Proteomic Characterization of Inhibitory Synapses Using a Novel pHluorin-tagged γ-Aminobutyric Acid Receptor, Type A (GABAA), α2 Subunit Knock-in Mouse

GABAergic implications in anxiety and related disorders

Evidence indicates that anxiety disorders arise from an imbalance in the functioning of brain circuits that govern the modulation of emotional responses to possibly threatening stimuli. The circuits under consideration in this context include the amygdala's bottom-up activity, which signifies the existence of stimuli that may be seen as dangerous. Moreover, these circuits encompass top-down regulatory processes that originate in the prefrontal cortex, facilitating the communication of the emotional significance associated with the inputs. Diverse databases (e.g., Pubmed, ScienceDirect, Web of Science, Google Scholar) were searched for literature using a combination of different terms e.g., "anxiety", "stress", "neuroanatomy", and "neural circuits", etc. A decrease in GABAergic activity is present in both anxiety disorders and severe depression. Research on cerebral functional imaging in depressive individuals has shown reduced levels of GABA within the cortical regions. Additionally, animal studies demonstrated that a reduction in the expression of GABAA/B receptors results in a behavioral pattern resembling anxiety. The amygdala consists of inhibitory networks composed of GABAergic interneurons, responsible for modulating anxiety responses in both normal and pathological conditions. The GABAA receptor has allosteric sites (e.g., α/γ, γ/β, and α/β) which enable regulation of neuronal inhibition in the amygdala. These sites serve as molecular targets for anxiolytic medications such as benzodiazepine and barbiturates. Alterations in the levels of naturally occurring regulators of these allosteric sites, along with alterations to the composition of the GABAA receptor subunits, could potentially act as mechanisms via which the extent of neuronal inhibition is diminished in pathological anxiety disorders.

Molecular and functional profiling of cell diversity and identity in the lateral superior olive, an auditory brainstem center with ascending and descending projections

The lateral superior olive (LSO), a prominent integration center in the auditory brainstem, contains a remarkably heterogeneous population of neurons. Ascending neurons, predominantly principal neurons (pLSOs), process interaural level differences for sound localization. Descending neurons (lateral olivocochlear neurons, LOCs) provide feedback into the cochlea and are thought to protect against acoustic overload. The molecular determinants of the neuronal diversity in the LSO are largely unknown. Here, we used patch-seq analysis in mice at postnatal days P10-12 to classify developing LSO neurons according to their functional and molecular profiles. Across the entire sample (n = 86 neurons), genes involved in ATP synthesis were particularly highly expressed, confirming the energy expenditure of auditory neurons. Two clusters were identified, pLSOs and LOCs. They were distinguished by 353 differentially expressed genes (DEGs), most of which were novel for the LSO. Electrophysiological analysis confirmed the transcriptomic clustering. We focused on genes affecting neuronal input-output properties and validated some of them by immunohistochemistry, electrophysiology, and pharmacology. These genes encode proteins such as osteopontin, Kv11.3, and Kvβ3 (pLSO-specific), calcitonin-gene-related peptide (LOC-specific), or Kv7.2 and Kv7.3 (no DEGs). We identified 12 "Super DEGs" and 12 genes showing "Cluster similarity." Collectively, we provide fundamental and comprehensive insights into the molecular composition of individual ascending and descending neurons in the juvenile auditory brainstem and how this may relate to their specific functions, including developmental aspects.

The brain-specific kinase LMTK3 regulates neuronal excitability by decreasing KCC2-dependent neuronal Cl- extrusion

LMTK3 is a brain-specific transmembrane serine/threonine protein kinase that acts as a scaffold for protein phosphatase-1 (PP1). Although LMKT3 has been identified as a risk factor for autism and epilepsy, its physiological significance is unknown. Here, we demonstrate that LMTK3 copurifies and binds to KCC2, a neuron-specific K+/Cl- transporter. KCC2 activity is essential for Cl--mediated hyperpolarizing GABAAR receptor currents, the unitary events that underpin fast synaptic inhibition. LMTK3 acts to promote the association of KCC2 with PP1 to promote the dephosphorylation of S940 within its C-terminal cytoplasmic domain, a process the diminishes KCC2 activity. Accordingly, acute inhibition of LMTK3 increases KCC2 activity dependent upon S940 and increases neuronal Cl- extrusion. Consistent with this, LMTK3 inhibition reduced intrinsic neuronal excitability and the severity of seizure-like events in vitro. Thus, LMTK3 may have profound effects on neuronal excitability as an endogenous modulator of KCC2 activity.

Spectrin-beta 2 facilitates the selective accumulation of GABAA receptors at somatodendritic synapses

Fast synaptic inhibition is dependent on targeting specific GABA_AR subtypes to dendritic and axon initial segment (AIS) synapses. Synaptic GABA_ARs are typically assembled from α1-3, β and γ subunits. Here, we isolate distinct GABA_ARs from the brain and interrogate their composition using quantitative proteomics. We show that α2-containing receptors co-assemble with α1 subunits, whereas α1 receptors can form GABA_ARs with α1 as the sole α subunit. We demonstrate that α1 and α2 subunit-containing receptors co-purify with distinct spectrin isoforms; cytoskeletal proteins that link transmembrane proteins to the cytoskeleton. β2-spectrin was preferentially associated with α1-containing GABA_ARs at dendritic synapses, while β4-spectrin was associated with α2-containing GABA_ARs at AIS synapses. Ablating β2-spectrin expression reduced dendritic and AIS synapses containing α1 but increased the number of synapses containing α2, which altered phasic inhibition. Thus, we demonstrate a role for spectrins in the synapse-specific targeting of GABA_ARs, determining the efficacy of fast neuronal inhibition.

Shisa7 phosphorylation regulates GABAergic transmission and neurodevelopmental behaviors

GABA-A receptors (GABAARs) are crucial for development and function of the brain. Altered GABAergic transmission is hypothesized to be involved in neurodevelopmental disorders. Recently, we identified Shisa7 as a GABAAR auxiliary subunit that modulates GABAAR trafficking and GABAergic transmission. However, the underlying molecular mechanisms remain elusive. Here we generated a knock-in (KI) mouse line that is phospho-deficient at a phosphorylation site in Shisa7 (S405) and combined with electrophysiology, imaging and behavioral assays to illustrate the role of this site in GABAergic transmission and plasticity as well as behaviors. We found that expression of phospho-deficient mutants diminished α2-GABAAR trafficking in heterologous cells. Additionally, α1/α2/α5-GABAAR surface expression and GABAergic inhibition were decreased in hippocampal neurons in KI mice. Moreover, chemically induced inhibitory long-term potentiation was abolished in KI mice. Lastly, KI mice exhibited hyperactivity, increased grooming and impaired sleep homeostasis. Collectively, our study reveals a phosphorylation site critical for Shisa7-dependent GABAARs trafficking which contributes to behavioral endophenotypes displayed in neurodevelopmental disorders.

Analyzing the mechanisms that facilitate the subtype-specific assembly of γ-aminobutyric acid type A receptors

Impaired inhibitory signaling underlies the pathophysiology of many neuropsychiatric and neurodevelopmental disorders including autism spectrum disorders and epilepsy. Neuronal inhibition is regulated by synaptic and extrasynaptic γ-aminobutyric acid type A receptors (GABA _A Rs), which mediate phasic and tonic inhibition, respectively. These two GABA _A R subtypes differ in their function, ligand sensitivity, and physiological properties. Importantly, they contain different α subunit isoforms: synaptic GABA _A Rs contain the α1-3 subunits whereas extrasynaptic GABA _A Rs contain the α4-6 subunits. While the subunit composition is critical for the distinct roles of synaptic and extrasynaptic GABA _A R subtypes in inhibition, the molecular mechanism of the subtype-specific assembly has not been elucidated. To address this issue, we purified endogenous α1- and α4-containing GABA _A Rs from adult murine forebrains and examined their subunit composition and interacting proteins using liquid chromatography coupled with tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS) and quantitative analysis. We found that the α1 and α4 subunits form separate populations of GABA _A Rs and interact with distinct sets of binding proteins. We also discovered that the β3 subunit, which co-purifies with both the α1 and α4 subunits, has different levels of phosphorylation on serines 408 and 409 (S408/9) between the two receptor subtypes. To understand the role S408/9 plays in the assembly of α1- and α4-containing GABA _A Rs, we examined the effects of S408/9A (alanine) knock-in mutation on the subunit composition of the two receptor subtypes using LC-MS/MS and quantitative analysis. We discovered that the S408/9A mutation results in the formation of novel α1α4-containing GABA _A Rs. Moreover, in S408/9A mutants, the plasma membrane expression of the α4 subunit is increased whereas its retention in the endoplasmic reticulum is reduced. These findings suggest that S408/9 play a critical role in determining the subtype-specific assembly of GABA _A Rs, and thus the efficacy of neuronal inhibition.

Quantitative interactome proteomics identifies a proteostasis network for GABAA receptors

Gamma-aminobutyric acid type A (GABAA) receptors are the primary inhibitory neurotransmitter-gated ion channels in the mammalian central nervous system. Maintenance of GABAA receptor protein homeostasis (proteostasis) in cells utilizing its interacting proteins is essential for the function of GABAA receptors. However, how the proteostasis network orchestrates GABAA receptor biogenesis in the endoplasmic reticulum is not well understood. Here, we employed a proteomics-based approach to systematically identify the interactomes of GABAA receptors. We carried out a quantitative immunoprecipitation-tandem mass spectrometry analysis utilizing stable isotope labeling by amino acids in cell culture. Furthermore, we performed comparative proteomics by using both WT α1 subunit and a misfolding-prone α1 subunit carrying the A322D variant as the bait proteins. We identified 125 interactors for WT α1-containing receptors, 105 proteins for α1(A322D)-containing receptors, and 54 overlapping proteins within these two interactomes. Our bioinformatics analysis identified potential GABAA receptor proteostasis network components, including chaperones, folding enzymes, trafficking factors, and degradation factors, and we assembled a model of their potential involvement in the cellular folding, degradation, and trafficking pathways for GABAA receptors. In addition, we verified endogenous interactions between α1 subunits and selected interactors by using coimmunoprecipitation in mouse brain homogenates. Moreover, we showed that TRIM21 (tripartite motif containing-21), an E3 ubiquitin ligase, positively regulated the degradation of misfolding-prone α1(A322D) subunits selectively. This study paves the way for understanding the molecular mechanisms as well as fine-tuning of GABAA receptor proteostasis to ameliorate related neurological diseases such as epilepsy.

Recruitment of Plasma Membrane GABA-A Receptors by Submembranous Gephyrin/Collybistin Clusters

It has been shown that subunit composition is the main determinant of the synaptic or extrasynaptic localization of GABA_A receptors (GABA_ARs). Synaptic and extrasynaptic GABA_ARs are involved in phasic and tonic inhibition, respectively. It has been proposed that synaptic GABA_ARs bind to the postsynaptic gephyrin/collybistin (Geph/CB) lattice, but not the typically extrasynaptic GABA_ARs. Nevertheless, there are no studies of the direct binding of various types of GABA_ARs with the submembranous Geph/CB lattice in the absence of other synaptic proteins, some of which are known to interact with GABA_ARs. We have reconstituted GABA_ARs of various subunit compositions, together with the Geph/CB scaffold, in HEK293 cells, and have investigated the recruitment of surface GABA_ARs by submembranous Geph/CB clusters. Results show that the typically synaptic α1β3γ2 GABA_ARs were trapped by submembranous Geph/CB clusters. The α5β3γ2 GABA_ARs, which are both synaptic and extrasynaptic, were also trapped by Geph/CB clusters. Extrasynaptic α4β3δ GABA_ARs consistently showed little or no trapping by the Geph/CB clusters. However, the extrasynaptic α6β3δ, α1β3, α6β3 (and less α4β3) GABA_ARs were highly trapped by the Geph/CB clusters. AMPA and NMDA glutamate receptors were not trapped. The results suggest: (I) in the absence of other synaptic molecules, the Geph/CB lattice has the capacity to trap not only synaptic but also several typically extrasynaptic GABA_ARs; (II) the Geph/CB lattice is important but does not play a decisive role in the synaptic localization of GABA_ARs; and (III) in neurons there must be mechanisms preventing the trapping of several typically extrasynaptic GABA_ARs by the postsynaptic Geph/CB lattice.

Regulation of GABAARs by Transmembrane Accessory Proteins

The vast majority of fast inhibitory transmission in the brain is mediated by GABA acting on GABAA receptors (GABAARs), which provides inhibitory balance to excitatory drive and controls neuronal output. GABAARs are also effectively targeted by clinically important drugs for treatment in a number of neurological disorders. It has long been hypothesized that function and pharmacology of GABAARs are determined by the channel pore-forming subunits. However, recent studies have provided new dimensions in studying GABAARs due to several transmembrane proteins that interact with GABAARs and modulate their trafficking and function. In this review, we summarize recent findings on these novel GABAAR transmembrane regulators and highlight a potential avenue to develop new GABAAR psychopharmacology by targeting these receptor-associated membrane proteins.

Collybistin SH3-protein isoforms are expressed in the rat brain promoting gephyrin and GABA-A receptor clustering at GABAergic synapses

Collybistin (CB) is a guanine nucleotide exchange factor (GEF) selectively localized at GABAergic and glycinergic postsynapses. Analysis of mRNA shows that several isoforms of collybistin are expressed in the brain. Some of the isoforms have a SH3 domain (CBSH3+) and some have no SH3 domain (CBSH3-). The CBSH3+ mRNAs are predominantly expressed over CBSH3-. However, in an immunoblot study of mouse brain homogenates, only CBSH3+ protein isoforms were detected, proposing that CBSH3- protein might not be expressed in the brain. The expression or lack of expression of CBSH3- protein is an important issue because CBSH3- has a strong effect in promoting the postsynaptic clustering of gephyrin and GABA-A receptors (GABA_A Rs). Moreover CBSH3- is constitutively active; therefore lower expression of CBSH3- protein might play a relatively stronger functional role than the more abundant but self-inhibited CBSH3+ isoforms, which need to be activated. We are now showing that: (a) CBSH3- protein is expressed in the brain; (b) parvalbumin positive (PV+) interneurons show higher expression of CBSH3- protein than other neurons; (c) CBSH3- is associated with GABAergic synapses in various regions of the brain and (d) knocking down CBSH3- in hippocampal neurons decreases the synaptic clustering of gephyrin and GABA_A Rs. The results show that CBSH3- protein is expressed in the brain and that it plays a significant role in the size regulation of the GABAergic postsynapse.

Isolation and Characterization of Multi-Protein Complexes Enriched in the K-Cl Co-transporter 2 From Brain Plasma Membranes

Kcc2 plays a critical role in determining the efficacy of synaptic inhibition, however, the cellular mechanisms neurons use to regulate its membrane trafficking, stability and activity are ill-defined. To address these issues, we used affinity purification to isolate stable multi-protein complexes of K-Cl Co-transporter 2 (Kcc2) from the plasma membrane of murine forebrain. We resolved these using blue-native polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis (BN-PAGE) coupled to LC-MS/MS and label-free quantification. Data are available via ProteomeXchange with identifier PXD021368. Purified Kcc2 migrated as distinct molecular species of 300, 600, and 800 kDa following BN-PAGE. In excess of 90% coverage of the soluble N- and C-termini of Kcc2 was obtained. In total we identified 246 proteins significantly associated with Kcc2. The 300 kDa species largely contained Kcc2, which is consistent with a dimeric quaternary structure for this transporter. The 600 and 800 kDa species represented stable multi-protein complexes of Kcc2. We identified a set of novel structural, ion transporting, immune related and signaling protein interactors, that are present at both excitatory and inhibitory synapses, consistent with the proposed localization of Kcc2. These included spectrins, C1qa/b/c and the IP3 receptor. We also identified interactors more directly associated with phosphorylation; Akap5, Akap13, and Lmtk3. Finally, we used LC-MS/MS on the same purified endogenous plasma membrane Kcc2 to detect phosphorylation sites. We detected 11 sites with high confidence, including known and novel sites. Collectively our experiments demonstrate that Kcc2 is associated with components of the neuronal cytoskeleton and signaling molecules that may act to regulate transporter membrane trafficking, stability, and activity.

Phosphorylation on Ser-359 of the α2 subunit in GABA type A receptors down-regulates their density at inhibitory synapses

GABA type A receptors (GABA_ARs) mediate fast synaptic inhibition and are trafficked to functionally diverse synapses. However, the precise molecular mechanisms that regulate the synaptic targeting of these receptors are unclear. Whereas it has been previously shown that phosphorylation events in α4, β, and γ subunits of GABA_ARs govern their function and trafficking, phosphorylation of other subunits has not yet been demonstrated. Here, we show that the α2 subunit of GABA_ARs is phosphorylated at Ser-359 and enables dynamic regulation of GABA_AR binding to the scaffolding proteins gephyrin and collybistin. We initially identified Ser-359 phosphorylation by MS analysis, and additional experiments revealed that it is regulated by the activities of cAMP-dependent protein kinase (PKA) and the protein phosphatase 1 (PP1) and/or PP2A. GST-based pulldowns and coimmunoprecipitation experiments demonstrate preferential binding of both gephyrin and collybistin to WT and an S359A phosphonull variant, but not to an S359D phosphomimetic variant. Furthermore, the decreased capacity of the α2 S359D variant to bind collybistin and gephyrin decreased the density of synaptic α2-containing GABA_AR clusters and caused an absence of α2 enrichment in the axon initial segment. These results suggest that PKA-mediated phosphorylation and PP1/PP2A-dependent dephosphorylation of the α2 subunit play a role in the dynamic regulation of GABA_AR accumulation at inhibitory synapses, thereby regulating the strength of synaptic inhibition. The MS data have been deposited to ProteomeXchange, with the data set identifier PXD019597.

Identification of a Core Amino Acid Motif within the α Subunit of GABAARs that Promotes Inhibitory Synaptogenesis and Resilience to Seizures

SUMMARY

The fidelity of inhibitory neurotransmission is dependent on the accumulation of γ-aminobutyric acid type A receptors (GABA_ARs) at the appropriate synaptic sites. Synaptic GABA_ARs are constructed from α(1–3), β(1–3), and γ2 subunits, and neurons can target these subtypes to specific synapses. Here, we identify a 15-amino acid inhibitory synapse targeting motif (ISTM) within the α2 subunit that promotes the association between GABA_ARs and the inhibitory scaffold proteins collybistin and gephyrin. Using mice in which the ISTM has been introduced into the α1 subunit (Gabra1–2 mice), we show that the ISTM is critical for axo-axonic synapse formation, the efficacy of GABAergic neurotransmission, and seizure sensitivity. The Gabra1–2 mutation rescues seizure-induced lethality in Gabra2–1 mice, which lack axo-axonic synapses due to the deletion of the ISTM from the α2 subunit. Taken together, our data demonstrate that the ISTM plays a critical role in promoting inhibitory synapse formation, both in the axonic and somatodendritic compartments.

In Brief

Molecular mechanisms regulating specific synaptic GABA_AR accumulation are critical for the fidelity of inhibitory neurotransmission. Nathanson et al. show that strengthening the interaction between α1-GABA_ARs and collybistin via genetic manipulation results in augmented synaptic targeting of these receptors, enhanced inhibitory neurotransmission, and seizure resilience.

Trafficking and Activity of Glutamate and GABA Receptors: Regulation by Cell Adhesion Molecules

The efficient targeting of ionotropic receptors to postsynaptic sites is essential for the function of chemical excitatory and inhibitory synapses, constituting the majority of synapses in the brain. A growing body of evidence indicates that cell adhesion molecules (CAMs), which accumulate at synapses at the earliest stages of synaptogenesis, are critical for this process. A diverse variety of CAMs assemble into complexes with glutamate and GABA receptors and regulate the targeting of these receptors to the cell surface and synapses. Presynaptically localized CAMs provide an additional level of regulation, sending a trans-synaptic signal that can regulate synaptic strength at the level of receptor trafficking. Apart from controlling the numbers of receptors present at postsynaptic sites, CAMs can also influence synaptic strength by modulating the conductivity of single receptor channels. CAMs thus act to maintain basal synaptic transmission and are essential for many forms of activity dependent synaptic plasticity. These activities of CAMs may underlie the association between CAM gene mutations and synaptic pathology and represent fundamental mechanisms by which synaptic strength is dynamically tuned at both excitatory and inhibitory synapses.

Inhibitory synaptic transmission tuned by Ca2+ and glutamate through the control of GABAA R lateral diffusion dynamics

The GABAergic synapses, a primary inhibitory synapse in the mammalian brain, is important for the normal development of brain circuits, and for the regulation of the excitation‐inhibition balance critical for brain function from the developmental stage throughout life. However, the molecular mechanism underlying the formation, maintenance, and modulation of GABAergic synapses is less understood compared to that of excitatory synapses. Quantum dot‐single particle tracking (QD‐SPT), a super‐resolution imaging technique that enables the analysis of membrane molecule dynamics at single‐molecule resolution, is a powerful tool to analyze the behavior of proteins and lipids on the plasma membrane. In this review, we summarize the recent application of QD‐SPT in understanding of GABAergic synaptic transmission. Here we introduce QD‐SPT experiments that provide further insights into the molecular mechanism supporting GABAergic synapses. QD‐SPT studies revealed that glutamate and Ca²⁺ signaling is involved in (a) the maintenance of GABAergic synapses, (b) GABAergic long‐term depression, and GABAergic long‐term potentiation, by specifically activating signaling pathways unique to each phenomenon. We also introduce a novel Ca²⁺ imaging technique to describe the diversity of Ca²⁺ signals that may activate the downstream signaling pathways that induce specific biological output.

Shisa7 is a GABAA receptor auxiliary subunit controlling benzodiazepine actions

The function and pharmacology of γ-aminobutyric acid type A receptors (GABA_ARs) are of great physiological and clinical importance and have long been thought to be determined by the channel pore-forming subunits. We discovered that Shisa7, a single-passing transmembrane protein, localizes at GABAergic inhibitory synapses and interacts with GABA_ARs. Shisa7 controls receptor abundance at synapses and speeds up the channel deactivation kinetics. Shisa7 also potently enhances the action of diazepam, a classic benzodiazepine, on GABA_ARs. Genetic deletion of Shisa7 selectively impairs GABAergic transmission and diminishes the effects of diazepam in mice. Our data indicate that Shisa7 regulates GABA_AR trafficking, function, and pharmacology and reveal a previously unknown molecular interaction that modulates benzodiazepine action in the brain.

Direct Interaction of PP2A Phosphatase with GABAB Receptors Alters Functional Signaling

Addictive drugs usurp the brain's intrinsic mechanism for reward, leading to compulsive and destructive behaviors. In the ventral tegmental area (VTA), the center of the brain's reward circuit, GABAergic neurons control the excitability of dopamine (DA) projection neurons and are the site of initial psychostimulant-dependent changes in signaling. Previous work established that cocaine/methamphetamine exposure increases protein phosphatase 2A (PP2A) activity, which dephosphorylates the GABA_BR2 subunit, promotes internalization of the GABA_B receptor (GABA_BR) and leads to smaller GABA_BR-activated G-protein-gated inwardly rectifying potassium (GIRK) currents in VTA GABA neurons. How the actions of PP2A become selective for a particular signaling pathway is poorly understood. Here, we demonstrate that PP2A can associate directly with a short peptide sequence in the C terminal domain of the GABA_BR1 subunit, and that GABA_BRs and PP2A are in close proximity in rodent neurons (mouse/rat; mixed sexes). We show that this PP2A-GABA_BR interaction can be regulated by intracellular Ca²⁺ Finally, a peptide that potentially reduces recruitment of PP2A to GABA_BRs and thereby limits receptor dephosphorylation increases the magnitude of baclofen-induced GIRK currents. Thus, limiting PP2A-dependent dephosphorylation of GABA_BRs may be a useful strategy to increase receptor signaling for treating diseases.SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT Dysregulation of GABA_B receptors (GABA_BRs) underlies altered neurotransmission in many neurological disorders. Protein phosphatase 2A (PP2A) is involved in dephosphorylating and subsequent internalization of GABA_BRs in models of addiction and depression. Here, we provide new evidence that PP2A B55 regulatory subunit interacts directly with a small region of the C-terminal domain of the GABA_BR1 subunit, and that this interaction is sensitive to intracellular Ca²⁺ We demonstrate that a short peptide corresponding to the PP2A interaction site on GABA_BR1 competes for PP2A binding, enhances phosphorylation GABA_BR2 S783, and affects functional signaling through GIRK channels. Our study highlights how targeting PP2A dependent dephosphorylation of GABA_BRs may provide a specific strategy to modulate GABA_BR signaling in disease conditions.

Glycine Receptor Complex Analysis Using Immunoprecipitation-Blue Native Gel Electrophoresis-Mass Spectrometry

The pentameric glycine receptor (GlyR), comprising the α1 and β subunits, is a major inhibitory ionotropic receptor in brainstem and spinal cord. GlyRs interact with gephyrin (GPHN), a scaffold protein that anchors the GlyR in the plasma membrane and enables it to form clusters in glycinergic postsynapses. Using an interaction proteomics approach, evidence of the ArfGEFs IQ motif and Sec7 domain 3 (IQSEC3) and IQ motif and Sec7 domain 2 (IQSEC2) as two novel synaptic proteins interacting with GlyR complexes is provided. When the affinity-isolated GlyR complexes are fractionated by blue native gel electrophoresis and characterized by mass spectrometry, GlyR α1β-GPHN appears as the most abundant complex with a molecular weight of ≈1 MDa, and GlyR α1β-GPHN-IQSEC3 as a minor protein complex of ≈1.2 MDa. A third GlyR α1β-GPHN-IQSEC2 complex exists at the lowest amount with a mass similar to the IQSEC3 containing complex. Using yeast two-hybrid it is demonstrated that IQSEC3 interacts with the GlyR complex by binding to the GPHN G domain at the N-terminal of the IQSEC3 IQ-like domain. The data provide direct evidence of the interaction of IQSEC3 with GlyR-GPHN complexes, underscoring a potential role of these ArfGEFs in the function of glycinergic synapses.

Essential role for InSyn1 in dystroglycan complex integrity and cognitive behaviors in mice

Human mutations in the dystroglycan complex (DGC) result in not only muscular dystrophy but also cognitive impairments. However, the molecular architecture critical for the synaptic organization of the DGC in neurons remains elusive. Here, we report Inhibitory Synaptic protein 1 (InSyn1) is a critical component of the DGC whose loss alters the composition of the GABAergic synapses, excitatory/inhibitory balance in vitro and in vivo, and cognitive behavior. Association of InSyn1 with DGC subunits is required for InSyn1 synaptic localization. InSyn1 null neurons also show a significant reduction in DGC and GABA receptor distribution as well as abnormal neuronal network activity. Moreover, InSyn1 null mice exhibit elevated neuronal firing patterns in the hippocampus and deficits in fear conditioning memory. Our results support the dysregulation of the DGC at inhibitory synapses and altered neuronal network activity and specific cognitive tasks via loss of a novel component, InSyn1.

Modulating anxiety and activity

A regulator of inhibitory neurotransmission is essential for benzodiazepine actions

Dynamic- and Frequency-Specific Regulation of Sleep Oscillations by Cortical Potassium Channels

Primary electroencephalographic (EEG) features of sleep arise in part from thalamocortical neural assemblies, and cortical potassium channels have long been thought to play a critical role. We have exploited the regionally dynamic nature of sleep EEG to develop a novel screening strategy and used it to conduct an adeno-associated virus (AAV)-mediated RNAi screen for cellular roles of 31 different voltage-gated potassium channels in modulating cortical EEG features across the circadian sleep-wake cycle. Surprisingly, a majority of channels modified only electroencephalographic frequency bands characteristic of sleep, sometimes diurnally or even in specific vigilance states. Confirming our screen for one channel, we show that depletion of the KCa1.1 (or "BK") channel reduces EEG power in slow-wave sleep by slowing neuronal repolarization. Strikingly, this reduction completely abolishes transcriptomic changes between sleep and wake. Thus, our data establish an unexpected connection between transcription and EEG power controlled by specific potassium channels. We postulate that additive dynamic roles of individual potassium channels could integrate different influences upon sleep and wake within single neurons.

Cellular Mechanisms Contributing to the Functional Heterogeneity of GABAergic Synapses

GABAergic inhibitory neurotransmission contributes to diverse aspects of brain development and adult plasticity, including the expression of complex cognitive processes. This is afforded for in part by the dynamic adaptations occurring at inhibitory synapses, which show great heterogeneity both in terms of upstream signaling and downstream effector mechanisms. Single-particle tracking and live imaging have revealed that complex receptor-scaffold interactions critically determine adaptations at GABAergic synapses. Super-resolution imaging studies have shown that protein interactions at synaptic sites contribute to nano-scale scaffold re-arrangements through post-translational modifications (PTMs), facilitating receptor and scaffold recruitment to synaptic sites. Additionally, plasticity mechanisms may be affected by the protein composition at individual synapses and the type of pre-synaptic input. This mini-review article examines recent discoveries of plasticity mechanisms that are operational within GABAergic synapses and discusses their contribution towards functional heterogeneity in inhibitory neurotransmission.

Targeting GABAAR-Associated Proteins: New Modulators, Labels and Concepts

γ-aminobutyric acid type A receptors (GABA_ARs) are the major mediators of synaptic inhibition in the brain. Aberrant GABA_AR activity or regulation is observed in various neurodevelopmental disorders, neurodegenerative diseases and mental illnesses, including epilepsy, Alzheimer’s and schizophrenia. Benzodiazepines, anesthetics and other pharmaceutics targeting these receptors find broad clinical use, but their inherent lack of receptor subtype specificity causes unavoidable side effects, raising a need for new or adjuvant medications. In this review article, we introduce a new strategy to modulate GABAeric signaling: targeting the intracellular protein interactors of GABA_ARs. Of special interest are scaffolding, anchoring and supporting proteins that display high GABA_AR subtype specificity. Recent efforts to target gephyrin, the major intracellular integrator of GABAergic signaling, confirm that GABA_AR-associated proteins can be successfully targeted through diverse molecules, including recombinant proteins, intrabodies, peptide-based probes and small molecules. Small-molecule artemisinins and peptides derived from endogenous interactors, that specifically target the universal receptor binding site of gephyrin, acutely affect synaptic GABA_AR numbers and clustering, modifying neuronal transmission. Interference with GABA_AR trafficking provides another way to modulate inhibitory signaling. Peptides blocking the binding site of GABA_AR to AP2 increase the surface concentration of GABA_AR clusters and enhance GABAergic signaling. Engineering of gephyrin binding peptides delivered superior means to interrogate neuronal structure and function. Fluorescent peptides, designed from gephyrin binders, enable live neuronal staining and visualization of gephyrin in the post synaptic sites with submicron resolution. We anticipate that in the future, novel fluorescent probes, with improved size and binding efficiency, may find wide application in super resolution microscopy studies, enlightening the nanoscale architecture of the inhibitory synapse. Broader studies on GABA_AR accessory proteins and the identification of the exact molecular binding interfaces and affinities will advance the development of novel GABA_AR modulators and following in vivo studies will reveal their clinical potential as adjuvant or stand-alone drugs.

Diazepam Accelerates GABAAR Synaptic Exchange and Alters Intracellular Trafficking

Despite 50+ years of clinical use as anxiolytics, anti-convulsants, and sedative/hypnotic agents, the mechanisms underlying benzodiazepine (BZD) tolerance are poorly understood. BZDs potentiate the actions of gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA), the primary inhibitory neurotransmitter in the adult brain, through positive allosteric modulation of γ2 subunit containing GABA type A receptors (GABAARs). Here we define key molecular events impacting γ2 GABAAR and the inhibitory synapse gephyrin scaffold following initial sustained BZD exposure in vitro and in vivo. Using immunofluorescence and biochemical experiments, we found that cultured cortical neurons treated with the classical BZD, diazepam (DZP), presented no substantial change in surface or synaptic levels of γ2-GABAARs. In contrast, both γ2 and the postsynaptic scaffolding protein gephyrin showed diminished total protein levels following a single DZP treatment in vitro and in mouse cortical tissue. We further identified DZP treatment enhanced phosphorylation of gephyrin Ser270 and increased generation of gephyrin cleavage products. Selective immunoprecipitation of γ2 from cultured neurons revealed enhanced ubiquitination of this subunit following DZP exposure. To assess novel trafficking responses induced by DZP, we employed a γ2 subunit containing an N terminal fluorogen-activating peptide (FAP) and pH-sensitive green fluorescent protein (γ2pHFAP). Live-imaging experiments using γ2pHFAP GABAAR expressing neurons identified enhanced lysosomal targeting of surface GABAARs and increased overall accumulation in vesicular compartments in response to DZP. Using fluorescence resonance energy transfer (FRET) measurements between α2 and γ2 subunits within a GABAAR in neurons, we identified reductions in synaptic clusters of this subpopulation of surface BZD sensitive receptor. Additional time-series experiments revealed the gephyrin regulating kinase ERK was inactivated by DZP at multiple time points. Moreover, we found DZP simultaneously enhanced synaptic exchange of both γ2-GABAARs and gephyrin using fluorescence recovery after photobleaching (FRAP) techniques. Finally we provide the first proteomic analysis of the BZD sensitive GABAAR interactome in DZP vs. vehicle treated mice. Collectively, our results indicate DZP exposure elicits down-regulation of gephyrin scaffolding and BZD sensitive GABAAR synaptic availability via multiple dynamic trafficking processes.

Multiple functional neurosteroid binding sites on GABAA receptors

Neurosteroids are endogenous modulators of neuronal excitability and nervous system development and are being developed as anesthetic agents and treatments for psychiatric diseases. While gamma amino-butyric acid Type A (GABA_A) receptors are the primary molecular targets of neurosteroid action, the structural details of neurosteroid binding to these proteins remain ill defined. We synthesized neurosteroid analogue photolabeling reagents in which the photolabeling groups were placed at three positions around the neurosteroid ring structure, enabling identification of binding sites and mapping of neurosteroid orientation within these sites. Using middle-down mass spectrometry (MS), we identified three clusters of photolabeled residues representing three distinct neurosteroid binding sites in the human α₁β₃ GABA_A receptor. Novel intrasubunit binding sites were identified within the transmembrane helical bundles of both the α₁ (labeled residues α₁-N⁴⁰⁸, Y⁴¹⁵) and β₃ (labeled residue β₃-Y⁴⁴²) subunits, adjacent to the extracellular domains (ECDs). An intersubunit site (labeled residues β₃-L²⁹⁴ and G³⁰⁸) in the interface between the β₃(+) and α₁(−) subunits of the GABA_A receptor pentamer was also identified. Computational docking studies of neurosteroid to the three sites predicted critical residues contributing to neurosteroid interaction with the GABA_A receptors. Electrophysiological studies of receptors with mutations based on these predictions (α₁-V²²⁷W, N⁴⁰⁸A/Y⁴¹¹F, and Q²⁴²L) indicate that both the α₁ intrasubunit and β₃-α₁ intersubunit sites are critical for neurosteroid action.

Novel neurosteroid analogue photolabeling reagents identify three specific neurosteroid binding sites on α1β3 GABAA receptors, showing that a site between the α and β subunits, as well as a site within the α-subunit, contribute to neurosteroid-mediated enhancement of GABAA currents.

Neurosteroids are cholesterol metabolites produced by neurons and glial cells that participate in central nervous system (CNS) development, regulate neuronal excitability, and modulate complex behaviors such as mood. Exogenously administered neurosteroid analogues are effective sedative hypnotics and are being developed as antidepressants and anticonvulsants. Gamma amino-butyric acid Type A (GABA_A) receptors, the principal ionotropic inhibitory neurotransmitter receptors in the brain, are the primary functional target of neurosteroids. Understanding the molecular details of neurosteroid interactions with GABA_A receptors is critical to understanding their mechanism of action and developing specific and effective therapeutic agents. In the current study, we developed a suite of neurosteroid analogue affinity labeling reagents, which we used to identify three distinct binding sites on GABA_A receptors and to determine the orientation of neurosteroid binding in each site. Electrophysiological studies performed on receptors with mutations designed to disrupt the identified binding sites showed that two of the three sites contribute to neurosteroid modulation of GABA_A currents. The distinct patterns of neurosteroid affinity, binding orientation, and effect provide the potential for the development of isoform-specific agonists, partial agonists, and antagonists with targeted therapeutic effects.

Identifying Synaptic Proteins by In Vivo BioID from Mouse Brain

Two anatomically and functionally distinct types of synapses are present in the central nervous system, excitatory synapses, and inhibitory synapses. Purification and analysis of the protein complex at the excitatory postsynapses have led to fundamental insights into neurobiology. In contrast, the biochemical purification and analysis of the inhibitory postsynaptic density have been largely intractable. The recently developed method called BioID employs the biotin ligase mutant, BirA*, fused to a bait protein to label and capture proximal proteins. We adapted the BioID approach to enable in vivo BioID, or iBioID of inhibitory synaptic complexes in the mouse brain. This protocol describes the iBioID method to allow synaptic bait proteins to target synaptic complexes, label, and purify biotinylated proteins from the mouse brain. This technique can be easily adapted to target other substructures in vivo that have been difficult to purify and analyze in the past.

Diazepam-induced loss of inhibitory synapses mediated by PLCδ/ Ca2+/calcineurin signalling downstream of GABAA receptors

Benzodiazepines facilitate the inhibitory actions of GABA by binding to γ-aminobutyric acid type A receptors (GABAARs), GABA-gated chloride/bicarbonate channels, which are the key mediators of transmission at inhibitory synapses in the brain. This activity underpins potent anxiolytic, anticonvulsant and hypnotic effects of benzodiazepines in patients. However, extended benzodiazepine treatments lead to development of tolerance, a process which, despite its important therapeutic implications, remains poorly characterised. Here we report that prolonged exposure to diazepam, the most widely used benzodiazepine in clinic, leads to a gradual disruption of neuronal inhibitory GABAergic synapses. The loss of synapses and the preceding, time- and dose-dependent decrease in surface levels of GABAARs, mediated by dynamin-dependent internalisation, were blocked by Ro 15-1788, a competitive benzodiazepine antagonist, and bicuculline, a competitive GABA antagonist, indicating that prolonged enhancement of GABAAR activity by diazepam is integral to the underlying molecular mechanism. Characterisation of this mechanism has revealed a metabotropic-type signalling downstream of GABAARs, involving mobilisation of Ca2+ from the intracellular stores and activation of the Ca2+/calmodulin-dependent phosphatase calcineurin, which, in turn, dephosphorylates GABAARs and promotes their endocytosis, leading to disassembly of inhibitory synapses. Furthermore, functional coupling between GABAARs and Ca2+ stores was sensitive to phospholipase C (PLC) inhibition by U73122, and regulated by PLCδ, a PLC isoform found in direct association with GABAARs. Thus, a PLCδ/Ca2+/calcineurin signalling cascade converts the initial enhancement of GABAARs by benzodiazepines to a long-term downregulation of GABAergic synapses, this potentially underpinning the development of pharmacological and behavioural tolerance to these widely prescribed drugs.

γ2 GABAAR Trafficking and the Consequences of Human Genetic Variation

GABA type A receptors (GABA_ARs) mediate the majority of fast inhibitory neurotransmission in the central nervous system (CNS). Most prevalent as heteropentamers composed of two α, two β, and a γ2 subunit, these ligand-gated ionotropic chloride channels are capable of extensive genetic diversity (α1-6, β1-3, γ1-3, δ, 𝜀, 𝜃, π, ρ1-3). Part of this selective GABA_AR assembly arises from the critical role for γ2 in maintaining synaptic receptor localization and function. Accordingly, mutations in this subunit account for over half of the known epilepsy-associated genetic anomalies identified in GABA_ARs. Fundamental structure-function studies and cellular pathology investigations have revealed dynamic GABA_AR trafficking and synaptic scaffolding as critical regulators of GABAergic inhibition. Here, we introduce in vitro and in vivo findings regarding the specific role of the γ2 subunit in receptor trafficking. We then examine γ2 subunit human genetic variation and assess disease related phenotypes and the potential role of altered GABA_AR trafficking. Finally, we discuss new-age imaging techniques and their potential to provide novel insight into critical regulatory mechanisms of GABA_AR function.

Quantitative phosphoproteomic analysis of the molecular substrates of sleep need

Sleep and wake have global effects on brain physiology, from molecular changes^1-4 and neuronal activities to synaptic plasticity^3-7. Sleep-wake homeostasis is maintained by the generation of a sleep need that accumulates during waking and dissipates during sleep^8-11. Here we investigate the molecular basis of sleep need using quantitative phosphoproteomic analysis of the sleep-deprived and Sleepy mouse models of increased sleep need. Sleep deprivation induces cumulative phosphorylation of the brain proteome, which dissipates during sleep. Sleepy mice, owing to a gain-of-function mutation in the Sik3 gene ¹² , have a constitutively high sleep need despite increased sleep amount. The brain proteome of these mice exhibits hyperphosphorylation, similar to that seen in the brain of sleep-deprived mice. Comparison of the two models identifies 80 mostly synaptic sleep-need-index phosphoproteins (SNIPPs), in which phosphorylation states closely parallel changes of sleep need. SLEEPY, the mutant SIK3 protein, preferentially associates with and phosphorylates SNIPPs. Inhibition of SIK3 activity reduces phosphorylation of SNIPPs and slow wave activity during non-rapid-eye-movement sleep, the best known measurable index of sleep need, in both Sleepy mice and sleep-deprived wild-type mice. Our results suggest that phosphorylation of SNIPPs accumulates and dissipates in relation to sleep need, and therefore SNIPP phosphorylation is a molecular signature of sleep need. Whereas waking encodes memories by potentiating synapses, sleep consolidates memories and restores synaptic homeostasis by globally downscaling excitatory synapses^4-6. Thus, the phosphorylation-dephosphorylation cycle of SNIPPs may represent a major regulatory mechanism that underlies both synaptic homeostasis and sleep-wake homeostasis.

Locally Reducing KCC2 Activity in the Hippocampus is Sufficient to Induce Temporal Lobe Epilepsy

Mesial temporal lobe epilepsy (mTLE) is the most common form of epilepsy, believed to arise in part from compromised GABAergic inhibition. The neuronal specific K+/Cl- co-transporter 2 (KCC2) is a critical determinant of the efficacy of GABAergic inhibition and deficits in its activity are observed in mTLE patients and animal models of epilepsy. To test if reductions of KCC2 activity directly contribute to the pathophysiology of mTLE, we locally ablated KCC2 expression in a subset of principal neurons within the adult hippocampus. Deletion of KCC2 resulted in compromised GABAergic inhibition and the development of spontaneous, recurrent generalized seizures. Moreover, local ablation of KCC2 activity resulted in hippocampal sclerosis, a key pathological change seen in mTLE. Collectively, our results demonstrate that local deficits in KCC2 activity within the hippocampus are sufficient to precipitate mTLE.

An Essential Role for the Tetraspanin LHFPL4 in the Cell-Type-Specific Targeting and Clustering of Synaptic GABAA Receptors

Inhibitory synaptic transmission requires the targeting and stabilization of GABA_A receptors (GABA_ARs) at synapses. The mechanisms responsible remain poorly understood, and roles for transmembrane accessory proteins have not been established. Using molecular, imaging, and electrophysiological approaches, we identify the tetraspanin LHFPL4 as a critical regulator of postsynaptic GABA_AR clustering in hippocampal pyramidal neurons. LHFPL4 interacts tightly with GABA_AR subunits and is selectively enriched at inhibitory synapses. In LHFPL4 knockout mice, there is a dramatic cell-type-specific reduction in GABA_AR and gephyrin clusters and an accumulation of large intracellular gephyrin aggregates in vivo. While GABA_ARs are still trafficked to the neuronal surface in pyramidal neurons, they are no longer localized at synapses, resulting in a profound loss of fast inhibitory postsynaptic currents. Hippocampal interneuron currents remain unaffected. Our results establish LHFPL4 as a synapse-specific tetraspanin essential for inhibitory synapse function and provide fresh insights into the molecular make-up of inhibitory synapses.

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LHFPL4 is a tetraspanin enriched at inhibitory synapses that complexes with GABA_ARs

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LHFPL4 is important for GABA_AR clustering both in vitro and in vivo

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LHFPL4 is required for the surface clustering but not the trafficking of GABA_ARs

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GABAergic synaptic inputs on CA1 pyramidal neurons, but not interneurons, require LHFPL4

GABA type a receptor trafficking and the architecture of synaptic inhibition

Ubiquitous expression of GABA type A receptors (GABAA R) in the central nervous system establishes their central role in coordinating most aspects of neural function and development. Dysregulation of GABAergic neurotransmission manifests in a number of human health disorders and conditions that in certain cases can be alleviated by drugs targeting these receptors. Precise changes in the quantity or activity of GABAA Rs localized at the cell surface and at GABAergic postsynaptic sites directly impact the strength of inhibition. The molecular mechanisms constituting receptor trafficking to and from these compartments therefore dictate the efficacy of GABAA R function. Here we review the current understanding of how GABAA Rs traffic through biogenesis, plasma membrane transport, and degradation. Emphasis is placed on discussing novel GABAergic synaptic proteins, receptor and scaffolding post-translational modifications, activity-dependent changes in GABAA R confinement, and neuropeptide and neurosteroid mediated changes. We further highlight modern techniques currently advancing the knowledge of GABAA R trafficking and clinically relevant neurodevelopmental diseases connected to GABAergic dysfunction. © 2017 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. Develop Neurobiol 78: 238-270, 2018.

On the Path from Proteomics to Function: GABAAR Trafficking Takes a Turn

There are significant challenges in identifying receptor-specific functional interactors in vivo. In this issue of Neuron, Ge et al. (2018) identify a novel GABAA receptor (GABAAR)-interacting protein, Clptm1, that regulates forward trafficking of GABAARs and inhibitory transmission.

Clptm1 Limits Forward Trafficking of GABAA Receptors to Scale Inhibitory Synaptic Strength

In contrast with numerous studies of glutamate receptor-associated proteins and their involvement in the modulation of excitatory synapses, much less is known about mechanisms controlling postsynaptic GABA_A receptor (GABA_AR) numbers. Using tandem affinity purification from tagged GABA_AR γ2 subunit transgenic mice and proteomic analysis, we isolated several GABA_AR-associated proteins, including Cleft lip and palate transmembrane protein 1 (Clptm1). Clptm1 interacted with all GABA_AR subunits tested and promoted GABA_AR trapping in the endoplasmic reticulum. Overexpression of Clptm1 reduced GABA_AR-mediated currents in a recombinant system, in cultured hippocampal neurons, and in brain, with no effect on glycine or AMPA receptor-mediated currents. Conversely, knockdown of Clptm1 increased phasic and tonic inhibitory transmission with no effect on excitatory synaptic transmission. Furthermore, altering the expression level of Clptm1 mimicked activity-induced inhibitory synaptic scaling. Thus, in complement to other GABA_AR-associated proteins that promote receptor surface expression, Clptm1 limits GABA_AR forward trafficking and regulates inhibitory homeostatic plasticity.

Emerging Mechanisms Underlying Dynamics of GABAergic Synapses

Inhibitory circuits are diverse, yet with a poorly understood cell biology. Functional characterization of distinct inhibitory neuron subtypes has not been sufficient to explain how GABAergic neurotransmission sculpts principal cell activity in a relevant fashion. Our Mini-Symposium brings together several emerging mechanisms that modulate GABAergic neurotransmission dynamically from either the presynaptic or the postsynaptic site. The first two talks discuss novel developmental and neuronal subtype-specific contributions to the excitatory/inhibitory balance and circuit maturation. The next three talks examine how interactions between cellular pathways, lateral diffusion of proteins between synapses, and chloride transporter function at excitatory and inhibitory synapses and facilitate inhibitory synapse adaptations. Finally, we address functional differences within GABAergic interneurons to highlight the importance of diverse, flexible, and versatile inputs that shape network function. Together, the selection of topics demonstrates how developmental and activity-dependent mechanisms coordinate inhibition in relation to the excitatory inputs and vice versa.

Correlating Fluorescence and High-Resolution Scanning Electron Microscopy (HRSEM) for the study of GABAA receptor clustering induced by inhibitory synaptic plasticity

Both excitatory and inhibitory synaptic contacts display activity dependent dynamic changes in their efficacy that are globally termed synaptic plasticity. Although the molecular mechanisms underlying glutamatergic synaptic plasticity have been extensively investigated and described, those responsible for inhibitory synaptic plasticity are only beginning to be unveiled. In this framework, the ultrastructural changes of the inhibitory synapses during plasticity have been poorly investigated. Here we combined confocal fluorescence microscopy (CFM) with high resolution scanning electron microscopy (HRSEM) to characterize the fine structural rearrangements of post-synaptic GABA_A Receptors (GABA_ARs) at the nanometric scale during the induction of inhibitory long-term potentiation (iLTP). Additional electron tomography (ET) experiments on immunolabelled hippocampal neurons allowed the visualization of synaptic contacts and confirmed the reorganization of post-synaptic GABA_AR clusters in response to chemical iLTP inducing protocol. Altogether, these approaches revealed that, following the induction of inhibitory synaptic potentiation, GABA_AR clusters increase in size and number at the post-synaptic membrane with no other major structural changes of the pre- and post-synaptic elements.

Native KCC2 interactome reveals PACSIN1 as a critical regulator of synaptic inhibition

KCC2 is a neuron-specific K+-Cl- cotransporter essential for establishing the Cl- gradient required for hyperpolarizing inhibition in the central nervous system (CNS). KCC2 is highly localized to excitatory synapses where it regulates spine morphogenesis and AMPA receptor confinement. Aberrant KCC2 function contributes to human neurological disorders including epilepsy and neuropathic pain. Using functional proteomics, we identified the KCC2-interactome in the mouse brain to determine KCC2-protein interactions that regulate KCC2 function. Our analysis revealed that KCC2 interacts with diverse proteins, and its most predominant interactors play important roles in postsynaptic receptor recycling. The most abundant KCC2 interactor is a neuronal endocytic regulatory protein termed PACSIN1 (SYNDAPIN1). We verified the PACSIN1-KCC2 interaction biochemically and demonstrated that shRNA knockdown of PACSIN1 in hippocampal neurons increases KCC2 expression and hyperpolarizes the reversal potential for Cl-. Overall, our global native-KCC2 interactome and subsequent characterization revealed PACSIN1 as a novel and potent negative regulator of KCC2.

GARLH Family Proteins Stabilize GABAA Receptors at Synapses

Ionotropic neurotransmitter receptors mediate fast synaptic transmission by functioning as ligand-gated ion channels. Fast inhibitory transmission in the brain is mediated mostly by ionotropic GABA_A receptors (GABA_ARs), but their essential components for synaptic localization remain unknown. Here, we identify putative auxiliary subunits of GABA_ARs, which we term GARLHs, consisting of LH4 and LH3 proteins. LH4 forms a stable tripartite complex with GABA_ARs and neuroligin-2 in the brain. Moreover, LH4 is required for the synaptic localization of GABA_ARs and inhibitory synaptic transmission in the hippocampus. Our findings propose GARLHs as the first identified auxiliary subunits for anion channels. These findings provide new insights into the regulation of inhibitory transmission and the molecular constituents of native anion channels in vivo.

Identification of an elaborate complex mediating postsynaptic inhibition

Inhibitory synapses dampen neuronal activity through postsynaptic hyperpolarization. The composition of the inhibitory postsynapse and the mechanistic basis of its regulation, however, remain poorly understood. We used an in vivo chemico-genetic proximity-labeling approach to discover inhibitory postsynaptic proteins. Quantitative mass spectrometry not only recapitulated known inhibitory postsynaptic proteins but also revealed a large network of new proteins, many of which are either implicated in neurodevelopmental disorders or are of unknown function. Clustered regularly interspaced short palindromic repeats (CRISPR) depletion of one of these previously uncharacterized proteins, InSyn1, led to decreased postsynaptic inhibitory sites, reduced the frequency of miniature inhibitory currents, and increased excitability in the hippocampus. Our findings uncover a rich and functionally diverse assemblage of previously unknown proteins that regulate postsynaptic inhibition and might contribute to developmental brain disorders.

Regulation of GABAergic synapse development by postsynaptic membrane proteins

In the adult mammalian brain, GABAergic neurotransmission provides the majority of synaptic inhibition that balances glutamatergic excitatory drive and thereby controls neuronal output. It is generally accepted that synaptogenesis is initiated through highly specific protein-protein interactions mediated by membrane proteins expressed in developing presynaptic terminals and postsynaptic membranes. Accumulating studies have uncovered a number of membrane proteins that regulate different aspects of GABAergic synapse development. In this review, we summarize recent advances in understanding of GABAergic synapse development with a focus on postsynaptic membrane molecules, including receptors, synaptogenic cell adhesion molecules and immunoglobulin superfamily proteins.