Unfractionated heparin and new heparin analogues from ascidians (chordate-tunicate) ameliorate colitis in rats

Sea Cucumber and Blueberry Extracts Suppress Inflammation and Reduce Acute Lung Injury through the Regulation of NF-κB/MAPK/JNK Signaling Pathway in Lipopolysaccharide-Treated C57BL/6 Mice

Acute lung injury (ALI) represents a life-threatening condition with high morbidity and mortality despite modern mechanical ventilators and multiple pharmacological strategies. Therefore, there is a need to develop efficacious interventions with minimal side effects. The anti-inflammatory activities of sea cucumber (Cucumaria frondosa) and wild blueberry (Vaccinium angustifolium) extracts have been reported recently. However, their anti-inflammatory activities and the mechanism of action against ALI are not fully elucidated. Thus, the present study aims to understand the mechanism of the anti-inflammatory activity of sea cucumber and wild blueberry extracts in the context of ALI. Experimental ALI was induced via intranasal lipopolysaccharide (LPS) instillation in C57BL/6 mice and the anti-inflammatory properties were determined by cytokine analysis, histological examination, western blot, and qRT-PCR. The results showed that oral supplementation of sea cucumber extracts repressed nuclear factor kappa B (NF-κB) and mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) signaling pathways, thereby downregulating the expression of interleukin (IL)-1β, IL-6, and tumor necrosis factor (TNF) in the lung tissue and in the plasma. Wild blueberry extracts also suppressed the expression of IL-4. Furthermore, the combination of sea cucumber and wild blueberry extracts restrained MAPK signaling pathways by prominent attenuation of phosphorylation of NF-κB, c-Jun N-terminal kinase (JNK), and extracellular signal-regulated kinase (ERK) while the levels of pro-inflammatory cytokines were significantly suppressed. Moreover, there was a significant and synergistic reduction in varying degrees of ALI lesions such as distorted parenchyma, increased alveoli thickness, lymphocyte and neutrophil infiltrations, fibrin deposition, pulmonary emphysema, pneumonia, intra-alveolar hemorrhage, and edema. The anti-inflammatory effect of the combination of sea cucumber and wild blueberry extracts is associated with suppressing MAPK and NF-κB signaling pathways, thereby significantly reducing cytokine storm in LPS-induced experimental ALI.

Tunicates as Sources of High-Quality Nutrients and Bioactive Compounds for Food/Feed and Pharmaceutical Applications: A Review

Tunicates are widely distributed worldwide and are recognized as abundant marine bioresources with many potential applications. In this review, state-of-the-art studies on chemical composition analyses of various tunicate species were summarized; these studies confirmed that tunicates contain nutrients similar to fish (such as abundant cellulose, protein, and ω-3 fatty acid (FA)-rich lipids), indicating their practical and feasible uses for food or animal feed exploration. However, the presence of certain toxic elements should be evaluated in terms of safety. Moreover, recent studies on bioactive substances extracted from tunicates (such as toxins, sphingomyelins, and tunichromes) were analyzed, and their biological properties were comprehensively reviewed, including antimicrobial, anticancer, antioxidant, antidiabetic, and anti-inflammatory activities. In addition, some insights and prospects for the future exploration of tunicates are provided which are expected to guide their further application in the food, animal feed, and pharmaceutical industries. This review is critical to providing a new pathway for converting the common pollution issues of hydroponic nutrients into valuable marine bioresources.

The effect of the sulfation patterns of dermatan and chondroitin sulfate from vertebrates and ascidians on their neuritogenic and neuroprotective properties

Neurodegeneration is caused by the progressive loss of the structure and function of neurons, leading to cell death, and it is the main cause of many neurodegenerative diseases. Many molecules, such as glycosaminoglycans (GAGs), have been studied for their potential to prevent or treat these diseases. They are widespread in nature and perform an important role in neuritogenesis and neuroprotection. Here we investigated the neuritogenic and neuroprotective role of Phallusia nigra dermatan sulfate (PnD2,6S) and compared it with two distinct structures of chondroitin sulfate (C6S) and dermatan sulfate (D4S). For this study, a neuro 2A murine neuroblastoma cell line was used, and a chemical lesion was induced by the pesticide rotenone (ROT). We observed that PnD2,6S + ROT had a better neuritogenic effect than either C6S + ROT or D4S + ROT at a lower concentration (0.05 μg/mL). When evaluating the mitochondrial membrane potential, PnD2,6S showed a neuroprotective effect at a concentration of 0.4 μg/mL. These data indicate different mechanisms underlying this neuronal potential, in which the sulfation pattern is important for neuritogenic activity, while for neuroprotection all DS/CS structures had similar effects. This finding leads to a better understanding the chemical structures of PnD2,6S, C6S, and D4S and their therapeutic potential.

Pharmacology of Heparin and Related Drugs: An Update

Heparin has been used extensively as an antithrombotic and anticoagulant for close to 100 years. This anticoagulant activity is attributed mainly to the pentasaccharide sequence, which potentiates the inhibitory action of antithrombin, a major inhibitor of the coagulation cascade. More recently it has been elucidated that heparin exhibits anti-inflammatory effect via interference of the formation of neutrophil extracellular traps and this may also contribute to heparin's antithrombotic activity. This illustrates that heparin interacts with a broad range of biomolecules, exerting both anticoagulant and nonanticoagulant actions. Since our previous review, there has been an increased interest in these nonanticoagulant effects of heparin, with the beneficial role in patients infected with SARS2-coronavirus a highly topical example. This article provides an update on our previous review with more recent developments and observations made for these novel uses of heparin and an overview of the development status of heparin-based drugs. SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT: This state-of-the-art review covers recent developments in the use of heparin and heparin-like materials as anticoagulant, now including immunothrombosis observations, and as nonanticoagulant including a role in the treatment of SARS-coronavirus and inflammatory conditions.

Antioxidant and Anti-inflammatory Extracts From Sea Cucumbers and Tunicates Induce a Pro-osteogenic Effect in Zebrafish Larvae

Bone metabolic disorders such as osteoporosis are characterized by the loss of mineral from the bone tissue leading to its structural weakening and increased susceptibility to fractures. A growing body of evidence suggests that inflammation and oxidative stress play an important role in the pathophysiological processes involved in the rise of these conditions. As the currently available therapeutic strategies are often characterized by toxic effects associated with their long-term use, natural antioxidants and anti-inflammatory compounds such as polyphenols promise to be a valuable alternative for the prevention and treatment of these disorders. In this scope, the marine environment is becoming an important source of bioactive compounds with potential pharmacological applications. Here, we explored the bioactive potential of three species of holothurians (Echinodermata) and four species of tunicates (Chordata) as sources of antioxidant and anti-inflammatory compounds with a particular focus on polyphenolic substances. Hydroethanolic and aqueous extracts were obtained from animals' biomass and screened for their content of polyphenols and their antioxidant and anti-inflammatory properties. Hydroethanolic fractions of three species of tunicates displayed high polyphenolic content associated with strong antioxidant potential and anti-inflammatory activity. Extracts were thereafter tested for their capacity to promote bone formation and mineralization by applying an assay that uses the developing operculum of zebrafish (Danio rerio) to assess the osteogenic activity of compounds. The same three hydroethanolic fractions from tunicates were characterized by a strong in vivo osteogenic activity, which positively correlated with their anti-inflammatory potential as measured by COX-2 inhibition. This study highlights the therapeutic potential of polyphenol-rich hydroethanolic extracts obtained from three species of tunicates as a substrate for the development of novel drugs for the treatment of bone disorders correlated to oxidative stress and inflammatory processes.

A guide to the composition and functions of the extracellular matrix

Extracellular matrix (ECM) is a dynamic 3-dimensional network of macromolecules that provides structural support for the cells and tissues. Accumulated knowledge clearly demonstrated over the last decade that ECM plays key regulatory roles since it orchestrates cell signaling, functions, properties and morphology. Extracellularly secreted as well as cell-bound factors are among the major members of the ECM family. Proteins/glycoproteins, such as collagens, elastin, laminins and tenascins, proteoglycans and glycosaminoglycans, hyaluronan, and their cell receptors such as CD44 and integrins, responsible for cell adhesion, comprise a well-organized functional network with significant roles in health and disease. On the other hand, enzymes such as matrix metalloproteinases and specific glycosidases including heparanase and hyaluronidases contribute to matrix remodeling and affect human health. Several cell processes and functions, among them cell proliferation and survival, migration, differentiation, autophagy, angiogenesis, and immunity regulation are affected by certain matrix components. Structural alterations have been also well associated with disease progression. This guide on the composition and functions of the ECM gives a broad overview of the matrisome, the major ECM macromolecules, and their interaction networks within the ECM and with the cell surface, summarizes their main structural features and their roles in tissue organization and cell functions, and emphasizes the importance of specific ECM constituents in disease development and progression as well as the advances in molecular targeting of ECM to design new therapeutic strategies.

Inflammatory Response of Healthy Horses Subjected to Small Colon Enterotomy and Treated or Not With Heparin

The acute phase response is a response to injury and depends on the severity of the trauma. Heparin is routinely used for postsurgical treatment of horses to prevent abdominal adhesions; however, its effect on inflammation is unknown. This study aimed to assess systemic inflammatory response of horses subjected to small colon enterotomy and to evaluate heparin effects on postsurgical inflammation. Ten adult horses were subjected to small colon enterotomy and were assigned to a control or a treatment group. Both groups received prophylactic antibiotics and flunixin, and the treatment group received 150 IU/kg heparin subcutaneously after surgery and every 12 hours for five days. WBC counts, peritoneal fluid evaluation, determination of serum and peritoneal haptoglobin (Hp), and serum amyloid A (SAA) were performed before, 12 hours, and 1, 2, 4, 6, 10, and 14 days after enterotomy. Forty-eight hours after surgery, a significant increase in serum Hp was observed in the control group, and SAA concentrations increased significantly in the both groups between 24 hours, 48 hours, and 4 days after surgery. The SAA and serum Hp concentrations produced no significant differences between the groups. Peritoneal Hp increased significantly in the control group 4 days after surgery and was significantly higher in the control group than in the treated group 14 days after surgery. Serum Hp and SAA identified the acute phase response changes faster, however, were not able to identify differences between groups. Peritoneal Hp concentrations identified inflammatory differences between the groups 14 days after surgery; the difference suggests that heparin may act decreasing inflammation.

Oceans as a Source of Immunotherapy

Marine flora is taxonomically diverse, biologically active, and chemically unique. It is an excellent resource, which offers great opportunities for the discovery of new biopharmaceuticals such as immunomodulators and drugs targeting cancerous, inflammatory, microbial, and fungal diseases. The ability of some marine molecules to mediate specific inhibitory activities has been demonstrated in a range of cellular processes, including apoptosis, angiogenesis, and cell migration and adhesion. Immunomodulators have been shown to have significant therapeutic effects on immune-mediated diseases, but the search for safe and effective immunotherapies for other diseases such as sinusitis, atopic dermatitis, rheumatoid arthritis, asthma and allergies is ongoing. This review focuses on the marine-originated bioactive molecules with immunomodulatory potential, with a particular focus on the molecular mechanisms of specific agents with respect to their targets. It also addresses the commercial utilization of these compounds for possible drug improvement using metabolic engineering and genomics.

Chondroitin sulfate inhibits secretion of TNF and CXCL8 from human mast cells stimulated by IL-33

Glycosaminoglycans (GAGs) are linear, highly negatively charged carbohydrate chains present in connective tissues. Chondroitin sulfate (CS) and heparin (Hep) are also found in the numerous secretory granules of mast cells (MC), tissue immune cells involved in allergic and inflammatory reactions. CS and Hep may inhibit secretion of histamine from rat connective tissue MC, but their effect on human MC remains unknown. Human LAD2 MC were pre-incubated with CS, Hep, or dermatan sulfate (DS) before being stimulated by either the peptide substance P (SP, 2 μM) or the cytokine IL-33 (10 ng/mL). Preincubation with CS had no effect on MC degranulation stimulated by SP, but inhibited TNF (60%) and CXCL8 (45%) secretion from LAD2 cells stimulated by IL-33. Fluorescein-conjugated CS (CS-F) was internalized by LAD2 cells only at 37 °C, but not 4 °C, indicating it occurred by endocytosis. DS and Hep inhibited IL-33-stimulated secretion of TNF and CXCL8 to a similar extent as CS. None of the GAGs tested inhibited IL-33-stimulated gene expression of either TNF or CXCL8. There was no effect of CS on ionomycin-stimulated calcium influx. There was also no effect of CS on surface expression of the IL-33 receptor, ST2. Neutralization of the hyaluronan receptor CD44 did not affect the internalization of CS-F. The findings in this article show that CS inhibits secretion of TNF and CXCL8 from human cultured MC stimulated by IL-33. CS could be formulated for systemic or topical treatment of allergic or inflammatory diseases, such as atopic dermatitis, cutaneous mastocytosis, and psoriasis. © 2018 BioFactors, 45(1):49-61, 2019.

Leishmaniasis and glycosaminoglycans: a future therapeutic strategy?

Leishmania spp. depend on effective macrophage infection to establish and develop in mammalian hosts. Both metacyclic promastigotes and amastigotes are able to infect host cells, and thus they rely on several ligands that, when recognized by macrophage receptors, mediate parasite uptake. During macrophage primary infection with metacyclic forms from the insect vector and during amastigote dissemination via macrophage rupture, both infective stages have to cope with the host extracellular microenvironment, including extracellular matrix molecules. Glycosaminoglycans are abundant in the extracellular matrix and many of these molecules are able to interact with the parasite and the host cell, mediating positive and negative effects for the infection, depending on their structure and/or location. In addition, glycosaminoglycans are present at the surface of macrophages as proteoglycans, playing important roles for parasite recognition and uptake. In this review, we discuss glycosaminoglycans in the context of Leishmania infection as well as the possible applications of the current knowledge regarding these molecules for the development of new therapeutic strategies to control parasite dissemination.

Rat models of high risk colorectal anastomoses 1

PURPOSE

To evaluate the most frequent surgical techniques of high-risk colorectal anastomoses in rats.

METHODS

Wistar rats were enrolled in three different models comprising inflammatory (TNBS enema), vascular (portal vein occlusion) or obstructive (a non-ischemic constricting ring) mechanisms associated with colonic anastomosis that had accomplished after these former lesions. Histological analyses (Hematoxylin and eosin and Picrosirius red) were performed.

RESULTS

All anastomoses techniques were associated with risk factors and had complications, mainly anastomotic leakage. In Study 1, the use of a pharmacological agent, trinitrobenzene sulfonic acid (TNBS) mimicked an inflammatory bowel disease such as Crohn's disease with 50% of anastomosis leakage, the higher percentage among all models tested. In Study 2, after portal ischemia followed by reperfusion it was observed a dense neutrophil infiltrate in the midst of necrotic tissue and fibrin at the anastomotic site and 5 days after the anastomosis, no collagen was produced. In Study 3, 5 days after the mechanical obstruction some denuded areas of epithelium with marked oedema of mucosa and submucosa were seen, at the anastomotic site and anastomosis group showed some reduction of collagen density when compared with Control/Sham group.

CONCLUSION

All the experimental surgical techniques tested in rats were associated with high-risk colorectal anastomoses and were useful to study colonic anastomotic healing and intestinal leakage.

Marine Carbohydrate-Based Compounds with Medicinal Properties

The oceans harbor a great diversity of organisms, and have been recognized as an important source of new compounds with nutritional and therapeutic potential. Among these compounds, carbohydrate-based compounds are of particular interest because they exhibit numerous biological functions associated with their chemical diversity. This gives rise to new substances for the development of bioactive products. Many are the known applications of substances with glycosidic domains obtained from marine species. This review covers the structural properties and the current findings on the antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, anticoagulant, antitumor and antimicrobial activities of medium and high molecular-weight carbohydrates or glycosylated compounds extracted from various marine organisms.

Mesenteric injection of adipose-derived mesenchymal stem cells relieves experimentally-induced colitis in rats by regulating Th17/Treg cell balance

Efficient delivery routes are critical for the effectiveness of adipose-derived mesenchymal stem cells (ADMSCs) in treating inflammatory bowel disease (IBD). Conventional ADMSC delivery routes include local, intravenous and intraperitoneal injection. Whether mesenteric injection has potential in IBD treatment remains unknown. In the present study, we investigated the therapeutic effects of mesenteric injection of ADMSCs in a trinitrobenzene sulfonic acid-induced rat IBD model and explored whether this treatment affected T helper 17 (Th17)/regulatory T (Treg) cell ratio. The results showed that mesenteric injection of ADMSCs markedly reduced signs of colitis, colon shortening, weight loss and pathological damage. The treatment also decreased serum tumor necrosis factor alpha concentration, increased serum tumor necrosis factor alpha-stimulated gene protein 6 concentration, and augmented repair via proliferation (assessed by evaluating Ki-67 levels) in colonic tissue. Moreover, mesenteric injection of ADMSCs reduced interleukin (IL)-17A and IL-6 mRNA expression, and increased IL-10 and transforming growth factor-beta mRNA expression in colonic tissue. Protein analyses indicated that mesenteric injection of ADMSCs was associated with increased expression of forkhead box P3+ and IL-10 as well as decreased expression of retinoid-related orphan receptor λt and IL-17. Additionally, the treatment inhibited phosphorylation of signal transducer and activator of transcription (STAT) 3 and activated phosphorylation of STAT5. Taken together, these results suggest that mesenteric injection of ADMSCs is a promising approach to treating trinitrobenzene sulfonic acid-induced IBD, and achieves its therapeutic effect by regulating the pro/anti-inflammatory Th17/Treg cell balance.

The role of heparins and nano-heparins as therapeutic tool in breast cancer

Glycosaminoglycans are integral part of the dynamic extracellular matrix (ECM) network that control crucial biochemical and biomechanical signals required for tissue morphogenesis, differentiation, homeostasis and cancer development. Breast cancer cells communicate with stromal ones to modulate ECM mainly through release of soluble effectors during cancer progression. The intracellular cross-talk between cell surface receptors and estrogen receptors is important for the regulation of breast cancer cell properties and production of ECM molecules. In turn, reorganized ECM-cell surface interface modulates signaling cascades, which regulate almost all aspects of breast cell behavior. Heparan sulfate chains present on cell surface and matrix proteoglycans are involved in regulation of breast cancer functions since they are capable of binding numerous matrix molecules, growth factors and inflammatory mediators thus modulating their signaling. In addition to its anticoagulant activity, there is accumulating evidence highlighting various anticancer activities of heparin and nano-heparin derivatives in numerous types of cancer. Importantly, heparin derivatives significantly reduce breast cancer cell proliferation and metastasis in vitro and in vivo models as well as regulates the expression profile of major ECM macromolecules, providing strong evidence for therapeutic targeting. Nano-formulations of the glycosaminoglycan heparin are possibly novel tools for targeting tumor microenvironment. In this review, the role of heparan sulfate/heparin and its nano-formulations in breast cancer biology are presented and discussed in terms of future pharmacological targeting.

Metabolite profiling of ascidian Styela plicata using LC-MS with multivariate statistical analysis and their antitumor activity

To identify the metabolite distribution in ascidian, we have applied an integrated liquid chromatography- tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS) metabolomics approach to explore and identify patterns in chemical diversity of invasive ascidian Styela plicata. A total of 71 metabolites were reported among these alkaloids, fatty acids and lipids are the most dominant chemical group. Multivariate statistical analysis, principal component analysis (PCA) showed a clear separation according to chemical diversity and taxonomic groups. PCA and partial least square discriminant analysis were applied to discriminate the chemical group of S. plicata crude compounds and classify the compounds with unknown biological activities. In this study, we reported for the first time that a partially purified methanol extract prepared from the ascidian S. plicata and Ascidia mentula possess antitumor activity against four tumor cell lines with different tumor histotype, such as HeLa (cervical carcinoma), HT29 (colon carcinoma), MCF-7 (breast carcinoma) and M14 (melanoma). S. plicata fraction SP-50 showed strong inhibition of cell proliferation and induced apoptosis in HeLa and HT29 cells, thus indicating S. plicata fraction SP-50 a potential lead compound for anticancer therapy. The molecular mechanism of action and chemotherapeutic potential of these ascidian unknown biomolecules need further research.

Natural Products Diversity of Marine Ascidians (Tunicates; Ascidiacea) and Successful Drugs in Clinical Development

This present study reviewed the chemical diversity of marine ascidians and their pharmacological applications, challenges and recent developments in marine drug discovery reported during 1994-2014, highlighting the structural activity of compounds produced by these specimens. Till date only 5% of living ascidian species were studied from <3000 species, this study represented from family didemnidae (32%), polyclinidae (22%), styelidae and polycitoridae (11-12%) exhibiting the highest number of promising MNPs. Close to 580 compound structures are here discussed in terms of their occurrence, structural type and reported biological activity. Anti-cancer drugs are the main area of interest in the screening of MNPs from ascidians (64%), followed by anti-malarial (6%) and remaining others. FDA approved ascidian compounds mechanism of action along with other compounds status of clinical trials (phase 1 to phase 3) are discussed here in. This review highlights recent developments in the area of natural products chemistry and biotechnological approaches are emphasized.

Preventive Intra Oral Treatment of Sea Cucumber Ameliorate OVA-Induced Allergic Airway Inflammation

Sea cucumber extracts have potent biological effects, including anti-viral, anti-cancer, antibacterial, anti-oxidant, and anti-inflammation effects. To understand their anti-asthma effects, we induced allergic airway inflammation in mice after 7 oral administrations of the extract. The hyper-responsiveness value in mice with ovalbumin (OVA)-alum-induced asthma after oral injection of sea cucumber extracts was significantly lower than that in the OVA-alum-induced asthma group. In addition, the number of eosinophils in the lungs of asthma-induced mice pre-treated with sea cucumber extract was significantly decreased compared to that of PBS pre-treated mice. Additionally, CD4[Formula: see text]CD25[Formula: see text]Foxp3[Formula: see text]T (regulatory T; Treg) cells significantly increased in mesenteric lymph nodes after 7 administrations of the extract. These results suggest that sea cucumber extract can ameliorate allergic airway inflammation via Treg cell activation and recruitment to the lung.

Emerging aspects of nanotoxicology in health and disease: From agriculture and food sector to cancer therapeutics

Nanotechnology is an evolving scientific field that has allowed the manufacturing of materials with novel physicochemical and biological properties, offering a wide spectrum of potential applications. Properties of nanoparticles that contribute to their usefulness include their markedly increased surface area in relation to mass, surface reactivity and insolubility, ability to agglomerate or change size in different media and enhanced endurance over conventional-scale substance. Here, we review nanoparticle classification and their emerging applications in several fields; from active food packaging to drug delivery and cancer research. Nanotechnology has exciting therapeutic applications, including novel drug delivery for the treatment of cancer. Additionally, we discuss that exposure to nanostructures incorporated to polymer composites, may result in potential human health risks. Therefore, the knowledge of processes, including absorption, distribution, metabolism and excretion, as well as careful toxicological assessment is critical in order to determine the effects of nanomaterials in humans and other biological systems. Expanding the knowledge of nanoparticle toxicity will facilitate designing of safer nanocomposites and their application in a beneficial manner.

Biochemical and toxicological evaluation of nano-heparins in cell functional properties, proteasome activation and expression of key matrix molecules

The glycosaminoglycan heparin and its derivatives act strongly on blood coagulation, controlling the activity of serine protease inhibitors in plasma. Nonetheless, there is accumulating evidence highlighting different anticancer activities of these molecules in numerous types of cancer. Nano-heparins may have great biological significance since they can inhibit cell proliferation and invasion as well as inhibiting proteasome activation. Moreover, they can cause alterations in the expression of major modulators of the tumor microenvironment, regulating cancer cell behavior. In the present study, we evaluated the effects of two nano-heparin formulations: one isolated from porcine intestine and the other from the sea squirt Styela plicata, on a breast cancer cell model. We determined whether these nano-heparins are able to affect cell proliferation, apoptosis and invasion, as well as proteasome activity and the expression of extracellular matrix molecules. Specifically, we observed that nano-Styela compared to nano-Mammalian analogue has higher inhibitory role on cell proliferation, invasion and proteasome activity. Moreover, nano-Styela regulates cell apoptosis, expression of inflammatory molecules, such as IL-6 and IL-8 and reduces the expression levels of extracellular matrix macromolecules, such as the proteolytic enzymes MT1-MMP, uPA and the cell surface proteoglycans syndecan-1 and -2, but not on syndecan-4. The observations reported in the present article indicate that nano-heparins and especially ascidian heparin are effective agents for heparin-induced effects in critical cancer cell functions, providing an important possibility in pharmacological targeting.

Orally Administered Enoxaparin Ameliorates Acute Colitis by Reducing Macrophage-Associated Inflammatory Responses

Inflammatory bowel diseases, such as ulcerative colitis, cause significant morbidity and decreased quality of life. The currently available treatments are not effective in all patients, can be expensive and have potential to cause severe side effects. This prompts the need for new treatment modalities. Enoxaparin, a widely used antithrombotic agent, is reported to possess anti-inflammatory properties and therefore we evaluated its therapeutic potential in a mouse model of colitis. Acute colitis was induced in male C57BL/6 mice by administration of dextran sulfate sodium (DSS). Mice were treated once daily with enoxaparin via oral or intraperitoneal administration and monitored for colitis activities. On termination (day 8), colons were collected for macroscopic evaluation and cytokine measurement, and processed for histology and immunohistochemistry. Oral but not intraperitoneal administration of enoxaparin significantly ameliorated DSS-induced colitis. Oral enoxaparin-treated mice retained their body weight and displayed less diarrhea and fecal blood loss compared to the untreated colitis group. Colon weight in enoxaparin-treated mice was significantly lower, indicating reduced inflammation and edema. Histological examination of untreated colitis mice showed a massive loss of crypt architecture and goblet cells, infiltration of immune cells and the presence of edema, while all aspects of this pathology were alleviated by oral enoxaparin. Reduced number of macrophages in the colon of oral enoxaparin-treated mice was accompanied by decreased levels of pro-inflammatory cytokines. Oral enoxaparin significantly reduces the inflammatory pathology associated with DSS-induced colitis in mice and could therefore represent a novel therapeutic option for the management of ulcerative colitis.

Sea Cucumbers Metabolites as Potent Anti-Cancer Agents

Sea cucumbers and their extracts have gained immense popularity and interest among researchers and nutritionists due to their nutritive value, potential health benefits, and use in the treatment of chronic inflammatory diseases. Many areas of the world use sea cucumbers in traditional foods and folk medicine. Though the actual components and their specific functions still remain to be investigated, most sea cucumber extracts are being studied for their anti-inflammatory functions, immunostimulatory properties, and for cancer prevention and treatment. There is large scope for the discovery of additional bioactive, valuable compounds from this natural source. Sea cucumber extracts contain unique components, such as modified triterpene glycosides, sulfated polysaccharides, glycosphingolipids, and esterified phospholipids. Frondanol A5, an isopropyl alcohol/water extract of the enzymatically hydrolyzed epithelia of the edible North Atlantic sea cucumber, Cucumaria frondosa, contains monosulfated triterpenoid glycoside Frondoside A, the disulfated glycoside Frondoside B, the trisulfated glycoside Frondoside C, 12-methyltetradecanoic acid, eicosapentaenoic acid, and fucosylated chondroitin sulfate. We have extensively studied the efficacy of this extract in preventing colon cancer in rodent models. In this review, we discuss the anti-inflammatory, immunostimulatory, and anti-tumor properties of sea cucumber extracts.

The effects of marine carbohydrates and glycosylated compounds on human health

Marine organisms have been recognized as a valuable source of bioactive compounds with industrial and nutraceutical potential. Recently, marine-derived carbohydrates, including polysaccharides and low molecular weight glycosylated oligosaccharides, have attracted much attention because of their numerous health benefits. Moreover, several studies have reported that marine carbohydrates exhibit various biological activities, including antioxidant, anti-infection, anticoagulant, anti-inflammatory, and anti-diabetic effects. The present review discusses the potential industrial applications of bioactive marine carbohydrates for health maintenance and disease prevention. Furthermore, the use of marine carbohydrates in food, cosmetics, agriculture, and environmental protection is discussed.

Mechanisms and models for intestinal fibrosis in IBD

Intestinal fibrosis is a common outcome in IBD leading to significant morbidity that, to date, has no effective medical treatment. Current knowledge regarding potential mechanism(s) of intestinal fibrogenesis and stricture formation is limited, due in large part to the lack of relevant animal models. Although conventional models possess aspects that are advantageous to study specific mechanisms involved in gut fibrosis, most lack the features of a spontaneously occurring process leading to the formation of intestinal fibrotic lesions following mucosal inflammatory events and the ability to investigate the natural course of disease over time. This review aims to discuss established and novel animal models of gut fibrosis, particularly focusing on the advantages and disadvantages of each model system and the insights they bring to our understanding of the mechanisms of fibrogenesis. In fact, recent enhancements to existing models and the expansion of novel animal models of gut fibrosis is opening up multiple avenues for investigation which should stimulate progress in our mechanistic understanding of intestinal fibrogenesis and facilitate the development of effective pharmacotherapy in an area of significant unmet need.

Methodologies to generate, extract, purify and fractionate yeast ECM for analytical use in proteomics and glycomics

BACKGROUND

In a multicellular organism, the extracellular matrix (ECM) provides a cell-supporting scaffold and helps maintaining the biophysical integrity of tissues and organs. At the same time it plays crucial roles in cellular communication and signalling, with implications in spatial organisation, motility and differentiation. Similarly, the presence of an ECM-like extracellular polymeric substance is known to support and protect bacterial and fungal multicellular aggregates, such as biofilms or colonies. However, the roles and composition of this microbial ECM are still poorly understood.

RESULTS

This work presents a protocol to produce S. cerevisiae and C. albicans ECM in an equally highly reproducible manner. Additionally, methodologies for the extraction and fractionation into protein and glycosidic analytical pure fractions were improved. These were subjected to analytical procedures, respectively SDS-PAGE, 2-DE, MALDI-TOF-MS and LC-MS/MS, and DAE and FPLC. Additional chemical methods were also used to test for uronic acids and sulphation.

CONCLUSIONS

The methodologies hereby presented were equally efficiently applied to extract high amounts of ECM material from S. cerevisiae and C. albicans mats, therefore showing their robustness and reproducibility for yECM molecular and structural characterization. yECM from S. cerevisiae and C. albicans displayed a different proteome and glycoside fractions. S. cerevisiae yECM presented two well-defined polysaccharides with different mass/charge, and C. albicans ECM presented a single different one. The chemical methods further suggested the presence of uronic acids, and chemical modification, possibly through sulphate substitution. All taken, the procedures herein described present the first sensible and concise approach to the molecular and chemical characterisation of the yeast ECM, opening the way to the in-depth study of the microbe multicellular aggregates structure and life-style.

Glycosaminoglycans analogs from marine invertebrates: structure, biological effects, and potential as new therapeutics

In this review, several glycosaminoglycan analogs obtained from different marine invertebrate are reported. The structure, biological activity and mechanism of action of these unique molecules are detailed reviewed and exemplified by experiments in vitro and in vivo. Among the glycans studied are low-sulfated heparin-like polymers from ascidians, containing significant anticoagulant activity and no bleeding effect; dermatan sulfates with significant neurite outgrowth promoting activity and anti-P-selectin from ascidians, and a unique fucosylated chondroitin sulfate from sea cucumbers, possessing anticoagulant activity after oral administration and high anti P- and L-selectin activities. The therapeutic value and safety of these invertebrate glycans have been extensively proved by several experimental animal models of diseases, including thrombosis, inflammation and metastasis. These invertebrate glycans can be obtained in high concentrations from marine organisms that have been used as a food source for decades, and usually obtained from marine farms in sufficient quantities to be used as starting material for new therapeutics.

Applications of mass spectrometry to structural analysis of marine oligosaccharides

Marine oligosaccharides have attracted increasing attention recently in developing potential drugs and biomaterials for their particular physical and chemical properties. However, the composition and sequence analysis of marine oligosaccharides are very challenging for their structural complexity and heterogeneity. Mass spectrometry (MS) has become an important technique for carbohydrate analysis by providing more detailed structural information, including molecular mass, sugar constituent, sequence, inter-residue linkage position and substitution pattern. This paper provides an overview of the structural analysis based on MS approaches in marine oligosaccharides, which are derived from some biologically important marine polysaccharides, including agaran, carrageenan, alginate, sulfated fucan, chitosan, glycosaminoglycan (GAG) and GAG-like polysaccharides. Applications of electrospray ionization mass spectrometry (ESI-MS) are mainly presented and the general applications of matrix-assisted laser desorption/ionization mass spectrometry (MALDI-MS) are also outlined. Some technical challenges in the structural analysis of marine oligosaccharides by MS have also been pointed out.

Overexpression of ATP-activated P2X7 receptors in the intestinal mucosa is implicated in the pathogenesis of Crohn's disease

BACKGROUND

Extracellular nucleotides released in conditions of cell stress alert the immune system from tissue injury or inflammation. We hypothesized that the P2X7 receptor (P2X7-R) could regulate key elements in inflammatory bowel disease pathogenesis.

METHODS

Colonoscopy samples obtained from patients with Crohn's disease (CD), ulcerative colitis, and controls were used to analyze P2X7-R expression by RT and real-time PCR, immunohistochemistry, and confocal microscopy. Inflammatory response was determined by the levels of cytokines by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay in cultures of intestinal explants. Apoptosis was determined by the TUNEL assay. P2X7-R C57BL/6 mice were treated with trinitrobenzene sulfonic acid or dextran sulfate sodium (DSS) for inducing colitis.

RESULTS

P2X7-R was expressed in higher levels in inflamed CD epithelium and lamina propria, where it colocalizes more with dendritic cells and macrophages. Basal levels of P2X7-R mRNA were higher in CD inflamed mucosa compared with noninflamed CD and controls and were upregulated after interferon-γ in controls. Apoptotic rates were higher in CD epithelium and lamina propria compared with ulcerative colitis and controls. Levels of tumor necrosis factor-α, interleukin (IL)-1β, and IL-17 were higher, whereas IL-10 was lower in CD compared with controls. Levels of tumor necrosis factor-α-α and interleukin-1β increased after adenosine-triphosphate and decreased after KN62 treatment in CD. P2X7-R animals did not develop trinitrobenzene sulfonic acid or DSS colitis.

CONCLUSIONS

The upregulation of P2X7-R in CD inflamed mucosa is consistent with the involvement of purinoceptors in inflammation and apoptosis. These observations may implicate purinergic signaling in the pathogenesis of intestinal inflammation, and the P2X7-R may represent a novel therapeutic target in CD.

Ascidian (chordate-tunicate) and mammalian heparin enemas attenuate experimental diversion colitis

AIM

We sought to investigate whether mammalian or ascidian Styela plicata heparin enemas could diminish inflammation in experimental diversion colitis.

METHODS

Wistar-specific pathogen-free rats were submitted to a Hartmann's end colostomy and treated with enemas containing mammalian or Styela plicata heparin, or saline. Enemas were administered 3 times a week in the excluded colon segment from 4 to 8 weeks after operation. The effect of treatment was evaluated using video-endoscopic and histologic scores, measuring the cytokines interleukin (IL)-1β, IL-6, tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-α, and transforming growth factor-β production in organ cultures by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay, quantifying T cells and macrophages, and investigating nuclear factor-kappa B (NF-κB) and external mitogen-activated protein kinase (pERK) activation.

RESULTS

Treatment with either mammalian or Styela plicata heparins decreased colonoscopic and histologic scores (P < .02) and restored the densities of collagen fibers and the number of goblet cells (P < .03) in the diverted colon. Both heparin treatments decreased the accumulation of T cells and macrophages (P < .03), and the activation of NF-κB and pERK (P < .04) in the diverted colon. The high levels of cytokines IL-1β, TNF-α, and IL-6 from the diversion colitis explants decreased (P < .05) to near normal values with heparin treatments.

CONCLUSION

The improvement of experimental diversion colitis with heparin treatments indicates the anti-inflammatory effect of these compounds, even after topical administration. Further studies with the nonhemorrhagic heparin obtained from the invertebrate Styela plicata will be necessary to confirm its efficacy for the treatment of human diversion colitis and possibly other forms of colitis.

Prophylactic systemic P2X7 receptor blockade prevents experimental colitis

BACKGROUND

The P2X7 receptor (P2X7-R) is a non-selective adenosine triphosphate-gated cation channel present in epithelial and immune cells, and involved in inflammatory response. Extracellular nucleotides released in conditions of cell stress or inflammation may function as a danger signal alerting the immune system from inflammation. We investigated the therapeutic action of P2X7-R blockade in a model of inflammatory bowel disease.

METHODS

Rats with trinitrobenzene sulfonic (TNBS) acid-induced colitis were treated with the P2X7-R antagonists A740003 or brilliant blue G (BBG) through intra-peritoneal (IP) or intra-colonic (IC) injection prior to colitis induction. Clinical and endoscopic follow-up, histological scores, myeloperoxidase activity, densities of collagen fibers and goblet cells were evaluated. P2X7-R expression, NF-kappa B and Erk activities, and densities of T-cells and macrophages were analyzed by immunoperoxidase. The inflammatory response was determined by measuring inflammatory cytokines in cultures of colon explants, by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay. Colonic apoptosis was determined by the TUNEL assay.

RESULTS

IP-BBG significantly attenuated the severity of colitis, myeloperoxidase activity, collagen deposition, densities of lamina propria T-cells and macrophages, while maintaining goblet cell densities. IP-BBG inhibited the increase in P2X7-R expression in parallel with apoptotic rates. TNF-α and interleukin-1β stabilized in low levels, while TGF-β and interleukin-10 did not change following IP-BBG-therapy. Colonic NF-kappa-B and Erk activation were significantly lower in IP-BBG-treated animals. Prophylactic IP-A740003 also protected rats against the development of TNBS-colitis.

CONCLUSIONS

Prophylactic systemic P2X7-R blockade is effective in the prevention of experimental colitis, probably due to a systemic anti-inflammatory action, interfering with a stress-inflammation amplification loop mediated by P2X7-R.

Anticancer and cancer preventive properties of marine polysaccharides: some results and prospects

Many marine-derived polysaccharides and their analogues have been reported as showing anticancer and cancer preventive properties. These compounds demonstrate interesting activities and special modes of action, differing from each other in both structure and toxicity profile. Herein, literature data concerning anticancer and cancer preventive marine polysaccharides are reviewed. The structural diversity, the biological activities, and the molecular mechanisms of their action are discussed.

Marine pharmacology in 2009-2011: marine compounds with antibacterial, antidiabetic, antifungal, anti-inflammatory, antiprotozoal, antituberculosis, and antiviral activities; affecting the immune and nervous systems, and other miscellaneous mechanisms of action

The peer-reviewed marine pharmacology literature from 2009 to 2011 is presented in this review, following the format used in the 1998–2008 reviews of this series. The pharmacology of structurally-characterized compounds isolated from marine animals, algae, fungi and bacteria is discussed in a comprehensive manner. Antibacterial, antifungal, antiprotozoal, antituberculosis, and antiviral pharmacological activities were reported for 102 marine natural products. Additionally, 60 marine compounds were observed to affect the immune and nervous system as well as possess antidiabetic and anti-inflammatory effects. Finally, 68 marine metabolites were shown to interact with a variety of receptors and molecular targets, and thus will probably contribute to multiple pharmacological classes upon further mechanism of action studies. Marine pharmacology during 2009–2011 remained a global enterprise, with researchers from 35 countries, and the United States, contributing to the preclinical pharmacology of 262 marine compounds which are part of the preclinical pharmaceutical pipeline. Continued pharmacological research with marine natural products will contribute to enhance the marine pharmaceutical clinical pipeline, which in 2013 consisted of 17 marine natural products, analogs or derivatives targeting a limited number of disease categories.

Sugar-coating wound repair: a review of FGF-10 and dermatan sulfate in wound healing and their potential application in burn wounds

Thousands of patients suffer from burn injuries each year, yet few therapies have been developed to accelerate the wound healing process. Most fibroblast growth factors (FGFs) have been extensively evaluated but only a few have been found to participate in the wound healing process. In particular, FGF-10 is robustly increased in the wound microenvironment after injury and has demonstrated some ability to promote wound healing in vitro and in vivo. Glycosaminoglycans are linear carbohydrates that participate in wound repair by influencing cytokine/growth factor localization and interaction with cognate receptors. Dermatan sulfate (DS) is the most abundant glycosaminoglycan in human wound fluid and has been postulated to be directly involved in the healing process. Recently, the combination of FGF-10 and DS demonstrated the potential to accelerate wound healing via increased keratinocyte proliferation and migration. Based on these preliminary studies, DS may serve as a cofactor for FGF-10, and together they are likely to expedite the healing process by stimulating keratinocyte activity. As a specific subtype of wounds, the overall healing process of burn injuries does not significantly differ from other types of wounds, where optimal repair results in matrix regeneration and complete reepithelialization. At present, standard burn treatment primarily involves topical application of antimicrobial agents, while no routine therapies target acceleration of reepithelialization, the key to wound closure. Thus, this novel therapeutic combination could be used in conjunction with some of the current therapies, but it would have the unique ability to initiate wound healing by stimulating keratinocyte epithelialization.

Intraperitoneal but not intravenous cryopreserved mesenchymal stromal cells home to the inflamed colon and ameliorate experimental colitis

BACKGROUND AND AIMS

Mesenchymal stromal cells (MSCs) were shown to have immunomodulatory activity and have been applied for treating immune-mediated disorders. We compared the homing and therapeutic action of cryopreserved subcutaneous adipose tissue (AT-MSCs) and bone marrow-derived mesenchymal stromal cells (BM-MSCs) in rats with trinitrobenzene sulfonic acid (TNBS)-induced colitis.

METHODS

After colonoscopic detection of inflammation AT-MSCs or BM-MSCs were injected intraperitoneally. Colonoscopic and histologic scores were obtained. Density of collagen fibres and apoptotic rates were evaluated. Cytokine levels were measured in supernatants of colon explants. For cell migration studies MSCs and skin fibroblasts were labelled with Tc-99m or CM-DiI and injected intraperitonealy or intravenously.

RESULTS

Intraperitoneal injection of AT-MSCs or BM-MSCs reduced the endoscopic and histopathologic severity of colitis, the collagen deposition, and the epithelial apoptosis. Levels of TNF-α and interleukin-1β decreased, while VEGF and TGF-β did not change following cell-therapy. Scintigraphy showed that MSCs migrated towards the inflamed colon and the uptake increased from 0.5 to 24 h. Tc-99m-MSCs injected intravenously distributed into various organs, but not the colon. Cm-DiI-positive MSCs were detected throughout the colon wall 72 h after inoculation, predominantly in the submucosa and muscular layer of inflamed areas.

CONCLUSIONS

Intraperitoneally injected cryopreserved MSCs home to and engraft into the inflamed colon and ameliorate TNBS-colitis.

Glycosaminoglycans and neuroprotection

Glycosaminoglycans (GAGs) are basic building blocks of the ground substance of the extracellular matrix and present at the cellular level as an important component of the glycocalyx covering the cell membrane. In addition to the general role of GAGs in maintaining the integrity of the cell and extracellular matrix by retaining water, certain GAGs exhibit anticoagulant and neuroprotective properties and serve as cell-surface receptors for various molecules. Although heparin, a highly sulfated GAG, has been used as a drug for more than 70 years due to its anticoagulant attributes, the neuroprotective properties of GAGs came into focus only in recent years. The discovery of some of the roles GAGs play in the pathomechanism of numerous neurodegenerative disorders as well as shedding light on the neuroprotective properties of these compounds in animal studies raised the possibility that GAGs may provide an entirely new avenue in the treatment of neurodegenerative diseases. Indeed, some GAGs were successfully used to improve the cognitive function of patients with various neurodegenerative conditions (Ban et al. (1991, 1992); Conti et al. (1989a, b); Passeri and Cucinotta, (1989); Santini (1989). Although the mechanism by which the GAGs exhibit neuroprotective properties is not entirely clear, there is a general consensus that the major factors of the neuroprotective attributes of GAGs include the impact of GAGs on amyloidogenesis and the regulatory action of GAGs in the apoptotic pathway.

Dermatan sulfate reduces monocyte chemoattractant protein 1 and TGF-β production, as well as macrophage recruitment and myofibroblast accumulation in mice with unilateral ureteral obstruction

Selectins play an essential role in most inflammatory reactions, mediating the initial leukocyte-rolling event on activated endothelium. Heparin and dermatan sulfate (DS) bind and block P- and L-selectin function in vitro. Recently, we reported that subcutaneous administration of DS inhibits colon inflammation in rats by reducing macrophage and T-cell recruitment and macrophage activation. In the present study, we examined the effect of porcine intestinal mucosa DS on renal inflammation and fibrosis in mice after unilateral ureteral obstruction (UUO). Twenty-four adult male Swiss mice weighing 20-25 g were divided into 4 groups: group C (N = 6) was not subjected to any surgical manipulation; group SH (N = 6) was subjected to surgical manipulation but without ureter ligation; group UUO (N = 6) was subjected to unilateral ureteral obstruction and received no treatment; group UUO plus DS (N = 6) was subjected to UUO and received DS (4 mg/kg) subcutaneously daily for 14 days. An immunoblot study was also performed for TGF-β. Collagen (stained area ~3700 µm(2)), MCP-1 (stained area ~1700 µm(2)), TGF-β (stained area ~13% of total area), macrophage (number of cells ~40), and myofibroblast (stained area ~1900 µm(2)) levels were significantly (P < 0.05) higher in the UUO group compared to control. DS treatment significantly (P < 0.05) reduced the content of collagen (stained area ~700 µm(2)), MCP-1 (stained area ~160 µm(2)) and TGF-β (stained area ~5% of total area), in addition to myofibroblast (stained area ~190 µm(2)) and macrophage (number of cells ~32) accumulation in the obstructed kidney. Overall, these results indicate that DS attenuates kidney inflammation by reducing macrophage recruitment, myofibroblast population and fibrosis in mice submitted to UUO.

Dermatan sulfate and bone marrow mononuclear cells used as a new therapeutic strategy after arterial injury in mice

BACKGROUND AIMS

Previously, we have demonstrated that administration of dermatan sulfate (DS) suppresses neointima formation in the mouse carotid artery by activating heparin co-factor II. A similar suppressive effect was observed by increasing the number of progenitor cells in circulation. In this study, we investigated the combination of DS and bone marrow mononuclear cells (MNC), which includes potential endothelial progenitors, in neointima formation after arterial injury.

METHODS

Arterial injury was induced by mechanical dilation of the left common carotid artery. We analyzed the extension of endothelial lesion, thrombus formation, P-selectin expression and CD45(+) cell accumulation 1 and 3 days post-injury, and neointima formation 21 days post-injury. Animals were injected with MNC with or without DS during the first 48 h after injury.

RESULTS

The extension of endothelial lesion was similar in all groups 1 day after surgery; however, in injured animals treated with MNC and DS the endothelium recovery seemed to be more efficient 21 days after lesion. Treatment with DS inhibited thrombosis, decreased CD45(+) cell accumulation and P-selectin expression at the site of injury, and reduced the neointimal area by 56%. Treatment with MNC reduced the neointimal area by 54%. The combination of DS and MNC reduced neointima formation by more than 91%. In addition, DS promoted a greater accumulation of MNC at the site of injury.

CONCLUSIONS

DS inhibits the initial thrombotic and inflammatory processes after arterial injury and promotes migration of MNC to the site of the lesion, where they may assist in the recovery of the injured endothelium.

Fucosylated chondroitin sulfate attenuates renal fibrosis in animals submitted to unilateral ureteral obstruction: a P-selectin-mediated event?

Fibrosis is the end point of most renal diseases, and several glycosaminoglycans have been shown to attenuate this process. Marine invertebrate glycosaminoglycans with unique structures have opened the possibility to test these new compounds on renal fibrosis. The effect of a fucosylated chondroitin sulfate from an echinoderm marine species is reported with the use of a model of renal fibrosis in rats, termed unilateral ureteral obstruction. Animals were given 4 mg/kg body wt of fucosylated chondroitin sulfate intraperitoneally, once a day. After 14 days, their kidneys were examined by histological, immunohistochemical, and biochemical methods. Compared with control mice, collagen deposition decreased in the course of renal fibrosis in the animals receiving fucosylated chondroitin sulfate, as revealed by Sirius red staining and hydroxyproline content. The cellularity related to myofibroblasts and macrophages was also reduced, as was the production of transforming growth factor (TGF)-β. The glycosaminoglycan content increased in the renal interstitium of animals submitted to unilateral ureteral obstruction compared with the control contralateral kidney, mostly due to an increase of chondroitin sulfate content. Interestingly, no change in the pattern of glycosaminoglycan deposition was observed after administration of fucosylated chondroitin sulfate. Fibrosis induced by unilateral ureteral obstruction is attenuated in P-selectin-deficient mice, which also do not respond to the invertebrate glycosaminoglycan. In conclusion, fucosylated chondroitin sulfate attenuates renal fibrosis on a ureteral obstruction model in mice preponderantly through a P-selectin-mediated mechanism.

A new model of chronic hapten-induced colitis in young rats

AIM AND OBJECTIVE

: Chronic models of inflammatory bowel disease are lacking in preadult rodents. The primary goal of our study was to develop a chronic model of hapten-induced intestinal inflammation and fibrosis in young rats. Second, we aimed to determine the profiles of key Th-1, Th-2, and Th-17 proinflammatory and profibrotic cytokines, during the progression of colitis in young rats.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Chronic hapten-induced colitis was induced by the administration of intracolonic 2,4,6-trinitrobenzene sulfonic acid (TNBS) in young Wistar rats (postnatal days 23, 35, 48, and 59). After 1, 3, or 4 cycles of TNBS, rats were euthanized and the colons were removed for the measurement of macroscopic, histologic, and biochemical parameters of colitis.

RESULTS

Young rats developed moderate to severe colitis in the distal colon, without significant morbidity or mortality. Macroscopic severity, histologic pathology, and colonic weights increased progressively with repeated TNBS administration. Cobblestone-like ulceration and fibrosis was evident in the colon, particularly after 4 cycles of TNBS. There was a unique cytokine pattern associated with colitis in young rats. Interleukin (IL)-12 and tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-alpha peaked during the earlier postnatal time points (days 28 and 54) and then declined after repetitive administration of the hapten (day 67). In contrast, IL-13 and IL-17 were consistently elevated after administration of TNBS to the colon of young rats.

CONCLUSIONS

A new model of colitis was established in young rats, which has a unique pattern of Th-1, Th-2, and Th-17 cytokine induction. This chronic TNBS model may be useful for studying the development of inflammation and fibrosis in preadult animals.

Enoxaparin improves the course of dextran sodium sulfate-induced colitis in syndecan-1-deficient mice

Syndecan-1 (Sdc1) plays a major role in wound healing and modulates inflammatory responses. Sdc1 expression is reduced in lesions of patients with ulcerative colitis. The aim of this study was to investigate the role of Sdc1 in murine dextran sodium sulfate (DSS)-induced colitis. DSS colitis was induced in Sdc1-deficient (knockout (KO)) and wild-type mice by oral administration of 3% DSS. KO mice exhibited a significantly increased lethality as compared with wild-type controls (61 versus 5%, P < 0.05). Impaired mucosal healing and prolonged recruitment of inflammatory cells in KO mice were accompanied by significant up-regulation of tumor necrosis factor-alpha, CC chemokine ligand 3/macrophage inflammatory protein-1alpha, and vascular cell adhesion molecule-1, as determined by histological correlation between 0 and 15 days after colitis induction, TaqMan low-density array analysis, and quantitative real-time PCR. Treatment from days 7 through 14 with enoxaparin, a functional analogue of the Sdc1 heparan sulfate chains, significantly reduced lethality of KO mice due to DSS-induced colitis, which was correlated with improved mucosal healing. In vitro, Sdc1-deficient polymorphonuclear cells displayed increased adhesion to endothelial cells and intercellular adhesion molecule-1, and enoxaparin reverted adhesion to wild-type levels. Small interfering RNA-mediated knockdown of Sdc1 expression resulted in reduced basic fibroblast growth factor-mediated mitogen-activated protein kinase signaling and reduced Caco-2 cell proliferation. We conclude that Sdc1 has a protective effect during experimental colitis. The modification of missing Sdc1 function by heparin analogues may emerge as a promising anti-inflammatory approach.