Mechanisms of adhesion G protein-coupled receptor activation

Larvicidal activity of β-Citral: An In-vitro and In-silico study to understand its potential against mosquito

Tropical and subtropical regions face millions of deaths from mosquito-borne illnesses yearly. Insecticides prevent transmission but pose health risks like dermatitis and allergies. The primary objective was to mitigate the recurring dependence on synthetic insecticides, thereby curbing the development of mosquito resistance. Leaves of Cymbopogon flexuosus (lemongrass) was collected from Mayurbhanj, India, processed, then extracted by steam distillation for essential oils & analyzed spectroscopically. Larvicidal assays were performed across varying concentrations, revealing the significant mortality induced by the Cymbopogon flexuosus extract against Anopheles stephensi larvae. 3D structure was modelled by using G protein-coupled receptors (GPCR) sequence and structural stability was also validated. After docking the binding free energy was determined from GPCR protein with β-citral complex. Molecular dynamics (MD) study was conducted on the docked pose that displayed an optimal interactome profile. The larvicidal assay at the 12th and 24th hour revealed the highest LC50 (lethal concentration) of 23.493 ppm and 19.664 ppm . β-Citral has a high binding affinity and an identifiable binding site, which suggests that it may play a larvicidal role in regulating the receptor's function by creating stable complexes with it. β-Citral from lemongrass oils has potential larvicidal activity and effective against GPCR family 1 of mosquito and highly effective repellents against mosquito-borne diseases.

Loss of cardiomyocyte-specific adhesion G-protein-coupled receptor G1 (ADGRG1/GPR56) promotes pressure overload-induced heart failure

Adhesion G-protein-coupled receptors (AGPCRs), containing large N-terminal ligand-binding domains for environmental mechano-sensing, have been increasingly recognized to play important roles in numerous physiologic and pathologic processes. However, their impact on the heart, which undergoes dynamic mechanical alterations in healthy and failing states, remains understudied. ADGRG1 (formerly known as GPR56) is widely expressed, including in skeletal muscle where it was previously shown to mediate mechanical overload-induced muscle hypertrophy; thus, we hypothesized that it could impact the development of cardiac dysfunction and remodeling in response to pressure overload. In this study, we generated a cardiomyocyte (CM)-specific ADGRG1 knockout mouse model, which, although not initially displaying features of cardiac dysfunction, does develop increased systolic and diastolic LV volumes and internal diameters over time. Notably, when challenged with chronic pressure overload, CM-specific ADGRG1 deletion accelerates cardiac dysfunction, concurrent with blunted CM hypertrophy, enhanced cardiac inflammation and increased mortality, suggesting that ADGRG1 plays an important role in the early adaptation to chronic cardiac stress. Altogether, the present study provides an important proof-of-concept that targeting CM-expressed AGPCRs may offer a new avenue for regulating the development of heart failure.

Heterogeneity of tethered agonist signaling in adhesion G protein-coupled receptors

Adhesion G protein-coupled receptor (aGPCR) signaling influences development and homeostasis in a wide range of tissues. In the current model for aGPCR signaling, ligand binding liberates a conserved sequence that acts as an intramolecular, tethered agonist (TA), yet this model has not been evaluated systematically for all aGPCRs. Here, we assessed the TA-dependent activities of all 33 aGPCRs in a suite of transcriptional reporter, G protein activation, and β-arrestin recruitment assays using a new fusion protein platform. Strikingly, only ∼50% of aGPCRs exhibited robust TA-dependent activation, and unlike other GPCR families, aGPCRs showed a notable preference for G12/13 signaling. AlphaFold2 predictions assessing TA engagement in the predicted intramolecular binding pocket aligned with the TA dependence of the cellular responses. This dataset provides a comprehensive resource to inform the investigation of all human aGPCRs and for targeting aGPCRs therapeutically.

Latrophilin-2 mediates fluid shear stress mechanotransduction at endothelial junctions

Endothelial cell responses to fluid shear stress from blood flow are crucial for vascular development, function, and disease. A complex of PECAM-1, VE-cadherin, VEGF receptors (VEGFRs), and Plexin D1 located at cell-cell junctions mediates many of these events. However, available evidence suggests that another mechanosensor upstream of PECAM-1 initiates signaling. Hypothesizing that GPCR and Gα proteins may serve this role, we performed siRNA screening of Gα subunits and found that Gαi2 and Gαq/11 are required for activation of the junctional complex. We then developed a new activation assay, which showed that these G proteins are activated by flow. We next mapped the Gα residues required for activation and developed an affinity purification method that used this information to identify latrophilin-2 (Lphn2/ADGRL2) as the upstream GPCR. Latrophilin-2 is required for all PECAM-1 downstream events tested. In both mice and zebrafish, latrophilin-2 is required for flow-dependent angiogenesis and artery remodeling. Furthermore, endothelial-specific knockout demonstrates that latrophilin plays a role in flow-dependent artery remodeling. Human genetic data reveal a correlation between the latrophilin-2-encoding Adgrl2 gene and cardiovascular disease. Together, these results define a pathway that connects latrophilin-dependent G protein activation to subsequent endothelial signaling, vascular physiology, and disease.

Novel roles of κ-opioid receptor in myocardial ischemia-reperfusion injury

Acute heart attack is the primary cause of cardiovascular-related death worldwide. A common treatment is reperfusion of ischemic tissue, which can cause irreversible damage to the myocardium. The number of mitochondria in cardiomyocytes is large, which generate adenosine triphosphate (ATP) to sustain proper cardiac contractile function, and mitochondrial dysfunction plays a crucial role in cell death during myocardial ischemia-reperfusion, leading to an increasing number of studies investigating the impact of mitochondria on ischemia-reperfusion injury. The disarray of mitochondrial dynamics, excessive Ca2+ accumulation, activation of mitochondrial permeable transition pores, swelling of mitochondria, ultimately the death of cardiomyocyte are the consequences of ischemia-reperfusion injury. κ-opioid receptors can alleviate mitochondrial dysfunction, regulate mitochondrial dynamics, mitigate myocardial ischemia-reperfusion injury, exert protective effects on myocardium. The mechanism of κ-OR activation during myocardial ischemia-reperfusion to regulate mitochondrial dynamics and reduce myocardial ischemia-reperfusion injury will be discussed, so as to provide theoretical basis for the protection of ischemic myocardium.

Latrophilin-2 mediates fluid shear stress mechanotransduction at endothelial junctions

Endothelial cell responses to fluid shear stress from blood flow are crucial for vascular development, function and disease. A complex of PECAM-1, VE-cadherin, VEGF receptors (VEGFRs) and PlexinD1 located at cell-cell junctions mediates many of these events. But available evidence suggests that another mechanosensor upstream of PECAM-1 initiates signaling. Hypothesizing that GPCR and Gα proteins may serve this role, we performed siRNA screening of Gα subunits and found that Gαi2 and Gαq/11 are required for activation of the junctional complex. We then developed a new activation assay, which showed that these G proteins are activated by flow. We next mapped the Gα residues required for activation and developed an affinity purification method that used this information to identify latrophilin-2 (Lphn-2/ADGRL2) as the upstream GPCR. Latrophilin-2 is required for all PECAM-1 downstream events tested. In both mice and zebrafish, latrophilin-2 is required for flow-dependent angiogenesis and artery remodeling. Furthermore, endothelial specific knockout demonstrates that latrophilin plays a role in flow-dependent artery remodeling. Human genetic data reveal a correlation between the latrophilin-2-encoding Adgrl2 gene and cardiovascular disease. Together, these results define a pathway that connects latrophilin-dependent G protein activation to subsequent endothelial signaling, vascular physiology and disease.

Essential Role of Latrophilin-1 Adhesion GPCR Nanoclusters in Inhibitory Synapses

Latrophilin-1 (Lphn1, aka CIRL1 and CL1; gene symbol Adgrl1) is an adhesion GPCR that has been implicated in excitatory synaptic transmission as a candidate receptor for α-latrotoxin. Here we analyzed conditional knock-in/knock-out mice for Lphn1 that contain an extracellular myc epitope tag. Mice of both sexes were used in all experiments. Surprisingly, we found that Lphn1 is localized in cultured neurons to synaptic nanoclusters that are present in both excitatory and inhibitory synapses. Conditional deletion of Lphn1 in cultured neurons failed to elicit a detectable impairment in excitatory synapses but produced a decrease in inhibitory synapse numbers and synaptic transmission that was most pronounced for synapses close to the neuronal soma. No changes in axonal or dendritic outgrowth or branching were observed. Our data indicate that Lphn1 is among the few postsynaptic adhesion molecules that are present in both excitatory and inhibitory synapses and that Lphn1 by itself is not essential for excitatory synaptic transmission but is required for some inhibitory synaptic connections.

ERNEST COST action overview on the (patho)physiology of GPCRs and orphan GPCRs in the nervous system

G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs) are a large family of cell surface receptors that play a critical role in nervous system function by transmitting signals between cells and their environment. They are involved in many, if not all, nervous system processes, and their dysfunction has been linked to various neurological disorders representing important drug targets. This overview emphasises the GPCRs of the nervous system, which are the research focus of the members of ERNEST COST action (CA18133) working group 'Biological roles of signal transduction'. First, the (patho)physiological role of the nervous system GPCRs in the modulation of synapse function is discussed. We then debate the (patho)physiology and pharmacology of opioid, acetylcholine, chemokine, melatonin and adhesion GPCRs in the nervous system. Finally, we address the orphan GPCRs, their implication in the nervous system function and disease, and the challenges that need to be addressed to deorphanize them.

GPR124 regulates murine brain embryonic angiogenesis and BBB formation by an intracellular domain-independent mechanism

The GPR124/RECK/WNT7 pathway is an essential regulator of CNS angiogenesis and blood-brain barrier (BBB) function. GPR124, a brain endothelial adhesion seven-pass transmembrane protein, associates with RECK, which binds and stabilizes newly synthesized WNT7 that is transferred to frizzled (FZD) to initiate canonical β-catenin signaling. GPR124 remains enigmatic: although its extracellular domain (ECD) is essential, the poorly conserved intracellular domain (ICD) appears to be variably required in mammals versus zebrafish, potentially via adaptor protein bridging of GPR124 and FZD ICDs. GPR124 ICD deletion impairs zebrafish angiogenesis, but paradoxically retains WNT7 signaling upon mammalian transfection. We thus investigated GPR124 ICD function using the mouse deletion mutant Gpr124ΔC. Despite inefficiently expressed GPR124ΔC protein, Gpr124ΔC/ΔC mice could be born with normal cerebral cortex angiogenesis, in comparison with Gpr124-/- embryonic lethality, forebrain avascularity and hemorrhage. Gpr124ΔC/ΔC vascular phenotypes were restricted to sporadic ganglionic eminence angiogenic defects, attributable to impaired GPR124ΔC protein expression. Furthermore, Gpr124ΔC and the recombinant GPR124 ECD rescued WNT7 signaling in culture upon brain endothelial Gpr124 knockdown. Thus, in mice, GPR124-regulated CNS forebrain angiogenesis and BBB function are exerted by ICD-independent functionality, extending the signaling mechanisms used by adhesion seven-pass transmembrane receptors.

CELSR1, a core planar cell polarity protein, features a weakly adhesive and flexible cadherin ectodomain

Planar cell polarity (PCP), essential to multicellular developmental processes, arises when cells polarize and align across tissues. Central to PCP is CELSR1, an atypical cadherin featuring a long ectodomain with nine extracellular cadherin (EC) repeats, a membrane adjacent domain (MAD10), and several characteristic adhesion GPCR domains. Cell-based aggregation assays have demonstrated CELSR1's homophilic adhesive nature, but mechanistic details are missing. Here, we investigate the possible adhesive properties and structures of CELSR1 EC repeats. Our bead aggregation assays do not support strong adhesion by EC repeats alone. Consistently, EC1-4 only dimerizes at high concentration in solution. Crystal structures of human CELSR1 EC1-4 and EC4-7 reveal typical folds and a non-canonical linker between EC5 and EC6. Simulations and experiments using EC4-7 indicate flexibility at EC5-6, and solution experiments show EC7-MAD10-mediated dimerization. Our results suggest weak homophilic adhesion by CELSR1 cadherin repeats and provide mechanistic insights into the structural determinants of CELSR1 function.

Structural analysis and conformational dynamics of a holo-adhesion GPCR reveal interplay between extracellular and transmembrane domains

Adhesion G Protein-Coupled Receptors (aGPCRs) are key cell-adhesion molecules involved in numerous physiological functions. aGPCRs have large multi-domain extracellular regions (ECR) containing a conserved GAIN domain that precedes their seven-pass transmembrane domain (7TM). Ligand binding and mechanical force applied on the ECR regulate receptor function. However, how the ECR communicates with the 7TM remains elusive, because the relative orientation and dynamics of the ECR and 7TM within a holoreceptor is unclear. Here, we describe the cryo-EM reconstruction of an aGPCR, Latrophilin3/ADGRL3, and reveal that the GAIN domain adopts a parallel orientation to the membrane and has constrained movement. Single-molecule FRET experiments unveil three slow-exchanging FRET states of the ECR relative to the 7TM within the holoreceptor. GAIN-targeted antibodies, and cancer-associated mutations at the GAIN-7TM interface, alter FRET states, cryo-EM conformations, and receptor signaling. Altogether, this data demonstrates conformational and functional coupling between the ECR and 7TM, suggesting an ECR-mediated mechanism of aGPCR activation.

The Role of G Protein-Coupled Receptors and Receptor Kinases in Pancreatic β-Cell Function and Diabetes

Type 2 diabetes (T2D) mellitus has emerged as a major global health concern that has accelerated in recent years due to poor diet and lifestyle. Afflicted individuals have high blood glucose levels that stem from the inability of the pancreas to make enough insulin to meet demand. Although medication can help to maintain normal blood glucose levels in individuals with chronic disease, many of these medicines are outdated, have severe side effects, and often become less efficacious over time, necessitating the need for insulin therapy. G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs) regulate many physiologic processes, including blood glucose levels. In pancreatic β cells, GPCRs regulate β-cell growth, apoptosis, and insulin secretion, which are all critical in maintaining sufficient β-cell mass and insulin output to ensure euglycemia. In recent years, new insights into the signaling of incretin receptors and other GPCRs have underscored the potential of these receptors as desirable targets in the treatment of diabetes. The signaling of these receptors is modulated by GPCR kinases (GRKs) that phosphorylate agonist-activated GPCRs, marking the receptor for arrestin binding and internalization. Interestingly, genome-wide association studies using diabetic patient cohorts link the GRKs and arrestins with T2D. Moreover, recent reports show that GRKs and arrestins expressed in the β cell serve a critical role in the regulation of β-cell function, including β-cell growth and insulin secretion in both GPCR-dependent and -independent pathways. In this review, we describe recent insights into GPCR signaling and the importance of GRK function in modulating β-cell physiology. SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT: Pancreatic β cells contain a diverse array of G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs) that have been shown to improve β-cell function and survival, yet only a handful have been successfully targeted in the treatment of diabetes. This review discusses recent advances in our understanding of β-cell GPCR pharmacology and regulation by GPCR kinases while also highlighting the necessity of investigating islet-enriched GPCRs that have largely been unexplored to unveil novel treatment strategies.

Conformational transitions and activation of the adhesion receptor CD97

Adhesion G protein-coupled receptors (aGPCRs) are evolutionarily ancient receptors involved in a variety of physiological and pathophysiological processes. Modulators of aGPCR, particularly antagonists, hold therapeutic promise for diseases like cancer and immune and neurological disorders. Hindered by the inactive state structural information, our understanding of antagonist development and aGPCR activation faces challenges. Here, we report the cryo-electron microscopy structures of human CD97, a prototypical aGPCR that plays crucial roles in immune system, in its inactive apo and G13-bound fully active states. Compared with other family GPCRs, CD97 adopts a compact inactive conformation with a constrained ligand pocket. Activation induces significant conformational changes for both extracellular and intracellular sides, creating larger cavities for Stachel sequence binding and G13 engagement. Integrated with functional and metadynamics analyses, our study provides significant mechanistic insights into the activation and signaling of aGPCRs, paving the way for future drug discovery efforts.

Structure of the extracellular region of the adhesion GPCR CELSR1 reveals a compact module which regulates G protein-coupling

Cadherin EGF Laminin G seven-pass G-type receptors (CELSRs or ADGRCs) are conserved adhesion G protein-coupled receptors which are essential for animal development. CELSRs have extracellular regions (ECRs) containing 23 adhesion domains which couple adhesion to intracellular signaling. However, molecular-level insight into CELSR function is sparsely available. We report the 4.3 Å cryo-EM reconstruction of the mCELSR1 ECR with 13 domains resolved in the structure. These domains form a compact module mediated by interdomain interactions with contact between the N- and C-terminal domains. We show the mCELSR1 ECR forms an extended species in the presence of Ca 2+ , which we propose represents the antiparallel cadherin repeat dimer. Using assays for adhesion and G protein-coupling, we assign the N-terminal CADH1-8 module as necessary for cell adhesion and we show the C-terminal CAHD9-GAIN module regulates signaling. Our work provides important molecular context to the literature on CELSR function and opens the door towards further mechanistic studies.

The adhesion G-protein-coupled receptor mayo/CG11318 controls midgut development in Drosophila

Adhesion G-protein-coupled receptors (aGPCRs) form a large family of cell surface molecules with versatile tasks in organ development. Many aGPCRs still await their functional and pharmacological deorphanization. Here, we characterized the orphan aGPCR CG11318/mayo of Drosophila melanogaster and found it expressed in specific regions of the gastrointestinal canal and anal plates, epithelial specializations that control ion homeostasis. Genetic removal of mayo results in tachycardia, which is caused by hyperkalemia of the larval hemolymph. The hyperkalemic effect can be mimicked by a raise in ambient potassium concentration, while normal potassium levels in mayoKO mutants can be restored by pharmacological inhibition of potassium channels. Intriguingly, hyperkalemia and tachycardia are caused non-cell autonomously through mayo-dependent control of enterocyte proliferation in the larval midgut, which is the primary function of this aGPCR. These findings characterize the ancestral aGPCR Mayo as a homeostatic regulator of gut development.

GproteinDb in 2024: new G protein-GPCR couplings, AlphaFold2-multimer models and interface interactions

G proteins are the major signal proteins of ∼800 receptors for medicines, hormones, neurotransmitters, tastants and odorants. GproteinDb offers integrated genomic, structural, and pharmacological data and tools for analysis, visualization and experiment design. Here, we present the first major update of GproteinDb greatly expanding its coupling data and structural templates, adding AlphaFold2 structure models of GPCR-G protein complexes and advancing the interactive analysis tools for their interfaces underlying coupling selectivity. We present insights on coupling agreement across datasets and parameters, including constitutive activity, agonist-induced activity and kinetics. GproteinDb is accessible at https://gproteindb.org.

Structure, ligands, and roles of GPR126/ADGRG6 in the development and diseases

Adhesion G protein-coupled receptors (aGPCRs) are the second largest diverse group within the GPCR superfamily, which play critical roles in many physiological and pathological processes through cell-cell and cell-extracellular matrix interactions. The adhesion GPCR Adgrg6, also known as GPR126, is one of the better-characterized aGPCRs. GPR126 was previously found to have critical developmental roles in Schwann cell maturation and its mediated myelination in the peripheral nervous system in both zebrafish and mammals. Current studies have extended our understanding of GPR126-mediated roles during development and in human diseases. In this review, we highlighted these recent advances in GPR126 in expression profile, molecular structure, ligand-receptor interactions, and associated physiological and pathological functions in development and diseases.

Dynamic encounters with red blood cells trigger splenic marginal zone B cell retention and function

Spleen marginal zone (MZ) B cells are important for antibody responses against blood-borne antigens. The signals they use to detect exposure to blood are not well defined. Here, using intravital two-photon microscopy in mice, we observe transient contacts between MZ B cells and red blood cells that are in flow. We show that MZ B cells use adhesion G-protein-coupled receptor ADGRE5 (CD97) for retention in the spleen. CD97 function in MZ B cells depends on its ability to undergo autoproteolytic cleavage and signaling via Gα13 and ARHGEF1. Red blood cell expression of the CD97 ligand CD55 is required for MZ B cell homeostasis. Applying a pulling force on CD97-transfected cells using an optical C-trap and CD55+ beads leads to accumulation of active RhoA and membrane retraction. Finally, we show that CD97 deficiency leads to a reduced T cell-independent IgM response. Thus, our studies provide evidence that MZ B cells use mechanosensing to position in a manner that enhances antibody responses against blood-borne antigens.

The muscle stem cell niche at a glance

Skeletal muscle stem cells (MuSCs, also called satellite cells) are the source of the robust regenerative capability of this tissue. The hallmark property of MuSCs at homeostasis is quiescence, a reversible state of cell cycle arrest required for long-term preservation of the stem cell population. MuSCs reside between an individual myofiber and an enwrapping basal lamina, defining the immediate MuSC niche. Additional cell types outside the basal lamina, in the interstitial space, also contribute to niche function. Quiescence is actively maintained by multiple niche-derived signals, including adhesion molecules presented from the myofiber surface and basal lamina, as well as soluble signaling factors produced by myofibers and interstitial cell types. In this Cell Science at a Glance article and accompanying poster, we present the most recent information on how niche signals promote MuSC quiescence and provide perspectives for further research.

CryoEM structures of adhesion in GPCR CD97: Filling in some of the gaps

CD97 (ADGRE5) is an adhesion GPCR (aGPCR) that plays crucial roles in the immune system and cancer. In this issue of Cell Chemical Biology, Wang et al.1 present the cryoEM structures of CD97 in complex with G13, Gq, and Gs G protein subtypes, revealing in-depth insight into aGPCR activation and G protein selectivity.

Circulating tumor cells participate in the formation of microvascular invasion and impact on clinical outcomes in hepatocellular carcinoma

Hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) is a common malignant tumor worldwide. Although the treatment strategies have been improved in recent years, the long-term prognosis of HCC is far from satisfactory mainly due to high postoperative recurrence and metastasis rate. Vascular tumor thrombus, including microvascular invasion (MVI) and portal vein tumor thrombus (PVTT), affects the outcome of hepatectomy and liver transplantation. If vascular invasion could be found preoperatively, especially the risk of MVI, more reasonable surgical selection will be chosen to reduce the risk of postoperative recurrence and metastasis. However, there is a lack of reliable prediction methods, and the formation mechanism of MVI/PVTT is still unclear. At present, there is no study to explore the possibility of tumor thrombus formation from a single circulating tumor cell (CTC) of HCC, nor any related study to describe the possible leading role and molecular mechanism of HCC CTCs as an important component of MVI/PVTT. In this study, we review the current understanding of MVI and possible mechanisms, discuss the function of CTCs in the formation of MVI and interaction with immune cells in the circulation. In conclusion, we discuss implications for potential therapeutic targets and the prospect of clinical treatment of HCC.

Construction of a high-density genetic linkage map and QTL mapping of growth and cold tolerance traits in Takifugu fasciatus

Takifugu fasciatus is an aquaculture species with high economic value. In recent years, problems such as environmental pollution and inbreeding have caused a serious decline in T. fasciatus germplasm resources. In this study, a high-density genetic linkage map was constructed by whole-genome resequencing. The map consists of 4891 bin markers distributed across 22 linkage groups (LGs), with a total genetic coverage of 2381.353 cM and a mean density of 0.535 cM. Quantitative trait locus (QTL) localization analysis showed that a total of 19 QTLs associated with growth traits of T. fasciatus in the genome-wide significance threshold range, distributed on 11 LGs. In addition, 11 QTLs associated with cold tolerance traits were identified, each scattered on a different LG. Furthermore, we used QTL localization analysis to screen out three candidate genes (IGF1, IGF2, ADGRB) related to growth in T. fasciatus. Meanwhile, we screened three candidate genes (HSP90, HSP70, and HMGB1) related to T. fasciatus cold tolerance. Our study can provide a theoretical basis for the selection and breeding of cold-tolerant or fast-growing T. fasciatus.

Unveiling Mechanical Activation: GAIN Domain Unfolding and Dissociation in Adhesion GPCRs

Adhesion G protein-coupled receptors (aGPCRs) have extracellular regions (ECRs) containing GPCR autoproteolysis-inducing (GAIN) domains. The GAIN domain enables the ECR to self-cleave into N- and C-terminal fragments. However, the impact of force on the GAIN domain's conformation, critical for mechanosensitive aGPCR activation, remains unclear. Our study investigated the mechanical stability of GAIN domains in three aGPCRs (B, G, and L subfamilies) at a loading rate of 1 pN/s. We discovered that forces of a few piconewtons can destabilize the GAIN domains. In autocleaved aGPCRs ADGRG1/GPR56 and ADGRL1/LPHN1, these forces cause the GAIN domain detachment from the membrane-proximal Stachel sequence, preceded by partial unfolding. In noncleavable aGPCR ADGRB3/BAI3 and cleavage-deficient mutant ADGRG1/GPR56-T383G, complex mechanical unfolding of the GAIN domain occurs. Additionally, GAIN domain detachment happens during cell migration. Our findings support the mechanical activation hypothesis of aGPCRs, emphasizing the sensitivity of the GAIN domain structure and detachment to physiological force ranges.

Piconewton Forces Mediate GAIN Domain Dissociation of the Latrophilin-3 Adhesion GPCR

Latrophilins are adhesion G-protein coupled receptors (aGPCRs) that control excitatory synapse formation. Most aGPCRs, including latrophilins, are autoproteolytically cleaved at their GPCR-autoproteolysis inducing (GAIN) domain, but the two resulting fragments remain noncovalently associated on the cell surface. Force-mediated dissociation of the fragments is thought to activate G-protein signaling, but how this mechanosensitivity arises is poorly understood. Here, we use magnetic tweezer assays to show that physiologically relevant forces in the 1-10 pN range lead to dissociation of the latrophilin-3 GAIN domain on the seconds-to-minutes time scale, compared to days in the absence of force. In addition, we find that the GAIN domain undergoes large changes in length in response to increasing mechanical load. These data are consistent with a model in which a force-sensitive equilibrium between compact and extended GAIN domain states precedes dissociation, suggesting a mechanism by which latrophilins and other aGPCRs may mediate mechanically induced signal transduction.

Bacterial SEAL domains undergo autoproteolysis and function in regulated intramembrane proteolysis

Gram-positive bacteria use SigI/RsgI-family sigma factor/anti-sigma factor pairs to sense and respond to cell wall defects and plant polysaccharides. In Bacillus subtilis, this signal transduction pathway involves regulated intramembrane proteolysis (RIP) of the membrane-anchored anti-sigma factor RsgI. However, unlike most RIP signaling pathways, site-1 cleavage of RsgI on the extracytoplasmic side of the membrane is constitutive and the cleavage products remain stably associated, preventing intramembrane proteolysis. The regulated step in this pathway is their dissociation, which is hypothesized to involve mechanical force. Release of the ectodomain enables intramembrane cleavage by the RasP site-2 protease and activation of SigI. The constitutive site-1 protease has not been identified for any RsgI homolog. Here, we report that RsgI's extracytoplasmic domain has structural and functional similarities to eukaryotic SEA domains that undergo autoproteolysis and have been implicated in mechanotransduction. We show that site-1 proteolysis in B. subtilis and Clostridial RsgI family members is mediated by enzyme-independent autoproteolysis of these SEA-like domains. Importantly, the site of proteolysis enables retention of the ectodomain through an undisrupted β-sheet that spans the two cleavage products. Autoproteolysis can be abrogated by relief of conformational strain in the scissile loop, in a mechanism analogous to eukaryotic SEA domains. Collectively, our data support the model that RsgI-SigI signaling is mediated by mechanotransduction in a manner that has striking parallels with eukaryotic mechanotransducive signaling pathways.

Biased signalling is structurally encoded as an autoproteolysis event in adhesion G protein-coupled receptor Latrophilin-3/ADGRL3

Adhesion G protein-coupled receptors (aGPCRs) possess a unique topology, including the presence of a GPCR proteolysis site (GPS), which, upon autoproteolysis, generates two functionally distinct fragments that remain non-covalently associated at the plasma membrane. A proposed activation mechanism for aGPCRs involves the exposure of a tethered agonist, which depends on cleavage at the GPS. However, this hypothesis has been challenged by the observation that non-cleavable aGPCRs exhibit constitutive activity, thus making the function of GPS cleavage widely enigmatic. In this study, we sought to elucidate the function of GPS-mediated cleavage through the study of G protein coupling with Latrophilin-3/ADGRL3, a prototypical aGPCR involved in synapse formation and function. Using BRET-based G protein biosensors, we reveal that an autoproteolysis-deficient mutant of ADGRL3 retains constitutive activity. Surprisingly, we uncover that cleavage deficiency leads to a signalling bias directed at potentiating the activity of select G proteins such as Gi2 and G12/13. These data unveil the underpinnings of biased signalling for aGPCRs defined by GPS autoproteolysis.

GPR114/ADGRG5 is activated by its tethered peptide agonist because it is a cleaved adhesion GPCR

Family B2 or adhesion G protein-coupled receptors (AGPCRs) are distinguished by variable extracellular regions that contain a modular protease, termed the GPCR autoproteolysis-inducing domain that self-cleaves the receptor into an N-terminal fragment (NTF) and a C-terminal fragment (CTF), or seven transmembrane domain (7TM). The NTF and CTF remain bound after cleavage through noncovalent interactions. NTF binding to a ligand(s) presented by nearby cells, or the extracellular matrix anchors the NTF, such that cell movement generates force to induce NTF/CTF dissociation and expose the AGPCR tethered peptide agonist. The released tethered agonist (TA) binds rapidly to the 7TM orthosteric site to activate signaling. The orphan AGPCR, GPR114 was reported to be uncleaved, yet paradoxically capable of activation by its TA. GPR114 has an identical cleavage site and TA to efficiently cleave GPR56. Here, we used immunoblotting and biochemical assays to demonstrate that GPR114 is a cleaved receptor, and the self-cleavage is required for GPR114 TA-activation of Gs and no other classes of G proteins. Mutagenesis studies defined features of the GPR114 and GPR56 GAINA subdomains that influenced self-cleavage efficiency. Thrombin treatment of protease-activated receptor 1 leader/AGPCR fusion proteins demonstrated that acute decryption of the GPR114/56 TAs activated signaling. GPR114 was found to be expressed in an eosinophilic-like cancer cell line (EoL-1 cells) and endogenous GPR114 was efficiently self-cleaved. Application of GPR114 TA peptidomimetics to EoL-1 cells stimulated cAMP production. Our findings may aid future delineation of GPR114 function in eosinophil cAMP signaling related to migration, chemotaxis, or degranulation.

Structural clarity is brought to adhesion G protein-coupled receptor tethered agonism

An elusive problem in the adhesion G protein-coupled receptor (AGPCR) field is full understanding of the activation mechanisms of the 33-member receptor class. With the recent solution of active-state structures of nearly one quarter of AGPCRs, clarity has been brought to how AGPCRs are activated in response to endogenous full agonists. AGPCRs are self-activated via a tethered peptide agonist (TA) that transitions from a concealed or encrypted location to a decrypted state that binds to a typical GPCR orthosteric binding pocket. Here, we summarize the key milestones that led to the discovery of the AGPCR TA activation mechanism and discuss how extracellular shear forces may initiate TA decryption in physiological contexts. We compare the new active-state AGPCR structures and note that the orthosteric site-engaged TAs adopt a remarkably similar partial α-helical hook-like conformation, despite divergence of overall receptor similarity. Further, we contrast the TA-bound AGPCR structures to a partially active AGPCR structure to highlight the transitions AGPCRs may undergo during activation. Finally, we provide commentary on the validity of alternative AGPCR activation mechanisms.

Dual role of the adhesion G-protein coupled receptor ADRGE5/CD97 in glioblastoma invasion and proliferation

CD97, an adhesion G-protein coupled receptor highly expressed in glioblastoma (GBM), consists of two noncovalently bound domains: the N-terminal fragment (NTF) and C-terminal fragment. The C-terminal fragment contains a GPCR domain that couples to Gα12/13, while the NTF interacts with extracellular matrix components and other receptors. We investigated the effects of changing CD97 levels and its function on primary patient-derived GBM stem cells (pdGSCs) in vitro and in vivo. We created two functional mutants: a constitutively active ΔNTF and the noncleavable dominant-negative H436A mutant. The CD97 knockdown in pdGSCs decreased, while overexpression of CD97 increased tumor size. Unlike other constructs, the ΔNTF mutant promoted tumor cell proliferation, but the tumors were comparable in size to those with CD97 overexpression. As expected, the GBM tumors overexpressing CD97 were very invasive, but surprisingly, the knockdown did not inhibit invasiveness and even induced it in noninvasive U87 tumors. Importantly, our results indicate that NTF was present in the tumor core cells but absent in the pdGSCs invading the brain. Furthermore, the expression of noncleavable H436A mutant led to large tumors that invade by sending massive protrusions, but the invasion of individual tumor cells was substantially reduced. These data suggest that NTF association with CD97 GPCR domain inhibits individual cell dissemination but not overall tumor invasion. However, NTF dissociation facilitates pdGSCs brain infiltration and may promote tumor proliferation. Thus, the interplay between two functional domains regulates CD97 activity resulting in either enhanced cell adhesion or stimulation of tumor cell invasion and proliferation.

7TM domain structures of adhesion GPCRs: what's new and what's missing?

Adhesion-type G protein-coupled receptors (aGPCRs) have long resisted approaches to resolve the structural details of their heptahelical transmembrane (7TM) domains. Single-particle cryogenic electron microscopy (cryo-EM) has recently produced aGPCR 7TM domain structures for ADGRD1, ADGRG1, ADGRG2, ADGRG3, ADGRG4, ADGRG5, ADGRF1, and ADGRL3. We review the unique properties, including the position and conformation of their activating tethered agonist (TA) and signaling motifs within the 7TM bundle, that the novel structures have helped to identify. We also discuss questions that the kaleidoscope of novel aGPCR 7TM domain structures have left unanswered. These concern the relative positions, orientations, and interactions of the 7TM and GPCR autoproteolysis-inducing (GAIN) domains with one another. Clarifying their interplay remains an important goal of future structural studies on aGPCRs.

PTK7 is a positive allosteric modulator of GPR133 signaling in glioblastoma

The adhesion G-protein-coupled receptor GPR133 (ADGRD1) supports growth of the brain malignancy glioblastoma. How the extracellular interactome of GPR133 in glioblastoma modulates signaling remains unknown. Here, we use affinity proteomics to identify the transmembrane protein PTK7 as an extracellular binding partner of GPR133 in glioblastoma. PTK7 binds the autoproteolytically generated N-terminal fragment of GPR133 and its expression in trans increases GPR133 signaling. This effect requires the intramolecular cleavage of GPR133 and PTK7's anchoring in the plasma membrane. PTK7's allosteric action on GPR133 signaling is additive with but topographically distinct from orthosteric activation by soluble peptide mimicking the endogenous tethered Stachel agonist. GPR133 and PTK7 are expressed in adjacent cells in glioblastoma, where their knockdown phenocopies each other. We propose that this ligand-receptor interaction is relevant to the pathogenesis of glioblastoma and possibly other physiological processes in healthy tissues.

Structure of the photoreceptor synaptic assembly of the extracellular matrix protein pikachurin with the orphan receptor GPR179

Precise synapse formation is essential for normal functioning of the nervous system. Retinal photoreceptors establish selective contacts with bipolar cells, aligning the neurotransmitter release apparatus with postsynaptic signaling cascades. This involves transsynaptic assembly between the dystroglycan-dystrophin complex on the photoreceptor and the orphan receptor GPR179 on the bipolar cell, which is mediated by the extracellular matrix protein pikachurin (also known as EGFLAM). This complex plays a critical role in the synaptic organization of photoreceptors and signal transmission, and mutations affecting its components cause blinding disorders in humans. Here, we investigated the structural organization and molecular mechanisms by which pikachurin orchestrates transsynaptic assembly and solved structures of the human pikachurin domains by x-ray crystallography and of the GPR179-pikachurin complex by single-particle, cryo-electron microscopy. The structures reveal molecular recognition principles of pikachurin by the Cache domains of GPR179 and show how the interaction is involved in the transsynaptic alignment of the signaling machinery. Together, these data provide a structural basis for understanding the synaptic organization of photoreceptors and ocular pathology.

Proteome Profiling of Rat Brain Cortical Changes during Early Postnatal Brain Development

Label-free quantitation (LFQ) was applied to proteome profiling of rat brain cortical development during the early postnatal period. Male and female rat brain extracts were prepared using a convenient, detergent-free sample preparation technique at postnatal days (PND) 2, 8, 15, and 22. The PND protein ratios were calculated using Proteome Discoverer, and the PND protein change profiles were constructed separately for male and female animals for key presynaptic, postsynaptic, and adhesion brain proteins. The profiles were compared to the analogous profiles assembled from the published mouse and rat cortex proteomic data, including the fractionated-synaptosome data. The PND protein-change trendlines, Pearson correlation coefficient (PCC), and linear regression analysis of the statistically significant PND protein changes were used in the comparative analysis of the datasets. The analysis identified similarities and differences between the datasets. Importantly, there were significant similarities in the comparison of the rat cortex PND (current work) vs mouse (previously published) PND profiles, although in general, a lower abundance of synaptic proteins in mice than in rats was found. The male and female rat cortex PND profiles were expectedly almost identical (98-99% correlation by PCC), which also substantiated this LFQ nanoflow liquid chromatography-high-resolution mass spectrometry approach.

Essential autoproteolysis of bacterial anti-σ factor RsgI for transmembrane signal transduction

Autoproteolysis has been discovered to play key roles in various biological processes, but functional autoproteolysis has been rarely reported for transmembrane signaling in prokaryotes. In this study, an autoproteolytic effect was discovered in the conserved periplasmic domain of anti-σ factor RsgIs from Clostridium thermocellum, which was found to transmit extracellular polysaccharide-sensing signals into cells for regulation of the cellulosome system, a polysaccharide-degrading multienzyme complex. Crystal and NMR structures of periplasmic domains from three RsgIs demonstrated that they are different from all known proteins that undergo autoproteolysis. The RsgI-based autocleavage site was located at a conserved Asn-Pro motif between the β1 and β2 strands in the periplasmic domain. This cleavage was demonstrated to be essential for subsequent regulated intramembrane proteolysis to activate the cognate SigI, in a manner similar to that of autoproteolysis-dependent activation of eukaryotic adhesion G protein-coupled receptors. These results indicate the presence of a unique prevalent type of autoproteolytic phenomenon in bacteria for signal transduction.

SOX17-mediated LPAR4 expression plays a pivotal role in cardiac development and regeneration after myocardial infarction

Lysophosphatidic acid receptor 4 (LPAR4) exhibits transient expression at the cardiac progenitor stage during pluripotent stem cell (PSC)-derived cardiac differentiation. Using RNA sequencing, promoter analyses, and a loss-of-function study in human PSCs, we discovered that SRY-box transcription factor 17 (SOX17) is an essential upstream factor of LPAR4 during cardiac differentiation. We conducted mouse embryo analyses to further verify our human PSC in vitro findings and confirmed the transient and sequential expression of SOX17 and LPAR4 during in vivo cardiac development. In an adult bone marrow transplantation model using LPAR4 promoter-driven GFP cells, we observed two LPAR4+ cell types in the heart following myocardial infarction (MI). Cardiac differentiation potential was shown in heart-resident LPAR4+ cells, which are SOX17+, but not bone marrow-derived infiltrated LPAR4+ cells. Furthermore, we tested various strategies to enhance cardiac repair through the regulation of downstream signals of LPAR4. During the early stages following MI, the downstream inhibition of LPAR4 by a p38 mitogen-activated protein kinase (p38 MAPK) blocker improved cardiac function and reduced fibrotic scarring compared to that observed following LPAR4 stimulation. These findings improve our understanding of heart development and suggest novel therapeutic strategies that enhance repair and regeneration after injury by modulating LPAR4 signaling.

Bacterial SEAL domains undergo autoproteolysis and function in regulated intramembrane proteolysis

Gram-positive bacteria use SigI/RsgI-family sigma factor/anti-sigma factor pairs to sense and respond to cell wall defects and plant polysaccharides. In Bacillus subtilis this signal transduction pathway involves regulated intramembrane proteolysis (RIP) of the membrane-anchored anti-sigma factor RsgI. However, unlike most RIP signaling pathways, site-1 cleavage of RsgI on the extracytoplasmic side of the membrane is constitutive and the cleavage products remain stably associated, preventing intramembrane proteolysis. The regulated step in this pathway is their dissociation, which is hypothesized to involve mechanical force. Release of the ectodomain enables intramembrane cleavage by the RasP site-2 protease and activation of SigI. The constitutive site-1 protease has not been identified for any RsgI homolog. Here, we report that RsgI's extracytoplasmic domain has structural and functional similarities to eukaryotic SEA domains that undergo autoproteolysis and have been implicated in mechanotransduction. We show that site-1 proteolysis in B. subtilis and Clostridial RsgI family members is mediated by enzyme-independent autoproteolysis of these SEA-like (SEAL) domains. Importantly, the site of proteolysis enables retention of the ectodomain through an undisrupted ß-sheet that spans the two cleavage products. Autoproteolysis can be abrogated by relief of conformational strain in the scissile loop, in a mechanism analogous to eukaryotic SEA domains. Collectively, our data support the model that RsgI-SigI signaling is mediated by mechanotransduction in a manner that has striking parallels with eukaryotic mechanotransducive signaling pathways.

SIGNIFICANCE

SEA domains are broadly conserved among eukaryotes but absent in bacteria. They are present on diverse membrane-anchored proteins some of which have been implicated in mechanotransducive signaling pathways. Many of these domains have been found to undergo autoproteolysis and remain noncovalently associated following cleavage. Their dissociation requires mechanical force. Here, we identify a family of bacterial SEA-like (SEAL) domains that arose independently from their eukaryotic counterparts but have structural and functional similarities. We show these SEAL domains autocleave and the cleavage products remain stably associated. Importantly, these domains are present on membrane-anchored anti-sigma factors that have been implicated in mechanotransduction pathways analogous to those in eukaryotes. Our findings suggest that bacterial and eukaryotic signaling systems have evolved a similar mechanism to transduce mechanical stimuli across the lipid bilayer.

The adhesion GPCRs CELSR1-3 and LPHN3 engage G proteins via distinct activation mechanisms

Adhesion G protein-coupled receptors (aGPCRs) are a large GPCR class that direct diverse fundamental biological processes. One prominent mechanism for aGPCR agonism involves autoproteolytic cleavage, which generates an activating, membrane-proximal tethered agonist (TA). How universal this mechanism is for all aGPCRs is unclear. Here, we investigate G protein induction principles of aGPCRs using mammalian latrophilin 3 (LPHN3) and cadherin EGF LAG-repeat 7-transmembrane receptors 1-3 (CELSR1-3), members of two aGPCR families conserved from invertebrates to vertebrates. LPHNs and CELSRs mediate fundamental aspects of brain development, yet CELSR signaling mechanisms are unknown. We find that CELSR1 and CELSR3 are cleavage deficient, while CELSR2 is efficiently cleaved. Despite differential autoproteolysis, CELSR1-3 all engage GαS, and CELSR1 or CELSR3 TA point mutants retain GαS coupling activity. CELSR2 autoproteolysis enhances GαS coupling, yet acute TA exposure alone is insufficient. These studies support that aGPCRs signal via multiple paradigms and provide insights into CELSR biological function.

The clinical relevance of the adhesion G protein-coupled receptor F5 for human diseases and cancers

Among the numerous adhesion G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs), adhesion G protein-coupled estrogen receptor F5 (ADGRF5) contains unique domains in the long N-terminal tail which can determine cell-cell and cell-matrix interaction as well as cell adhesion. Nevertheless, the biology of ADGRF5 is complex and still poorly explored. Accumulating evidence suggests that the ADGRF5 activity is fundamental in health and disease. For instance, ADGRF5 is essential in the proper function of lungs and kidney as well as the endocrine system, and its signification in vascularization and tumorigenesis has been demonstrated. The most recent studies have provided findings about the diagnostic potential of ADGRF5 in osteoporosis and cancers, and ongoing studies suggest other diseases as well. Here, we elaborate on the current state of knowledge about the ADGRF5 in the physiology and pathophysiology of human diseases and highlight its high potential as a novel target in various therapeutic areas.

The role of G protein conformation in receptor-G protein selectivity

G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs) selectively activate at least one of the four families of heterotrimeric G proteins, but the mechanism of coupling selectivity remains unclear. Structural studies emphasize structural complementarity of GPCRs and nucleotide-free G proteins, but selectivity is likely to be determined by transient intermediate-state complexes that exist before nucleotide release. Here we study coupling to nucleotide-decoupled G protein variants that can adopt conformations similar to receptor-bound G proteins without releasing nucleotide, and are therefore able to bypass intermediate-state complexes. We find that selectivity is degraded when nucleotide release is not required for GPCR-G protein complex formation, to the extent that most GPCRs interact with most nucleotide-decoupled G proteins. These findings demonstrate the absence of absolute structural incompatibility between noncognate receptor-G protein pairs, and are consistent with the hypothesis that transient intermediate states are partly responsible for coupling selectivity.

Tethered agonist activated ADGRF1 structure and signalling analysis reveal basis for G protein coupling

Adhesion G Protein Coupled Receptors (aGPCRs) have evolved an activation mechanism to translate extracellular force into liberation of a tethered agonist (TA) to effect cell signalling. We report here that ADGRF1 can signal through all major G protein classes and identify the structural basis for a previously reported Gα_q preference by cryo-EM. Our structure shows that Gα_q preference in ADGRF1 may derive from tighter packing at the conserved F569 of the TA, altering contacts between TM helix I and VII, with a concurrent rearrangement of TM helix VII and helix VIII at the site of Gα recruitment. Mutational studies of the interface and of contact residues within the 7TM domain identify residues critical for signalling, and suggest that Gα_s signalling is more sensitive to mutation of TA or binding site residues than Gα_q. Our work advances the detailed molecular understanding of aGPCR TA activation, identifying features that potentially explain preferential signal modulation.

Uncovering and engineering the mechanical properties of the adhesion GPCR ADGRG1 GAIN domain

Key cellular functions depend on the transduction of extracellular mechanical signals by specialized membrane receptors including adhesion G-protein coupled receptors (aGPCRs). While recently solved structures support aGPCR activation through shedding of the extracellular GAIN domain, the molecular mechanisms underpinning receptor mechanosensing remain poorly understood. When probed using single-molecule atomic force spectroscopy and molecular simulations, ADGRG1 GAIN dissociated from its tethered agonist at forces significantly higher than other reported signaling mechanoreceptors. Strong mechanical resistance was achieved through specific structural deformations and force propagation pathways under mechanical load. ADGRG1 GAIN variants computationally designed to lock the alpha and beta subdomains and rewire mechanically-induced structural deformations were found to modulate the GPS-Stachel rupture forces. Our study provides unprecedented insights into the molecular underpinnings of GAIN mechanical stability and paves the way for engineering mechanosensors, better understanding aGPCR function, and informing drug-discovery efforts targeting this important receptor class.

The adhesion GPCRs CELSR1-3 and LPHN3 engage G proteins via distinct activation mechanisms

Adhesion GPCRs (aGPCRs) are a large GPCR class that direct diverse fundamental biological processes. One prominent mechanism for aGPCR agonism involves autoproteolytic cleavage, which generates an activating, membrane-proximal tethered agonist (TA). How universal this mechanism is for all aGPCRs is unclear. Here, we investigate G protein induction principles of aGPCRs using mammalian LPHN3 and CELSR1-3, members of two aGPCR families conserved from invertebrates to vertebrates. LPHNs and CELSRs mediate fundamental aspects of brain development, yet CELSR signaling mechanisms are unknown. We found that CELSR1 and CELSR3 are cleavage-deficient, while CELSR2 is efficiently cleaved. Despite differential autoproteolysis, CELSR1-3 all engage GαS, and CELSR1 or CELSR3 TA point mutants retain GαS coupling activity. CELSR2 autoproteolysis enhances GαS coupling, yet acute TA exposure alone is insufficient. These studies support that aGPCRs signal via multiple paradigms and provide insights into CELSR biological function.

Context-dependent requirement of G protein coupling for Latrophilin-2 in target selection of hippocampal axons

The formation of neural circuits requires extensive interactions of cell-surface proteins to guide axons to their correct target neurons. Trans-cellular interactions of the adhesion G protein-coupled receptor latrophilin-2 (Lphn2) with its partner teneurin-3 instruct the precise assembly of hippocampal networks by reciprocal repulsion. Lphn2 acts as a repulsive receptor in distal CA1 neurons to direct their axons to the proximal subiculum, and as a repulsive ligand in the proximal subiculum to direct proximal CA1 axons to the distal subiculum. It remains unclear if Lphn2-mediated intracellular signaling is required for its role in either context. Here, we show that Lphn2 couples to Gα12/13 in heterologous cells; this coupling is increased by constitutive exposure of the tethered agonist. Specific mutations of Lphn2's tethered agonist region disrupt its G protein coupling and autoproteolytic cleavage, whereas mutating the autoproteolytic cleavage site alone prevents cleavage but preserves a functional tethered agonist. Using an in vivo misexpression assay, we demonstrate that wild-type Lphn2 misdirects proximal CA1 axons to the proximal subiculum and that Lphn2 tethered agonist activity is required for its role as a repulsive receptor in axons. By contrast, neither tethered agonist activity nor autoproteolysis were necessary for Lphn2's role as a repulsive ligand in the subiculum target neurons. Thus, tethered agonist activity is required for Lphn2-mediated neural circuit assembly in a context-dependent manner.

Optimized genetic code expansion technology for time-dependent induction of adhesion GPCR-ligand engagement

The introduction of an engineered aminoacyl-tRNA synthetase/tRNA pair enables site-specific incorporation of unnatural amino acids (uAAs) with functionalized side chains into proteins of interest. Genetic Code Expansion (GCE) via amber codon suppression confers functionalities to proteins but can also be used to temporally control the incorporation of genetically encoded elements into proteins. Here, we report an optimized GCE system (GCEXpress) for efficient and fast uAA incorporation. We demonstrate that GCEXpress can be used to efficiently alter the subcellular localization of proteins within living cells. We show that click labeling can resolve co-labeling problems of intercellular adhesive protein complexes. We apply this strategy to study the adhesion G protein-coupled receptor (aGPCR) ADGRE5/CD97 and its ligand CD55/DAF that play central roles in immune functions and oncological processes. Furthermore, we use GCEXpress to analyze the time course of ADGRE5-CD55 ligation and replenishment of mature receptor-ligand complexes. Supported by fluorescence recovery after photobleaching (FRAP) experiments our results show that ADGRE5 and CD55 form stable intercellular contacts that may support transmission of mechanical forces onto ADGRE5 in a ligand-dependent manner. We conclude that GCE in combination with biophysical measurements can be a useful approach to analyze the adhesive, mechanical and signaling properties of aGPCRs and their ligand interactions. This article is protected by copyright. All rights reserved.

Molecular sensing of mechano- and ligand-dependent adhesion GPCR dissociation

Adhesion G-protein-coupled receptors (aGPCRs) bear notable similarity to Notch proteins1, a class of surface receptors poised for mechano-proteolytic activation2-4, including an evolutionarily conserved mechanism of cleavage5-8. However, so far there is no unifying explanation for why aGPCRs are autoproteolytically processed. Here we introduce a genetically encoded sensor system to detect the dissociation events of aGPCR heterodimers into their constituent N-terminal and C-terminal fragments (NTFs and CTFs, respectively). An NTF release sensor (NRS) of the neural latrophilin-type aGPCR Cirl (ADGRL)9-11, from Drosophila melanogaster, is stimulated by mechanical force. Cirl-NRS activation indicates that receptor dissociation occurs in neurons and cortex glial cells. The release of NTFs from cortex glial cells requires trans-interaction between Cirl and its ligand, the Toll-like receptor Tollo (Toll-8)12, on neural progenitor cells, whereas expressing Cirl and Tollo in cis suppresses dissociation of the aGPCR. This interaction is necessary to control the size of the neuroblast pool in the central nervous system. We conclude that receptor autoproteolysis enables non-cell-autonomous activities of aGPCRs, and that the dissociation of aGPCRs is controlled by their ligand expression profile and by mechanical force. The NRS system will be helpful in elucidating the physiological roles and signal modulators of aGPCRs, which constitute a large untapped reservoir of drug targets for cardiovascular, immune, neuropsychiatric and neoplastic diseases13.

Phylogeny-wide analysis of G-protein coupled receptors in social amoebas and implications for the evolution of multicellularity

G-protein coupled receptors (GPCRs) are seven-transmembrane proteins and constitute the largest group of receptors within eukaryotes. The presence of a large set of GPCRs in the unicellular Amoebozoa was surprising and is indicative of the largely undiscovered environmental sensing capabilities in this group. Evolutionary transitions from unicellular to multicellular lifestyles, like we see in social amoebas, have occurred several times independently in the Amoebozoa, and GPCRs may have been co-opted for new functions in cell-cell communication. Methods We have analysed a set of GPCRs from fully sequenced Amoebozoan genomes by Bayesian inference, compared their phylogenetic distribution and domain composition, and analysed their temporal and spatial expression patterns in five species of dictyostelids. Results We found evidence that most GPCRs are conserved deeply in the Amoebozoa and are probably performing roles in general cell functions and complex environmental sensing. All families of GPCRs (apart from the family 4 fungal pheromone receptors) are present in dictyostelids with family 5 being the largest and family 2 the one with the fewest members. For the first time, we identify the presence of family 1 rhodopsin-like GPCRs in dictyostelids. Some GPCRs have been amplified in the dictyostelids and in specific lineages thereof and through changes in expression patterns may have been repurposed for signalling in multicellular development. Discussion Our phylogenetic analysis suggests that GPCR families 1, 2 and 6 already diverged early in the Amoebozoa, whereas families 3 and 5 expanded later within the dictyostelids. The family 6 cAMP receptors that have experimentally supported roles in multicellular development in dictyostelids ( carA-carD; tasA/B) originated at the root of all dictyostelids and only have weakly associated homologs in Physarum polycephalum. Our analysis identified candidate GPCRs which have evolved in the dictyostelids and could have been co-opted for multicellular development.

An Update of G-Protein-Coupled Receptor Signaling and Its Deregulation in Gastric Carcinogenesis

G-protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs) belong to a cell surface receptor superfamily responding to a wide range of external signals. The binding of extracellular ligands to GPCRs activates a heterotrimeric G protein and triggers the production of numerous secondary messengers, which transduce the extracellular signals into cellular responses. GPCR signaling is crucial and imperative for maintaining normal tissue homeostasis. High-throughput sequencing analyses revealed the occurrence of the genetic aberrations of GPCRs and G proteins in multiple malignancies. The altered GPCRs/G proteins serve as valuable biomarkers for early diagnosis, prognostic prediction, and pharmacological targets. Furthermore, the dysregulation of GPCR signaling contributes to tumor initiation and development. In this review, we have summarized the research progress of GPCRs and highlighted their mechanisms in gastric cancer (GC). The aberrant activation of GPCRs promotes GC cell proliferation and metastasis, remodels the tumor microenvironment, and boosts immune escape. Through deep investigation, novel therapeutic strategies for targeting GPCR activation have been developed, and the final aim is to eliminate GPCR-driven gastric carcinogenesis.

Intercellular Receptor-ligand Binding: Effect of Protein-membrane Interaction

Gaining insights into the intercellular receptor-ligand binding is of great importance for understanding numerous physiological and pathological processes, and stimulating new strategies in drug design and discovery. In contrast to the in vitro protein interaction in solution, the anchored receptor and ligand molecules interact with membrane in situ, which affects the intercellular receptor-ligand binding. Here, we review theoretical, simulation and experimental works regarding the regulatory effects of protein-membrane interactions on intercellular receptor-ligand binding mainly from the following aspects: membrane fluctuations, membrane curvature, glycocalyx, and lipid raft. In addition, we discuss biomedical significances and possible research directions to advance the field and highlight the importance of understanding of coupling effects of these factors in pharmaceutical development.

Piconewton forces mediate GAIN domain dissociation of the latrophilin-3 adhesion GPCR

Latrophilins are adhesion G-protein coupled receptors (aGPCRs) that control excitatory synapse formation. aGPCRs, including latrophilins, are autoproteolytically cleaved at their GPCR-Autoproteolysis Inducing (GAIN) domain, but the two resulting fragments remain associated on the cell surface. It is thought that force-mediated dissociation of the fragments exposes a peptide that activates G-protein signaling of aGPCRs, but whether GAIN domain dissociation can occur on biologically relevant timescales and at physiological forces is unknown. Here, we show using magnetic tweezers that physiological forces dramatically accelerate the dissociation of the latrophilin-3 GAIN domain. Forces in the 1-10 pN range were sufficient to dissociate the GAIN domain on a seconds-to-minutes timescale, and the GAIN domain fragments reversibly reassociated after dissociation. Thus, mechanical force may be a key driver of latrophilin signaling during synapse formation, suggesting a physiological mechanism by which aGPCRs may mediate mechanically-induced signal transduction.

Essential Role of Adhesion GPCR, GPR123, for Human Pluripotent Stem Cells and Reprogramming towards Pluripotency

G-protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs) are the largest family of cell surface receptors. They modulate key physiological functions and are required in diverse developmental processes including embryogenesis, but their role in pluripotency maintenance and acquisition during the reprogramming towards hiPSCs draws little attention. Meanwhile, it is known that more than 106 GPCRs are overexpressed in human pluripotent stem cells (hPSCs). Previously, to identify novel effectors of reprogramming, we performed a high-throughput RNA interference (RNAi) screening assay and identified adhesion GPCR, GPR123, as a potential reprogramming effector. Its role has not been explored before. Herein, by employing GPR123 RNAi we addressed the role of GPR123 for hPSCs. The suppression of GPR123 in hPSCs leads to the loss of pluripotency and differentiation, impacted colony morphology, accumulation of cells at the G2 phase of the cell cycle, and absence of the scratch closure. Application of the GPR123 RNAi at the initiation stage of reprogramming leads to a decrease in the percentage of the "true" hiPSC colonies, a drop in E-cadherin expression, a decrease in the percentage of NANOG+ nuclei, and the absence of actin cytoskeleton remodeling. Together this leads to the absence of the alkaline-phosphatase-positive hiPSCs colonies on the 18th day of the reprogramming process. Overall, these data indicate for the first time the essential role of GPR123 in the maintenance and acquisition of pluripotency.