoid biosynthesis and responses to pathogen molecules such as chitin. The GY-s module was enriched for genes with trans-eQTLs in hotspots on chromosomes 9 and 10, which also coincided with phenotypic QTLs for susceptibility to GLS. This transcriptional network has significant overlap with the GLS susceptibility response of maize line B73, and may reflect pathogen manipulation for nutrient acquisition and/or unsuccessful defence responses, such as kauralexin production by the diterpenoid biosynthesis pathway. The co-expression module that correlated best with resistance (TQ-r; 1498 genes) was enriched for genes with trans-eQTLs in hotspots coinciding with GLS resistance QTLs on chromosome 9. Jasmonate responses were implicated in resistance to GLS through co-expression of COI1 and enrichment of genes with the Gene Ontology term 'cullin-RING ubiquitin ligase complex' in the TQ-r module. Consistent with this, JAZ repressor expression was highly correlated with the severity of GLS disease in the GY-s susceptibility network.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nanette Christie
- Department of Genetics, Forestry and Agricultural Biotechnology Institute (FABI), Genomics Research Institute (GRI), University of Pretoria, Private Bag X20, Pretoria, 0028, South Africa
- Centre for Bioinformatics and Computational Biology, Genomics Research Institute, Department of Biochemistry, University of Pretoria, Private Bag X20, Pretoria, 0028, South Africa
| | - Alexander A Myburg
- Department of Genetics, Forestry and Agricultural Biotechnology Institute (FABI), Genomics Research Institute (GRI), University of Pretoria, Private Bag X20, Pretoria, 0028, South Africa
| | - Fourie Joubert
- Centre for Bioinformatics and Computational Biology, Genomics Research Institute, Department of Biochemistry, University of Pretoria, Private Bag X20, Pretoria, 0028, South Africa
| | - Shane L Murray
- Centre for Proteomic and Genomic Research, 0A Anzio Rd, Observatory, Cape Town, 7925, South Africa
- Department of Molecular and Cell Biology, University of Cape Town, Private Bag, Rondebosch, 7701, South Africa
| | - Maryke Carstens
- Department of Plant and Soil Sciences, Forestry and Agricultural Biotechnology Institute (FABI), Genomics Research Institute (GRI), University of Pretoria, Private Bag X20, Pretoria, 0028, South Africa
| | - Yao-Cheng Lin
- Department of Plant Systems Biology, VIB, Ghent University, Technologiepark 927, 9052, Ghent, Belgium
- Department of Plant Biotechnology and Bioinformatics, Ghent University, Technologiepark 927, 9052, Ghent, Belgium
| | - Jacqueline Meyer
- Centre for Proteomic and Genomic Research, 0A Anzio Rd, Observatory, Cape Town, 7925, South Africa
- Department of Plant and Soil Sciences, Forestry and Agricultural Biotechnology Institute (FABI), Genomics Research Institute (GRI), University of Pretoria, Private Bag X20, Pretoria, 0028, South Africa
| | - Bridget G Crampton
- Department of Plant and Soil Sciences, Forestry and Agricultural Biotechnology Institute (FABI), Genomics Research Institute (GRI), University of Pretoria, Private Bag X20, Pretoria, 0028, South Africa
| | - Shawn A Christensen
- Center for Medical, Agricultural, and Veterinary Entomology, United States Department of Agriculture, Agricultural Research Service, Chemistry Research Unit, Gainesville, FL, 32608, USA
| | - Jean F Ntuli
- Department of Molecular and Cell Biology, University of Cape Town, Private Bag, Rondebosch, 7701, South Africa
| | - Sara S Wighard
- Department of Molecular and Cell Biology, University of Cape Town, Private Bag, Rondebosch, 7701, South Africa
| | - Yves Van de Peer
- Department of Plant Systems Biology, VIB, Ghent University, Technologiepark 927, 9052, Ghent, Belgium
- Department of Plant Biotechnology and Bioinformatics, Ghent University, Technologiepark 927, 9052, Ghent, Belgium
- Department of Genetics, Genomics Research Institute, University of Pretoria, Private Bag X20, Pretoria, 0028, South Africa
| | - Dave K Berger
- Department of Plant and Soil Sciences, Forestry and Agricultural Biotechnology Institute (FABI), Genomics Research Institute (GRI), University of Pretoria, Private Bag X20, Pretoria, 0028, South Africa
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Wang B, Li J, Gao J, Cai P, Han X, Tian C. Identification and characterization of the glucose dual-affinity transport system in Neurospora crassa: pleiotropic roles in nutrient transport, signaling, and carbon catabolite repression. BIOTECHNOLOGY FOR BIOFUELS 2017; 10:17. [PMID: 28115989 PMCID: PMC5244594 DOI: 10.1186/s13068-017-0705-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 46] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/18/2016] [Accepted: 01/07/2017] [Indexed: 05/07/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND The glucose dual-affinity transport system (low- and high-affinity) is a conserved strategy used by microorganisms to cope with natural fluctuations in nutrient availability in the environment. The glucose-sensing and uptake processes are believed to be tightly associated with cellulase expression regulation in cellulolytic fungi. However, both the identities and functions of the major molecular components of this evolutionarily conserved system in filamentous fungi remain elusive. Here, we systematically identified and characterized the components of the glucose dual-affinity transport system in the model fungus Neurospora crassa. RESULTS Using RNA sequencing coupled with functional transport analyses, we assigned GLT-1 (Km = 18.42 ± 3.38 mM) and HGT-1/-2 (Km = 16.13 ± 0.95 and 98.97 ± 22.02 µM) to the low- and high-affinity glucose transport systems, respectively. The high-affinity transporters hgt-1/-2 complemented a moderate growth defect under high glucose when glt-1 was deleted. Simultaneous deletion of hgt-1/-2 led to extensive derepression of genes for plant cell wall deconstruction in cells grown on cellulose. The suppression by HGT-1/-2 was connected to both carbon catabolite repression (CCR) and the cyclic adenosine monophosphate-protein kinase A pathway. Alteration of a residue conserved across taxa in hexose transporters resulted in a loss of glucose-transporting function, whereas CCR signal transduction was retained, indicating dual functions for HGT-1/-2 as "transceptors." CONCLUSIONS In this study, GLT-1 and HGT-1/-2 were identified as the key components of the glucose dual-affinity transport system, which plays diverse roles in glucose transport and carbon metabolism. Given the wide conservation of the glucose dual-affinity transport system across fungal species, the identification of its components and their pleiotropic roles in this study shed important new light on the molecular basis of nutrient transport, signaling, and plant cell wall degradation in fungi.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bang Wang
- Key Laboratory of Systems Microbial Biotechnology, Tianjin Institute of Industrial Biotechnology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Tianjin, 300308 China
- University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, 100049 China
- School of Ophthalmology and Optometry, Eye Hospital, State Key Laboratory Cultivation Base and Key Laboratory of Vision Science, Ministry of Health and Zhejiang Provincial Key Laboratory of Ophthalmology and Optometry, Wenzhou Medical University, Wenzhou, 325027 China
| | - Jingen Li
- Key Laboratory of Systems Microbial Biotechnology, Tianjin Institute of Industrial Biotechnology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Tianjin, 300308 China
| | - Jingfang Gao
- Key Laboratory of Systems Microbial Biotechnology, Tianjin Institute of Industrial Biotechnology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Tianjin, 300308 China
- School of Life Sciences, Heilongjiang University, Harbin, 150080 Heilongjiang China
| | - Pengli Cai
- Key Laboratory of Systems Microbial Biotechnology, Tianjin Institute of Industrial Biotechnology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Tianjin, 300308 China
| | - Xiaoyun Han
- School of Life Sciences, Heilongjiang University, Harbin, 150080 Heilongjiang China
| | - Chaoguang Tian
- Key Laboratory of Systems Microbial Biotechnology, Tianjin Institute of Industrial Biotechnology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Tianjin, 300308 China
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Abrahamian M, Ah-Fong AMV, Davis C, Andreeva K, Judelson HS. Gene Expression and Silencing Studies in Phytophthora infestans Reveal Infection-Specific Nutrient Transporters and a Role for the Nitrate Reductase Pathway in Plant Pathogenesis. PLoS Pathog 2016; 12:e1006097. [PMID: 27936244 PMCID: PMC5176271 DOI: 10.1371/journal.ppat.1006097] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/21/2016] [Revised: 12/21/2016] [Accepted: 11/28/2016] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
To help learn how phytopathogens feed from their hosts, genes for nutrient transporters from the hemibiotrophic potato and tomato pest Phytophthora infestans were annotated. This identified 453 genes from 19 families. Comparisons with a necrotrophic oomycete, Pythium ultimum var. ultimum, and a hemibiotrophic fungus, Magnaporthe oryzae, revealed diversity in the size of some families although a similar fraction of genes encoded transporters. RNA-seq of infected potato tubers, tomato leaves, and several artificial media revealed that 56 and 207 transporters from P. infestans were significantly up- or down-regulated, respectively, during early infection timepoints of leaves or tubers versus media. About 17 were up-regulated >4-fold in both leaves and tubers compared to media and expressed primarily in the biotrophic stage. The transcription pattern of many genes was host-organ specific. For example, the mRNA level of a nitrate transporter (NRT) was about 100-fold higher during mid-infection in leaves, which are nitrate-rich, than in tubers and three types of artificial media, which are nitrate-poor. The NRT gene is physically linked with genes encoding nitrate reductase (NR) and nitrite reductase (NiR), which mobilize nitrate into ammonium and amino acids. All three genes were coregulated. For example, the three genes were expressed primarily at mid-stage infection timepoints in both potato and tomato leaves, but showed little expression in potato tubers. Transformants down-regulated for all three genes were generated by DNA-directed RNAi, with silencing spreading from the NR target to the flanking NRT and NiR genes. The silenced strains were nonpathogenic on leaves but colonized tubers. We propose that the nitrate assimilation genes play roles both in obtaining nitrogen for amino acid biosynthesis and protecting P. infestans from natural or fertilization-induced nitrate and nitrite toxicity. Little is known of how plant pathogens adapt to different growth conditions and host tissues. To understand the interaction between the filamentous eukaryotic microbe Phytophthora infestans and its potato and tomato hosts, we mined the genome for genes encoding proteins involved in nutrient uptake and measured their expression in leaves, tubers, and three artificial media. We observed dynamic changes between the growth conditions, and identified transporters expressed mainly in the biotrophic stage, leaves, tubers, or artificial media. When we blocked the expression of a nitrate transporter and two other genes involved in assimilating nitrate, we observed that those genes were required for successful colonization of nitrate-rich leaves but not nitrate-poor tissues, and that nitrate had become toxic to the silenced strains. We therefore hypothesize that the nitrate assimilation pathway may help the pathogen use inorganic nitrogen for nutrition and/or detoxify nitrate when its levels may become damaging.
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Affiliation(s)
- Melania Abrahamian
- Department of Plant Pathology and Microbiology, University of California, Riverside, California, United States of America
| | - Audrey M. V. Ah-Fong
- Department of Plant Pathology and Microbiology, University of California, Riverside, California, United States of America
| | - Carol Davis
- Department of Plant Pathology and Microbiology, University of California, Riverside, California, United States of America
| | - Kalina Andreeva
- Department of Plant Pathology and Microbiology, University of California, Riverside, California, United States of America
| | - Howard S. Judelson
- Department of Plant Pathology and Microbiology, University of California, Riverside, California, United States of America
- * E-mail:
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21
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Padder BA, Kamfwa K, Awale HE, Kelly JD. Transcriptome Profiling of the Phaseolus vulgaris - Colletotrichum lindemuthianum Pathosystem. PLoS One 2016; 11:e0165823. [PMID: 27829044 PMCID: PMC5102369 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0165823] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/21/2016] [Accepted: 10/18/2016] [Indexed: 01/08/2023] Open
Abstract
Bean (Phaseolus vulgaris) anthracnose caused by the hemi-biotrophic pathogen Colletotrichum lindemuthianum is a major factor limiting production worldwide. Although sources of resistance have been identified and characterized, the early molecular events in the host-pathogen interface have not been investigated. In the current study, we conducted a comprehensive transcriptome analysis using Illumina sequencing of two near isogenic lines (NILs) differing for the presence of the Co-1 gene on chromosome Pv01 during a time course following infection with race 73 of C. lindemuthianum. From this, we identified 3,250 significantly differentially expressed genes (DEGs) within and between the NILs over the time course of infection. During the biotrophic phase the majority of DEGs were up regulated in the susceptible NIL, whereas more DEGs were up-regulated in the resistant NIL during the necrotrophic phase. Various defense related genes, such as those encoding PR proteins, peroxidases, lipoxygenases were up regulated in the resistant NIL. Conversely, genes encoding sugar transporters were up-regulated in the susceptible NIL during the later stages of infection. Additionally, numerous transcription factors (TFs) and candidate genes within the vicinity of the Co-1 locus were differentially expressed, suggesting a global reprogramming of gene expression in and around the Co-1 locus. Through this analysis, we reduced the previous number of candidate genes reported at the Co-1 locus from eight to three. These results suggest the dynamic nature of P. vulgaris-C. lindemuthianum interaction at the transcriptomic level and reflect the role of both pathogen and effector triggered immunity on changes in plant gene expression.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bilal A. Padder
- Dept. of Plant, Soil and Microbial Sciences, Michigan State Univ., 1066 Bogue St., East Lansing, MI, 48824, United States of America
| | - Kelvin Kamfwa
- Dept. of Plant, Soil and Microbial Sciences, Michigan State Univ., 1066 Bogue St., East Lansing, MI, 48824, United States of America
| | - Halima E. Awale
- Dept. of Plant, Soil and Microbial Sciences, Michigan State Univ., 1066 Bogue St., East Lansing, MI, 48824, United States of America
| | - James D. Kelly
- Dept. of Plant, Soil and Microbial Sciences, Michigan State Univ., 1066 Bogue St., East Lansing, MI, 48824, United States of America
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Gilbert GS, Parker IM. The Evolutionary Ecology of Plant Disease: A Phylogenetic Perspective. ANNUAL REVIEW OF PHYTOPATHOLOGY 2016; 54:549-78. [PMID: 27359365 DOI: 10.1146/annurev-phyto-102313-045959] [Citation(s) in RCA: 57] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/06/2023]
Abstract
An explicit phylogenetic perspective provides useful tools for phytopathology and plant disease ecology because the traits of both plants and microbes are shaped by their evolutionary histories. We present brief primers on phylogenetic signal and the analytical tools of phylogenetic ecology. We review the literature and find abundant evidence of phylogenetic signal in pathogens and plants for most traits involved in disease interactions. Plant nonhost resistance mechanisms and pathogen housekeeping functions are conserved at deeper phylogenetic levels, whereas molecular traits associated with rapid coevolutionary dynamics are more labile at branch tips. Horizontal gene transfer disrupts the phylogenetic signal for some microbial traits. Emergent traits, such as host range and disease severity, show clear phylogenetic signals. Therefore pathogen spread and disease impact are influenced by the phylogenetic structure of host assemblages. Phylogenetically rare species escape disease pressure. Phylogenetic tools could be used to develop predictive tools for phytosanitary risk analysis and reduce disease pressure in multispecies cropping systems.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gregory S Gilbert
- Department of Environmental Studies, University of California, Santa Cruz, California 95064;
- Smithsonian Tropical Research Institute, Balboa, Ancón, Republic of Panamá 0843-03092
| | - Ingrid M Parker
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, University of California, Santa Cruz, California 95064;
- Smithsonian Tropical Research Institute, Balboa, Ancón, Republic of Panamá 0843-03092
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Veillet F, Gaillard C, Coutos-Thévenot P, La Camera S. Targeting the AtCWIN1 Gene to Explore the Role of Invertases in Sucrose Transport in Roots and during Botrytis cinerea Infection. FRONTIERS IN PLANT SCIENCE 2016; 7:1899. [PMID: 28066461 PMCID: PMC5167757 DOI: 10.3389/fpls.2016.01899] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/23/2016] [Accepted: 11/30/2016] [Indexed: 05/15/2023]
Abstract
Cell wall invertases (CWIN) cleave sucrose into glucose and fructose in the apoplast. CWINs are key regulators of carbon partitioning and source/sink relationships during growth, development and under biotic stresses. In this report, we monitored the expression/activity of Arabidopsis cell wall invertases in organs behaving as source, sink, or subjected to a source/sink transition after infection with the necrotrophic fungus Botrytis cinerea. We showed that organs with different source/sink status displayed differential CWIN activities, depending on carbohydrate needs or availabilities in the surrounding environment, through a transcriptional and posttranslational regulation. Loss-of-function mutation of the Arabidopsis cell wall invertase 1 gene, AtCWIN1, showed that the corresponding protein was the main contributor to the apoplastic sucrose cleaving activity in both leaves and roots. The CWIN-deficient mutant cwin1-1 exhibited a reduced capacity to actively take up external sucrose in roots, indicating that this process is mainly dependent on the sucrolytic activity of AtCWIN1. Using T-DNA and CRISPR/Cas9 mutants impaired in hexose transport, we demonstrated that external sucrose is actively absorbed in the form of hexoses by a sugar/H+ symport system involving the coordinated activity of AtCWIN1 with several Sugar Transporter Proteins (STP) of the plasma membrane, i.e., STP1 and STP13. Part of external sucrose was imported without apoplastic cleavage into cwin1-1 seedling roots, highlighting an alternative AtCWIN1-independent pathway for the assimilation of external sucrose. Accordingly, we showed that several genes encoding sucrose transporters of the plasma membrane were expressed. We also detected transcript accumulation of vacuolar invertase (VIN)-encoding genes and high VIN activities. Upon infection, AtCWIN1 was responsible for all the Botrytis-induced apoplastic invertase activity. We detected a transcriptional activation of several AtSUC and AtVIN genes accompanied with an enhanced vacuolar invertase activity, suggesting that the AtCWIN1-independent pathway is efficient upon infection. In absence of AtCWIN1, we postulate that intracellular sucrose hydrolysis is sufficient to provide intracellular hexoses to maintain sugar homeostasis in host cells and to fuel plant defenses. Finally, we demonstrated that Botrytis cinerea possesses its own functional sucrolytic machinery and hexose uptake system, and does not rely on the host apoplastic invertases.
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24
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How eukaryotic filamentous pathogens evade plant recognition. Curr Opin Microbiol 2015; 26:92-101. [PMID: 26162502 DOI: 10.1016/j.mib.2015.06.012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 66] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/09/2015] [Revised: 06/16/2015] [Accepted: 06/17/2015] [Indexed: 12/29/2022]
Abstract
Plant pathogenic fungi and oomycetes employ sophisticated mechanisms for evading host recognition. After host penetration, many fungi and oomycetes establish a biotrophic interaction. It is assumed that different strategies employed by these pathogens to avoid triggering host defence responses, including establishment of biotrophic interfacial layers between the pathogen and host, masking of invading hyphae and active suppression of host defence mechanisms, are essential for a biotrophic parasitic lifestyle. During the infection process, filamentous plant pathogens secrete various effectors, which are hypothesized to be involved in facilitating effective host infection. Live-cell imaging of fungi and oomycetes secreting fluorescently labeled effector proteins as well as functional characterization of the components of biotrophic interfaces have led to the recent progress in understanding how eukaryotic filamentous pathogens evade plant recognition.
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25
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Schuler D, Wahl R, Wippel K, Vranes M, Münsterkötter M, Sauer N, Kämper J. Hxt1, a monosaccharide transporter and sensor required for virulence of the maize pathogen Ustilago maydis. THE NEW PHYTOLOGIST 2015; 206:1086-1100. [PMID: 25678342 DOI: 10.1111/nph.13314] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/22/2014] [Accepted: 12/23/2014] [Indexed: 05/23/2023]
Abstract
The smut Ustilago maydis, a ubiquitous pest of corn, is highly adapted to its host to parasitize on its organic carbon sources. We have identified a hexose transporter, Hxt1, as important for fungal development during both the saprophytic and the pathogenic stage of the fungus. Hxt1 was characterized as a high-affinity transporter for glucose, fructose, and mannose; ∆hxt1 strains show significantly reduced growth on these substrates, setting Hxt1 as the main hexose transporter during saprophytic growth. After plant infection, ∆hxt1 strains show decreased symptom development. However, expression of a Hxt1 protein with a mutation leading to constitutively active signaling in the yeast glucose sensors Snf3p and Rgt2p results in completely apathogenic strains. Fungal development is stalled immediately after plant penetration, implying a dual function of Hxt1 as transporter and sensor. As glucose sensors are only known for yeasts, 'transceptor' as Hxt1 may constitute a general mechanism for sensing of glucose in fungi. In U. maydis, Hxt1 links a nutrient-dependent environmental signal to the developmental program during pathogenic development.
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Affiliation(s)
- David Schuler
- Department of Genetics, Institute of Applied Biosciences, Karlsruhe Institute of Technology, Hertzstrasse 16, Karlsruhe, 76187, Germany
| | - Ramon Wahl
- Department of Genetics, Institute of Applied Biosciences, Karlsruhe Institute of Technology, Hertzstrasse 16, Karlsruhe, 76187, Germany
| | - Kathrin Wippel
- Molecular Plant Physiology, Friedrich Alexander University Erlangen-Nuremberg, Staudtstrasse 5, Erlangen, 91058, Germany
| | - Miroslav Vranes
- Department of Genetics, Institute of Applied Biosciences, Karlsruhe Institute of Technology, Hertzstrasse 16, Karlsruhe, 76187, Germany
| | - Martin Münsterkötter
- Institute of Bioinformatics and Systems Biology, Helmholtz Center Munich, Ingolstädter Landstraße 1, Neuherberg, 85764, Germany
| | - Norbert Sauer
- Molecular Plant Physiology, Friedrich Alexander University Erlangen-Nuremberg, Staudtstrasse 5, Erlangen, 91058, Germany
| | - Jörg Kämper
- Department of Genetics, Institute of Applied Biosciences, Karlsruhe Institute of Technology, Hertzstrasse 16, Karlsruhe, 76187, Germany
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Affiliation(s)
- Jan Schirawski
- Microbial Genetics, Institute for Applied Microbiology, Aachen Biology and Biotechnology, RWTH Aachen University, 52074, Aachen, Germany
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27
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Zhang L, Hua C, Stassen JHM, Chatterjee S, Cornelissen M, van Kan JAL. Genome-wide analysis of pectate-induced gene expression in Botrytis cinerea: identification and functional analysis of putative d-galacturonate transporters. Fungal Genet Biol 2014; 72:182-191. [PMID: 24140151 DOI: 10.1016/j.fgb.2013.10.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/08/2013] [Accepted: 10/03/2013] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
The fungal plant pathogen Botrytis cinerea produces a spectrum of cell wall degrading enzymes for the decomposition of host cell wall polysaccharides and the consumption of the monosaccharides that are released. Especially pectin is an abundant cell wall component, and the decomposition of pectin by B. cinerea has been extensively studied. An effective concerted action of the appropriate pectin depolymerising enzymes, monosaccharide transporters and catabolic enzymes is important for complete d-galacturonic acid utilization by B. cinerea. In this study, we performed RNA sequencing to compare genome-wide transcriptional profiles between B. cinerea cultures grown in media containing pectate or glucose as sole carbon source. Transcript levels of 32 genes that are induced by pectate were further examined in cultures grown on six different monosaccharides, by means of quantitative RT-PCR, leading to the identification of 8 genes that are exclusively induced by d-galacturonic acid. Among these, the hexose transporter encoding genes Bchxt15 and Bchxt19 were functionally characterised. The subcellular location was studied of BcHXT15-GFP and BcHXT19-GFP fusion proteins expressed under control of their native promoter, in a B. cinerea wild-type strain. Both genes are expressed during growth on d-galacturonic acid and the fusion proteins are localized in plasma membranes and intracellular vesicles. Target gene knockout analysis revealed that BcHXT15 contributes to d-galacturonic acid uptake at pH 5∼5.6. The virulence of all B. cinerea hexose transporter mutants tested was unaltered on tomato and Nicotiana benthamiana leaves.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lisha Zhang
- Laboratory of Phytopathology, Wageningen University, Droevendaalsesteeg 1, 6708 PB Wageningen, The Netherlands; Department of Biology, University of Kaiserslautern, Kaiserslautern, Germany.
| | - Chenlei Hua
- Laboratory of Phytopathology, Wageningen University, Droevendaalsesteeg 1, 6708 PB Wageningen, The Netherlands
| | - Joost H M Stassen
- Laboratory of Phytopathology, Wageningen University, Droevendaalsesteeg 1, 6708 PB Wageningen, The Netherlands; Department of Animal and Plant Sciences, University of Sheffield, United Kingdom
| | - Sayantani Chatterjee
- Laboratory of Phytopathology, Wageningen University, Droevendaalsesteeg 1, 6708 PB Wageningen, The Netherlands
| | - Maxim Cornelissen
- Laboratory of Phytopathology, Wageningen University, Droevendaalsesteeg 1, 6708 PB Wageningen, The Netherlands
| | - Jan A L van Kan
- Laboratory of Phytopathology, Wageningen University, Droevendaalsesteeg 1, 6708 PB Wageningen, The Netherlands
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Saitoh H, Hirabuchi A, Fujisawa S, Mitsuoka C, Terauchi R, Takano Y. MoST1 encoding a hexose transporter-like protein is involved in both conidiation and mycelial melanization of Magnaporthe oryzae. FEMS Microbiol Lett 2014; 352:104-13. [PMID: 24372780 DOI: 10.1111/1574-6968.12369] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/25/2013] [Revised: 11/18/2013] [Accepted: 12/11/2013] [Indexed: 11/29/2022] Open
Abstract
In a large-scale gene disruption screen of Magnaporthe oryzae, a gene MoST1 encoding a protein belonging to the hexose transporter family was identified as a gene required for conidiation and culture pigmentation. The gene MoST1 located on chromosome V of the M. oryzae genome was predicted to be 1892 bp in length with two introns encoding a 547-amino-acid protein with 12 putative transmembrane domains. Targeted gene disruption of MoST1 resulted in a mutant (most1) with extremely poor conidiation and defects in colony melanization. These phenotypes were complemented by re-introduction of an intact copy of MoST1. We generated a transgenic line harboring a vector containing the MoST1 promoter fused with a reporter protein gene mCherry. The mCherry fluorescence was observed in mycelia, conidia, germ tubes, and appressoria in M. oryzae. There are 66 other hexose transporter-like genes in M. oryzae, and we performed complementation assay with three genes most closely related to MoST1. However, none of them complemented the most1 mutant in conidiation and melanization, indicating that the homologs do not complement the function of MoST1. These results suggest that MoST1 has a specific role for conidiation and mycelial melanization, which is not shared by other hexose transporter family of M. oryzae.
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Perlin MH, Andrews J, San Toh S. Essential Letters in the Fungal Alphabet. ADVANCES IN GENETICS 2014; 85:201-53. [DOI: 10.1016/b978-0-12-800271-1.00004-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/27/2022]
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30
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dos Reis TF, Menino JF, Bom VLP, Brown NA, Colabardini AC, Savoldi M, Goldman MHS, Rodrigues F, Goldman GH. Identification of glucose transporters in Aspergillus nidulans. PLoS One 2013; 8:e81412. [PMID: 24282591 PMCID: PMC3839997 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0081412] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/05/2013] [Accepted: 10/12/2013] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
To characterize the mechanisms involved in glucose transport, in the filamentous fungus Aspergillus nidulans, we have identified four glucose transporter encoding genes hxtB-E. We evaluated the ability of hxtB-E to functionally complement the Saccharomyces cerevisiae EBY.VW4000 strain that is unable to grow on glucose, fructose, mannose or galactose as single carbon source. In S. cerevisiae HxtB-E were targeted to the plasma membrane. The expression of HxtB, HxtC and HxtE was able to restore growth on glucose, fructose, mannose or galactose, indicating that these transporters accept multiple sugars as a substrate through an energy dependent process. A tenfold excess of unlabeled maltose, galactose, fructose, and mannose were able to inhibit glucose uptake to different levels (50 to 80 %) in these s. cerevisiae complemented strains. Moreover, experiments with cyanide-m-chlorophenylhydrazone (CCCP), strongly suggest that hxtB, -C, and -E mediate glucose transport via active proton symport. The A. nidulans ΔhxtB, ΔhxtC or ΔhxtE null mutants showed ~2.5-fold reduction in the affinity for glucose, while ΔhxtB and -C also showed a 2-fold reduction in the capacity for glucose uptake. The ΔhxtD mutant had a 7.8-fold reduction in affinity, but a 3-fold increase in the capacity for glucose uptake. However, only the ΔhxtB mutant strain showed a detectable decreased rate of glucose consumption at low concentrations and an increased resistance to 2-deoxyglucose.
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Affiliation(s)
- Thaila Fernanda dos Reis
- Faculdade de Ciências Farmacêuticas de Ribeirão Preto, Universidade de São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - João Filipe Menino
- Life and Health Sciences Research Institute (ICVS), School of Health Sciences, University of Minho, Braga, Portugal
| | - Vinícius Leite Pedro Bom
- Faculdade de Ciências Farmacêuticas de Ribeirão Preto, Universidade de São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Neil Andrew Brown
- Faculdade de Ciências Farmacêuticas de Ribeirão Preto, Universidade de São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Ana Cristina Colabardini
- Faculdade de Ciências Farmacêuticas de Ribeirão Preto, Universidade de São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Marcela Savoldi
- Faculdade de Ciências Farmacêuticas de Ribeirão Preto, Universidade de São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Maria Helena S. Goldman
- Faculdade de Filosofia, Ciências e Letras de Ribeirão Preto, Universidade de São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Fernando Rodrigues
- Life and Health Sciences Research Institute (ICVS), School of Health Sciences, University of Minho, Braga, Portugal
| | - Gustavo Henrique Goldman
- Laboratório Nacional de Ciência e Tecnologia do Bioetanol – CTBE, Campinas, São Paulo, Brazil
- Faculdade de Ciências Farmacêuticas de Ribeirão Preto, Universidade de São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil
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31
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Ries L, Pullan ST, Delmas S, Malla S, Blythe MJ, Archer DB. Genome-wide transcriptional response of Trichoderma reesei to lignocellulose using RNA sequencing and comparison with Aspergillus niger. BMC Genomics 2013; 14:541. [PMID: 24060058 PMCID: PMC3750697 DOI: 10.1186/1471-2164-14-541] [Citation(s) in RCA: 72] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/05/2013] [Accepted: 08/06/2013] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND A major part of second generation biofuel production is the enzymatic saccharification of lignocellulosic biomass into fermentable sugars. Many fungi produce enzymes that can saccarify lignocellulose and cocktails from several fungi, including well-studied species such as Trichoderma reesei and Aspergillus niger, are available commercially for this process. Such commercially-available enzyme cocktails are not necessarily representative of the array of enzymes used by the fungi themselves when faced with a complex lignocellulosic material. The global induction of genes in response to exposure of T. reesei to wheat straw was explored using RNA-seq and compared to published RNA-seq data and model of how A. niger senses and responds to wheat straw. RESULTS In T. reesei, levels of transcript that encode known and predicted cell-wall degrading enzymes were very high after 24h exposure to straw (approximately 13% of the total mRNA) but were less than recorded in A. niger (approximately 19% of the total mRNA). Closer analysis revealed that enzymes from the same glycoside hydrolase families but different carbohydrate esterase and polysaccharide lyase families were up-regulated in both organisms. Accessory proteins which have been hypothesised to possibly have a role in enhancing carbohydrate deconstruction in A. niger were also uncovered in T. reesei and categories of enzymes induced were in general similar to those in A. niger. Similarly to A. niger, antisense transcripts are present in T. reesei and their expression is regulated by the growth condition. CONCLUSIONS T. reesei uses a similar array of enzymes, for the deconstruction of a solid lignocellulosic substrate, to A. niger. This suggests a conserved strategy towards lignocellulose degradation in both saprobic fungi. This study provides a basis for further analysis and characterisation of genes shown to be highly induced in the presence of a lignocellulosic substrate. The data will help to elucidate the mechanism of solid substrate recognition and subsequent degradation by T. reesei and provide information which could prove useful for efficient production of second generation biofuels.
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Affiliation(s)
- Laure Ries
- School of Biology, University of Nottingham, Nottingham NG7 2RD, UK
| | - Steven T Pullan
- School of Biology, University of Nottingham, Nottingham NG7 2RD, UK
| | - Stéphane Delmas
- School of Biology, University of Nottingham, Nottingham NG7 2RD, UK
- Université Pierre et Marie Curie (UPMC, Université Paris 06), Sorbonne Universités, UMR 7138, Systématique Adapation et Évolution, 75005 Paris, France
| | - Sunir Malla
- Deep Seq, Centre for Genetics and Genomics, Queen’s Medical Centre, University of Nottingham, Nottingham NG7 2UH, UK
| | - Martin J Blythe
- Deep Seq, Centre for Genetics and Genomics, Queen’s Medical Centre, University of Nottingham, Nottingham NG7 2UH, UK
| | - David B Archer
- School of Biology, University of Nottingham, Nottingham NG7 2RD, UK
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Lemoine R, Camera SL, Atanassova R, Dédaldéchamp F, Allario T, Pourtau N, Bonnemain JL, Laloi M, Coutos-Thévenot P, Maurousset L, Faucher M, Girousse C, Lemonnier P, Parrilla J, Durand M. Source-to-sink transport of sugar and regulation by environmental factors. FRONTIERS IN PLANT SCIENCE 2013; 4:272. [PMID: 23898339 PMCID: PMC3721551 DOI: 10.3389/fpls.2013.00272] [Citation(s) in RCA: 530] [Impact Index Per Article: 48.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/13/2013] [Accepted: 07/02/2013] [Indexed: 05/18/2023]
Abstract
Source-to-sink transport of sugar is one of the major determinants of plant growth and relies on the efficient and controlled distribution of sucrose (and some other sugars such as raffinose and polyols) across plant organs through the phloem. However, sugar transport through the phloem can be affected by many environmental factors that alter source/sink relationships. In this paper, we summarize current knowledge about the phloem transport mechanisms and review the effects of several abiotic (water and salt stress, mineral deficiency, CO2, light, temperature, air, and soil pollutants) and biotic (mutualistic and pathogenic microbes, viruses, aphids, and parasitic plants) factors. Concerning abiotic constraints, alteration of the distribution of sugar among sinks is often reported, with some sinks as roots favored in case of mineral deficiency. Many of these constraints impair the transport function of the phloem but the exact mechanisms are far from being completely known. Phloem integrity can be disrupted (e.g., by callose deposition) and under certain conditions, phloem transport is affected, earlier than photosynthesis. Photosynthesis inhibition could result from the increase in sugar concentration due to phloem transport decrease. Biotic interactions (aphids, fungi, viruses…) also affect crop plant productivity. Recent breakthroughs have identified some of the sugar transporters involved in these interactions on the host and pathogen sides. The different data are discussed in relation to the phloem transport pathways. When possible, the link with current knowledge on the pathways at the molecular level will be highlighted.
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Affiliation(s)
- Remi Lemoine
- Unités Mixtes de Recherche, Ecologie et Biologie des Interactions, Université of Poitiers/Centre National de la Recherche ScientifiquePoitiers, France
| | - Sylvain La Camera
- Unités Mixtes de Recherche, Ecologie et Biologie des Interactions, Université of Poitiers/Centre National de la Recherche ScientifiquePoitiers, France
| | - Rossitza Atanassova
- Unités Mixtes de Recherche, Ecologie et Biologie des Interactions, Université of Poitiers/Centre National de la Recherche ScientifiquePoitiers, France
| | - Fabienne Dédaldéchamp
- Unités Mixtes de Recherche, Ecologie et Biologie des Interactions, Université of Poitiers/Centre National de la Recherche ScientifiquePoitiers, France
| | - Thierry Allario
- Unités Mixtes de Recherche, Ecologie et Biologie des Interactions, Université of Poitiers/Centre National de la Recherche ScientifiquePoitiers, France
| | - Nathalie Pourtau
- Unités Mixtes de Recherche, Ecologie et Biologie des Interactions, Université of Poitiers/Centre National de la Recherche ScientifiquePoitiers, France
| | - Jean-Louis Bonnemain
- Unités Mixtes de Recherche, Ecologie et Biologie des Interactions, Université of Poitiers/Centre National de la Recherche ScientifiquePoitiers, France
| | - Maryse Laloi
- Unités Mixtes de Recherche, Ecologie et Biologie des Interactions, Université of Poitiers/Centre National de la Recherche ScientifiquePoitiers, France
| | - Pierre Coutos-Thévenot
- Unités Mixtes de Recherche, Ecologie et Biologie des Interactions, Université of Poitiers/Centre National de la Recherche ScientifiquePoitiers, France
| | - Laurence Maurousset
- Unités Mixtes de Recherche, Ecologie et Biologie des Interactions, Université of Poitiers/Centre National de la Recherche ScientifiquePoitiers, France
| | - Mireille Faucher
- Unités Mixtes de Recherche, Ecologie et Biologie des Interactions, Université of Poitiers/Centre National de la Recherche ScientifiquePoitiers, France
| | - Christine Girousse
- Diversité et Ecophysiologie des Céréales, Unités Mixtes de RechercheClermont Ferrand, France
| | - Pauline Lemonnier
- Unités Mixtes de Recherche, Ecologie et Biologie des Interactions, Université of Poitiers/Centre National de la Recherche ScientifiquePoitiers, France
| | - Jonathan Parrilla
- Unités Mixtes de Recherche, Ecologie et Biologie des Interactions, Université of Poitiers/Centre National de la Recherche ScientifiquePoitiers, France
| | - Mickael Durand
- Unités Mixtes de Recherche, Ecologie et Biologie des Interactions, Université of Poitiers/Centre National de la Recherche ScientifiquePoitiers, France
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Coelho MA, Gonçalves C, Sampaio JP, Gonçalves P. Extensive intra-kingdom horizontal gene transfer converging on a fungal fructose transporter gene. PLoS Genet 2013; 9:e1003587. [PMID: 23818872 PMCID: PMC3688497 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pgen.1003587] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/15/2012] [Accepted: 05/08/2013] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Comparative genomics revealed in the last decade a scenario of rampant horizontal gene transfer (HGT) among prokaryotes, but for fungi a clearly dominant pattern of vertical inheritance still stands, punctuated however by an increasing number of exceptions. In the present work, we studied the phylogenetic distribution and pattern of inheritance of a fungal gene encoding a fructose transporter (FSY1) with unique substrate selectivity. 109 FSY1 homologues were identified in two sub-phyla of the Ascomycota, in a survey that included 241 available fungal genomes. At least 10 independent inter-species instances of horizontal gene transfer (HGT) involving FSY1 were identified, supported by strong phylogenetic evidence and synteny analyses. The acquisition of FSY1 through HGT was sometimes suggestive of xenolog gene displacement, but several cases of pseudoparalogy were also uncovered. Moreover, evidence was found for successive HGT events, possibly including those responsible for transmission of the gene among yeast lineages. These occurrences do not seem to be driven by functional diversification of the Fsy1 proteins because Fsy1 homologues from widely distant lineages, including at least one acquired by HGT, appear to have similar biochemical properties. In summary, retracing the evolutionary path of the FSY1 gene brought to light an unparalleled number of independent HGT events involving a single fungal gene. We propose that the turbulent evolutionary history of the gene may be linked to the unique biochemical properties of the encoded transporter, whose predictable effect on fitness may be highly variable. In general, our results support the most recent views suggesting that inter-species HGT may have contributed much more substantially to shape fungal genomes than heretofore assumed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marco A. Coelho
- Centro de Recursos Microbiológicos, Departamento de Ciências da Vida, Faculdade de Ciências e Tecnologia, Universidade Nova de Lisboa, Caparica, Portugal
| | - Carla Gonçalves
- Centro de Recursos Microbiológicos, Departamento de Ciências da Vida, Faculdade de Ciências e Tecnologia, Universidade Nova de Lisboa, Caparica, Portugal
| | - José Paulo Sampaio
- Centro de Recursos Microbiológicos, Departamento de Ciências da Vida, Faculdade de Ciências e Tecnologia, Universidade Nova de Lisboa, Caparica, Portugal
| | - Paula Gonçalves
- Centro de Recursos Microbiológicos, Departamento de Ciências da Vida, Faculdade de Ciências e Tecnologia, Universidade Nova de Lisboa, Caparica, Portugal
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Pereira MF, de Araújo dos Santos CM, de Araújo EF, de Queiroz MV, Bazzolli DMS. Beginning to understand the role of sugar carriers in Colletotrichum lindemuthianum: the function of the gene mfs1. J Microbiol 2013; 51:70-81. [DOI: 10.1007/s12275-013-2393-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/30/2012] [Accepted: 10/02/2012] [Indexed: 10/27/2022]
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Ambrose KV, Belanger FC. SOLiD-SAGE of endophyte-infected red fescue reveals numerous effects on host transcriptome and an abundance of highly expressed fungal secreted proteins. PLoS One 2012; 7:e53214. [PMID: 23285269 PMCID: PMC3532157 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0053214] [Citation(s) in RCA: 66] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/23/2012] [Accepted: 11/27/2012] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
One of the most important plant-fungal symbiotic relationships is that of cool season grasses with endophytic fungi of the genera Epichloë and Neotyphodium. These associations often confer benefits, such as resistance to herbivores and improved drought tolerance, to the hosts. One benefit that appears to be unique to fine fescue grasses is disease resistance. As a first step towards understanding the basis of the endophyte-mediated disease resistance in Festuca rubra we carried out a SOLiD-SAGE quantitative transcriptome comparison of endophyte-free and Epichloë festucae-infected F. rubra. Over 200 plant genes involved in a wide variety of physiological processes were statistically significantly differentially expressed between the two samples. Many of the endophyte expressed genes were surprisingly abundant, with the most abundant fungal tag representing over 10% of the fungal mapped tags. Many of the abundant fungal tags were for secreted proteins. The second most abundantly expressed fungal gene was for a secreted antifungal protein and is of particular interest regarding the endophyte-mediated disease resistance. Similar genes in Penicillium and Aspergillus spp. have been demonstrated to have antifungal activity. Of the 10 epichloae whole genome sequences available, only one isolate of E. festucae and Neotyphodium gansuense var inebrians have an antifungal protein gene. The uniqueness of this gene in E. festucae from F. rubra, its transcript abundance, and the secreted nature of the protein, all suggest it may be involved in the disease resistance conferred to the host, which is a unique feature of the fine fescue-endophyte symbiosis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Karen V. Ambrose
- Department of Plant Biology and Pathology, Rutgers University, New Brunswick, New Jersey, United States of America
| | - Faith C. Belanger
- Department of Plant Biology and Pathology, Rutgers University, New Brunswick, New Jersey, United States of America
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Large scale expressed sequence tag (EST) analysis of Metarhizium acridum infecting Locusta migratoria reveals multiple strategies for fungal adaptation to the host cuticle. Curr Genet 2012; 58:265-79. [DOI: 10.1007/s00294-012-0382-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/06/2012] [Revised: 09/21/2012] [Accepted: 09/21/2012] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
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Rasmussen S, Liu Q, Parsons AJ, Xue H, Sinclair B, Newman JA. Grass-endophyte interactions: a note on the role of monosaccharide transport in the Neotyphodium lolii-Lolium perenne symbiosis. THE NEW PHYTOLOGIST 2012; 196:7-12. [PMID: 22803786 DOI: 10.1111/j.1469-8137.2012.04250.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/02/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Susanne Rasmussen
- AgResearch, Grasslands Research Centre, PB 11008, Palmerston North, New Zealand
- (Author for correspondence: tel +64 6 351 8182; email )
| | - Qianhe Liu
- AgResearch, Grasslands Research Centre, PB 11008, Palmerston North, New Zealand
| | - Anthony J Parsons
- Institute of Natural Resources, Massey University, Palmerston North, New Zealand
| | - Hong Xue
- AgResearch, Grasslands Research Centre, PB 11008, Palmerston North, New Zealand
| | - Bruce Sinclair
- AgResearch, Grasslands Research Centre, PB 11008, Palmerston North, New Zealand
| | - Jonathan A Newman
- School of Environmental Sciences, University of Guelph, Guelph, ON, Canada N1G 2W1
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Lingner U, Münch S, Sode B, Deising HB, Sauer N. Functional characterization of a eukaryotic melibiose transporter. PLANT PHYSIOLOGY 2011; 156:1565-76. [PMID: 21593216 PMCID: PMC3135911 DOI: 10.1104/pp.111.178624] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/19/2011] [Accepted: 05/18/2011] [Indexed: 05/30/2023]
Abstract
Pathogenic fungi drastically affect plant health and cause significant losses in crop yield and quality. In spite of their impact, little is known about the carbon sources used by these fungi in planta and about the fungal transporters importing sugars from the plant-fungus interface. Here, we report on the identification and characterization of MELIBIOSE TRANSPORTER1 (MBT1) from the hemibiotrophic fungus Colletotrichum graminicola (teleomorph Glomerella graminicola), the causal agent of leaf anthracnose and stalk rot disease in maize (Zea mays). Functional characterization of the MBT1 protein in baker's yeast (Saccharomyces cerevisiae) expressing the MBT1 cDNA revealed that α-D-galactopyranosyl compounds such as melibiose, galactinol, and raffinose are substrates of MBT1, with melibiose most likely being the preferred substrate. α-D-glucopyranosyl disaccharides like trehalose, isomaltose, or maltose are also accepted by MBT1, although with lower affinities. The MBT1 gene shows low and comparable expression levels in axenically grown C. graminicola and upon infection of maize leaves both during the initial biotrophic development of the fungus and during the subsequent necrotrophic phase. Despite these low levels of MBT1 expression, the MBT1 protein allows efficient growth of C. graminicola on melibiose as sole carbon source in axenic cultures. Although Δmbt1 mutants are unable to grow on melibiose, they do not show virulence defects on maize.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | | | - Norbert Sauer
- Molecular Plant Physiology (U.L., N.S.) and Erlangen Center of Plant Science (N.S.), Friedrich-Alexander-Universität Erlangen-Nürnberg, D–91058 Erlangen, Germany; Phytopathology and Plant Protection (S.M., B.S., H.B.D.) and Interdisciplinary Center for Crop Plant Research (H.B.D.), Martin-Luther-University Halle-Wittenberg, D–06120 Halle (Saale), Germany
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