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Wu G, Bazer FW, Johnson GA, Satterfield MC, Washburn SE. Metabolism and Nutrition of L-Glutamate and L-Glutamine in Ruminants. Animals (Basel) 2024; 14:1788. [PMID: 38929408 PMCID: PMC11201166 DOI: 10.3390/ani14121788] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/10/2024] [Revised: 06/02/2024] [Accepted: 06/05/2024] [Indexed: 06/28/2024] Open
Abstract
Although both L-glutamate (Glu) and L-glutamine (Gln) have long been considered nutritionally nonessential in ruminants, these two amino acids have enormous nutritional and physiological importance. Results of recent studies revealed that extracellular Gln is extensively degraded by ruminal microbes, but extracellular Glu undergoes little catabolism by these cells due to the near absence of its uptake. Ruminal bacteria hydrolyze Gln to Glu plus ammonia and, intracellularly, use both amino acids for protein synthesis. Microbial proteins and dietary Glu enter the small intestine in ruminants. Both Glu and Gln are the major metabolic fuels and building blocks of proteins, as well as substrates for the syntheses of glutathione and amino acids (alanine, ornithine, citrulline, arginine, proline, and aspartate) in the intestinal mucosa. In addition, Gln and aspartate are essential for purine and pyrimidine syntheses, whereas arginine and proline are necessary for the production of nitric oxide (a major vasodilator) and collagen (the most abundant protein in the body), respectively. Under normal feeding conditions, all diet- and rumen-derived Glu and Gln are extensively utilized by the small intestine and do not enter the portal circulation. Thus, de novo synthesis (e.g., from branched-chain amino acids and α-ketoglutarate) plays a crucial role in the homeostasis of Glu and Gln in the whole body but may be insufficient for maximal growth performance, production (e.g., lactation and pregnancy), and optimal health (particularly intestinal health) in ruminants. This applies to all types of feeding systems used around the world (e.g., rearing on a milk replacer before weaning, pasture-based production, and total mixed rations). Dietary supplementation with the appropriate doses of Glu or Gln [e.g., 0.5 or 1 g/kg body weight (BW)/day, respectively] can safely improve the digestive, endocrine, and reproduction functions of ruminants to enhance their productivity. Both Glu and Gln are truly functional amino acids in the nutrition of ruminants and hold great promise for improving their health and productivity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Guoyao Wu
- Department of Animal Science, Texas A&M University, College Station, TX 77843, USA; (F.W.B.); (M.C.S.)
| | - Fuller W. Bazer
- Department of Animal Science, Texas A&M University, College Station, TX 77843, USA; (F.W.B.); (M.C.S.)
| | - Gregory A. Johnson
- Department of Veterinary Integrative Biosciences, Texas A&M University, College Station, TX 77843, USA;
| | - M. Carey Satterfield
- Department of Animal Science, Texas A&M University, College Station, TX 77843, USA; (F.W.B.); (M.C.S.)
| | - Shannon E. Washburn
- Department of Veterinary Physiology and Pharmacology, Texas A&M University, College Station, TX 77843, USA;
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Wu G, Bazer FW, Satterfield MC, Gilbreath KR, Posey EA, Sun Y. L-Arginine Nutrition and Metabolism in Ruminants. ADVANCES IN EXPERIMENTAL MEDICINE AND BIOLOGY 2021; 1354:177-206. [PMID: 34807443 DOI: 10.1007/978-3-030-85686-1_10] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/19/2022]
Abstract
L-Arginine (Arg) plays a central role in the nitrogen metabolism (e.g., syntheses of protein, nitric oxide, polyamines, and creatine), blood flow, nutrient utilization, and health of ruminants. This amino acid is produced by ruminal bacteria and is also synthesized from L-glutamine, L-glutamate, and L-proline via the formation of L-citrulline (Cit) in the enterocytes of young and adult ruminants. In pre-weaning ruminants, most of the Cit formed de novo by the enterocytes is used locally for Arg production. In post-weaning ruminants, the small intestine-derived Cit is converted into Arg primarily in the kidneys and, to a lesser extent, in endothelial cells, macrophages, and other cell types. Under normal feeding conditions, Arg synthesis contributes 65% and 68% of total Arg requirements for nonpregnant and late pregnany ewes fed a diet with ~12% crude protein, respectively, whereas creatine production requires 40% and 36% of Arg utilized by nonpregnant and late pregnant ewes, respectively. Arg has not traditionally been considered a limiting nutrient in diets for post-weaning, gestating, or lactating ruminants because it has been assumed that these animals can synthesize sufficient Arg to meet their nutritional and physiological needs. This lack of a full understanding of Arg nutrition and metabolism has contributed to suboptimal efficiencies for milk production, reproductive performance, and growth in ruminants. There is now considerable evidence that dietary supplementation with rumen-protected Arg (e.g., 0.25-0.5% of dietary dry matter) can improve all these production indices without adverse effects on metabolism or health. Because extracellular Cit is not degraded by microbes in the rumen due to the lack of uptake, Cit can be used without any encapsulation as an effective dietary source for the synthesis of Arg in ruminants, including dairy and beef cows, as well as sheep and goats. Thus, an adequate amount of supplemental rumen-protected Arg or unencapsulated Cit is necessary to support maximum survival, growth, lactation, reproductive performance, and feed efficiency, as well as optimum health and well-being in all ruminants.
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Affiliation(s)
- Guoyao Wu
- Departments of Animal Science and Nutrition, Texas A&M University, College Station, TX, 77843, USA.
| | - Fuller W Bazer
- Departments of Animal Science and Nutrition, Texas A&M University, College Station, TX, 77843, USA
| | - M Carey Satterfield
- Departments of Animal Science and Nutrition, Texas A&M University, College Station, TX, 77843, USA
| | - Kyler R Gilbreath
- Departments of Animal Science and Nutrition, Texas A&M University, College Station, TX, 77843, USA
| | - Erin A Posey
- Departments of Animal Science and Nutrition, Texas A&M University, College Station, TX, 77843, USA
| | - Yuxiang Sun
- Departments of Animal Science and Nutrition, Texas A&M University, College Station, TX, 77843, USA
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Silva JT, Miqueo E, Torrezan TM, Rocha NB, Slanzon GS, Virginio Júnior GF, Bittar CMM. Supplementation of Lysine and Methionine in Milk Replacer or Starter Concentrate for Dairy Calves in Step-Up/Step-Down Feeding Program. Animals (Basel) 2021; 11:2854. [PMID: 34679876 PMCID: PMC8532968 DOI: 10.3390/ani11102854] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/17/2021] [Revised: 09/06/2021] [Accepted: 09/26/2021] [Indexed: 11/30/2022] Open
Abstract
This study aimed to evaluate the performance and metabolic changes in dairy calves fed in a step-up/step-down program and supplemented with lysine and methionine in a milk replacer (MR) or starter concentrate (SC). Male Holstein calves (n = 45) were blocked and distributed in the control without supplementation (1) and with lysine and methionine supplementation in the SC to achieve an intake of 17 and 5.3 g/d, respectively (2), and in the MR to achieve the same daily intake (3). MR was fed 4 L/d until the 2nd week, 8 L/d from the 3rd to 6th week, and 4 L/d from the 7th to 8th week, when calves were weaned. The calves were followed until the 10th week of age. Feed intake was measured daily. Weight and body measurements were registered weekly, and blood samples were collected biweekly. The lysine and methionine intake during the whole period was higher when supplementation occurred via MR. There was a supplementation effect for average daily gain after weaning, and the animals supplemented in the MR had lower BW than those that were not supplemented. Supplementation in MR decreased starter intake at the 10th week and total intake (g DM/d) after weaning. Supplementation with lysine and methionine in the MR or the SC did not benefit the performance or metabolism of dairy calves in the step-up/step-down program. Further studies are needed to understand the effects of amino acid supplementation on feed intake.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | | | | | | | - Carla Maris Machado Bittar
- Department of Animal Science, Luiz de Queiroz College of Agriculture, University of São Paulo, Av. Pádua Dias, 11. Piracicaba, São Paulo 13418-900, Brazil; (J.T.S.); (E.M.); (T.M.T.); (N.B.R.); (G.S.S.); (G.F.V.J.)
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Lysine and Methionine Supplementation for Dairy Calves Is More Accurate through the Liquid than the Solid Diet. Animals (Basel) 2021; 11:ani11020332. [PMID: 33525676 PMCID: PMC7912555 DOI: 10.3390/ani11020332] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/21/2020] [Revised: 01/04/2021] [Accepted: 01/05/2021] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
This study aimed to evaluate the performance and metabolic changes in dairy calves supplemented with lysine and methionine in milk replacer (MR) or starter concentrate (SC). Male Holstein calves (n = 45) were blocked and distributed in Control without supplementation (1) and; Lysine and Methionine supplementation to achieve an intake of 17 and 5.3 g/d in the SC (2) and to achieve of 17 and 5.3 g/d in the MR (3). MR was fed (6 L/d) until the 8th week of life when weaning occurred. Calves were followed until the 10th week of age. Feed intake was measured daily. Weight and body measurements were registered weekly. Blood samples were collected biweekly to evaluate the intermediate metabolism. The AA supplementation resulted in lower body weight at weaning and week 10. Calves fed SC Lys:Met had lower SC intake and lower total feed intake at weaning when compared to control. Calves fed control had higher heart girth, hip-width, and plasma glucose concentration. The supplementation with Lys and Met did not benefit dairy calves' performance nor metabolism in this study. Supplementation through the MR was more efficient than SC to result in adequate daily intakes of AA. Further studies are needed to understand the negative effects of AA on calf starter intake.
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da Silva JT, Manzoni T, Rocha NB, Santos G, Miqueo E, Slanzon GS, Bittar CMM. Evaluation of milk replacer supplemented with lysine and methionine in combination with glutamate and glutamine in dairy calves. JOURNAL OF APPLIED ANIMAL RESEARCH 2018. [DOI: 10.1080/09712119.2018.1436549] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Jackeline Thais da Silva
- Department of Animal Science, College of Agriculture, University of Sao Paulo, Piracicaba, Sao Paulo, Brazil
| | - Thais Manzoni
- Department of Animal Science, College of Agriculture, University of Sao Paulo, Piracicaba, Sao Paulo, Brazil
| | - Nathalia Brito Rocha
- Department of Animal Science, College of Agriculture, University of Sao Paulo, Piracicaba, Sao Paulo, Brazil
| | - Glauber Santos
- Department of Animal Science, College of Agriculture, University of Sao Paulo, Piracicaba, Sao Paulo, Brazil
| | - Evangelina Miqueo
- Department of Animal Science, College of Agriculture, University of Sao Paulo, Piracicaba, Sao Paulo, Brazil
| | - Giovana Simão Slanzon
- Department of Animal Science, College of Agriculture, University of Sao Paulo, Piracicaba, Sao Paulo, Brazil
| | - Carla Maris Machado Bittar
- Department of Animal Science, College of Agriculture, University of Sao Paulo, Piracicaba, Sao Paulo, Brazil
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Vasquez K, Morrison S, Campbell J, Drackley J. Plasma protein and supplemental isoleucine in milk replacers for dairy calves. J Dairy Sci 2017; 100:293-304. [DOI: 10.3168/jds.2016-11480] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/17/2016] [Accepted: 10/01/2016] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
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Van Amburgh ME, Collao-Saenz EA, Higgs RJ, Ross DA, Recktenwald EB, Raffrenato E, Chase LE, Overton TR, Mills JK, Foskolos A. The Cornell Net Carbohydrate and Protein System: Updates to the model and evaluation of version 6.5. J Dairy Sci 2015; 98:6361-80. [PMID: 26142847 DOI: 10.3168/jds.2015-9378] [Citation(s) in RCA: 166] [Impact Index Per Article: 18.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/24/2015] [Accepted: 05/15/2015] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
New laboratory and animal sampling methods and data have been generated over the last 10 yr that had the potential to improve the predictions for energy, protein, and AA supply and requirements in the Cornell Net Carbohydrate and Protein System (CNCPS). The objectives of this study were to describe updates to the CNCPS and evaluate model performance against both literature and on-farm data. The changes to the feed library were significant and are reported in a separate manuscript. Degradation rates of protein and carbohydrate fractions were adjusted according to new fractionation schemes, and corresponding changes to equations used to calculate rumen outflows and postrumen digestion were presented. In response to the feed-library changes and an increased supply of essential AA because of updated contents of AA, a combined efficiency of use was adopted in place of separate calculations for maintenance and lactation to better represent the biology of the cow. Four different data sets were developed to evaluate Lys and Met requirements, rumen N balance, and milk yield predictions. In total 99 peer-reviewed studies with 389 treatments and 15 regional farms with 50 different diets were included. The broken-line model with plateau was used to identify the concentration of Lys and Met that maximizes milk protein yield and content. Results suggested concentrations of 7.00 and 2.60% of metabolizable protein (MP) for Lys and Met, respectively, for maximal protein yield and 6.77 and 2.85% of MP for Lys and Met, respectively, for maximal protein content. Updated AA concentrations were numerically higher for Lys and 11 to 18% higher for Met compared with CNCPS v6.0, and this is attributed to the increased content of Met and Lys in feeds that were previously incorrectly analyzed and described. The prediction of postruminal flows of N and milk yield were evaluated using the correlation coefficient from the BLUP (R(2)BLUP) procedure or model predictions (R(2)MDP) and the concordance correlation coefficient. The accuracy and precision of rumen-degradable N and undegradable N and bacterial N flows were improved with reduced bias. The CNCPS v6.5 predicted accurate and precise milk yield according to the first-limiting nutrient (MP or metabolizable energy) with a R(2)BLUP=0.97, R(2)MDP=0.78, and concordance correlation coefficient=0.83. Furthermore, MP-allowable milk was predicted with greater precision than metabolizable energy-allowable milk (R(2)MDP=0.82 and 0.76, respectively, for MP and metabolizable energy). Results suggest a significant improvement of the model, especially under conditions of MP limitation.
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Affiliation(s)
- M E Van Amburgh
- Department of Animal Science, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY 14850.
| | - E A Collao-Saenz
- Department of Animal Science, Federal University of Goiás, Jataí, Brazil 75800-970
| | - R J Higgs
- Department of Animal Science, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY 14850
| | - D A Ross
- Department of Animal Science, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY 14850
| | - E B Recktenwald
- Department of Animal Science, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY 14850
| | - E Raffrenato
- Department of Animal Sciences, Stellenbosch University, Stellenbosch, South Africa 7600
| | - L E Chase
- Department of Animal Science, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY 14850
| | - T R Overton
- Department of Animal Science, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY 14850
| | - J K Mills
- Elanco Animal Health, Canastota, NY 13032
| | - A Foskolos
- Department of Animal Science, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY 14850
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REVIEW: New information on the protein requirements and diet formulation for dairy calves and heifers since the Dairy NRC 200111Information presented in invited review at the ADSA, AMPA, ASAS, CSAS, WSASAS joint annual meetings in Phoenix, Arizona, July 15–18, 2012. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2013. [DOI: 10.15232/s1080-7446(15)30225-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
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Wang J, Diao Q, Tu Y, Zhang N, Xu X. The limiting sequence and proper ratio of lysine, methionine and threonine for calves fed milk replacers containing soy protein. ASIAN-AUSTRALASIAN JOURNAL OF ANIMAL SCIENCES 2012; 25:224-33. [PMID: 25049555 PMCID: PMC4093134 DOI: 10.5713/ajas.2011.11190] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/21/2011] [Accepted: 08/15/2011] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
The limiting sequence and relative ratio of lysine (Lys), methionine (Met), and threonine (Thr) for calves about 2 mo of age fed milk replacers (MR) containing soy protein are not clearly defined. The objective of the study was to investigate the effect of supplementing MR containing 22% CP, half from soy protein concentrate (SPC, 40.56% CP, flour) and half from whey proteins, with Lys, Met, and Thr to estimate amino acid (AA) sequence and their relative ratio for calves about 2 mo of age. A method of partial deduction of AA was adopted. Twenty-four newborn calves (half males and half females, 40.7±0.9 kg of BW) were fed 1 of 4 MR diets for 56 d (n = 6/diet). The diets were supplemented with all (positive control) or with 2 of the 3 AAs: Lys, Met and Thr, (i.e., PC (22% CP, 2.34% Lys, 0.72% Met and 1.80% Thr), PC-Lys (22% CP, 1.64% Lys, 0.72% Met and 1.80% Thr), PC-Met (22% CP, 2.34% Lys, 0.50% Met and 1.80% Thr), and PC-Thr (22% CP, 2.34% Lys, 0.72% Met and 1.26% Thr)). Calves were fed thrice daily; starter (20% CP, 1.03% Lys, 0.30% Met and 0.69% Thr), hay (3.23% CP, 0.29% Lys, 0.12% Met and 0.23% Thr) and water were offered free choice. Starter and hay were only offered beginning on d 36 (after 5 wk) and d 43 (after 6 wk), respectively. BW, body size and blood samples measures were taken every two weeks. Three-day total collection of feed refusals, feces, and urine were recorded starting at d 33 and d 54 of age, respectively. From the results, the limiting sequence and relative ratio between the 3 AAs in calves with different diet structures were calculated. The limiting sequence of the 3 AAs were ranked as Lys, Met and Thr; the proper ratio was 100:29:70 for MR-only diet and 100:30:60 for diets consisted of MR, starter and hay. Nitrogen digestion and utilization and nutrient digestibility were negatively affected by AA deletion treatments. From the evidence of this experiment, it did not appear that the AA limiting sequence was selectively altered by differences in diet structures such as would be encountered in practice. The relative ratio between the 3 AAs varied with the offer of starter and hay to calves, and the average ratio was 100:29.5:65 for calves during 2 to 10 wk of age.
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García Navarro M, Ramos Morales E, De la Torre Adarve G, Fernández Navarro J, Rodríguez Osorio M, Gil Extremera F, Sanz Sampelayo M. Growth of Pre-ruminant Kid Goats and the Composition of Carcass Fat Deposits: Effects of Providing a PUFA-rich Fat in the Milk Replacer and Influence of the Kidding Season. FOOD SCI TECHNOL INT 2008. [DOI: 10.1177/1082013208094680] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
The aim of this study is to investigate the possibility of improving the composition of goat meat in terms overall, of the fatty acid composition of different fat deposits. The experiment is designed in an 2 × 2 factorial arrangement. The treatments consist of two different milk replacers, one including and one excluding 2% of fish oil, and two different kidding seasons (spring or autumn). Twelve animals are allocated at random, to each treatment. Animals are slaughtered when they reached a body weight of 7000 ± 200 g. The inclusion of fish oil has no significant effect on growth rate, food efficiency ratio or dressing percentage. The cover, intermuscular and intramuscular fat of the leg from the animals fed with the milk replacer including fish oil, present higher and lower proportions of n-3 PUFA and saturated fatty acids respectively, while that of n-6 PUFA remains unchanged. The inclusion of fish oil in the milk replacer increases the 20 : 5 content in the leg muscle from about 0.4 to 3.5% and 22: 6 content from 0.4 to 2.3%. The fatty acids 20: 5 and 22: 6 are also detected in the cover and intermuscular fat when fish oil is included in the diet. The kid goats born in autumn, show a higher birth weight and growth rate. The leg obtained from these animals, presents a higher proportion of muscle and a lower proportion of bone. However, in the animals born in spring, a somewhat more favourable composition is obtained in the leg fat deposits. The improvement in the quality of meat obtained is discussed, taking into account the feeding strategy provided and the class of animals in question.
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Affiliation(s)
- M.C. García Navarro
- Unidad de Nutrición Animal. Estación Experimental del
Zaidín (CSIC) Profesor Albareda 1, 18008 Granada, Spain
| | - E. Ramos Morales
- Unidad de Nutrición Animal. Estación Experimental del
Zaidín (CSIC) Profesor Albareda 1, 18008 Granada, Spain
| | - G. De la Torre Adarve
- Unidad de Nutrición Animal. Estación Experimental del
Zaidín (CSIC) Profesor Albareda 1, 18008 Granada, Spain
| | - J.R. Fernández Navarro
- Unidad de Nutrición Animal. Estación Experimental del
Zaidín (CSIC) Profesor Albareda 1, 18008 Granada, Spain
| | - M. Rodríguez Osorio
- Unidad de Nutrición Animal. Estación Experimental del
Zaidín (CSIC) Profesor Albareda 1, 18008 Granada, Spain
| | - F. Gil Extremera
- Unidad de Nutrición Animal. Estación Experimental del
Zaidín (CSIC) Profesor Albareda 1, 18008 Granada, Spain
| | - M.R. Sanz Sampelayo
- Unidad de Nutrición Animal. Estación Experimental del
Zaidín (CSIC) Profesor Albareda 1, 18008 Granada, Spain,
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Hill T, Bateman H, Aldrich J, Schlotterbeck R, Tanan K. Optimal Concentrations of Lysine, Methionine, and Threonine in Milk Replacers for Calves Less than Five Weeks of Age. J Dairy Sci 2008; 91:2433-42. [DOI: 10.3168/jds.2007-0610] [Citation(s) in RCA: 45] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
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Ball RO, Urschel KL, Pencharz PB. Nutritional consequences of interspecies differences in arginine and lysine metabolism. J Nutr 2007; 137:1626S-1641S. [PMID: 17513439 DOI: 10.1093/jn/137.6.1626s] [Citation(s) in RCA: 87] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Differences in lysine and arginine requirements among various species such as omnivores (humans, pigs, rats, dogs), carnivores (cats), herbivores (rabbits, horses), ruminants (cattle), poultry, and fish, are covered in detail in this article. Although lysine is classified as an indispensable amino acid across species, the classification of arginine as either an indispensable or dispensable amino acid is more ambiguous because of differences among species in rates of de novo arginine synthesis. Because lysine is most often the limiting amino acid in the diet, its requirement has been extensively studied. By use of the ideal protein concept, the requirements of the other indispensable amino acids can be extrapolated from the lysine requirement. The successful use of this concept in pigs is compared with potential application of the ideal protein concept in humans. The current dietary arginine requirement varies widely among species, with ruminants, rabbits, and rats having relatively low requirements and carnivores, fish, and poultry having high requirements. Interspecies differences in metabolic arginine utilization and reasons for different rates of de novo arginine synthesis are reviewed in detail, as these are the primary determinants of the dietary arginine requirement. There is presently no dietary requirement for humans of any age, although this needs to be reassessed, particularly in neonates. A thorough understanding of the factors contributing to the lysine and arginine requirements in different species will be useful in our understanding of human amino acid requirements.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ronald O Ball
- Department of Agricultural, Food and Nutritional Science, University of Alberta, Edmonton, AB, and The Research Institute, The Hospital for Sick Children, Toronto, ON, Canada M5G.
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van den Borne JJGC, Verdonk JMAJ, Schrama JW, Gerrits WJJ. Reviewing the low efficiency of protein utilization in heavy preruminant calves – a reductionist approach. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2006; 46:121-37. [PMID: 16597419 DOI: 10.1051/rnd:2006011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/23/2005] [Accepted: 01/10/2006] [Indexed: 11/14/2022]
Abstract
The efficiency of protein utilization for growth in preruminant calves is decreasing with increasing body weight. In contrast to calves weighing less than 100 kg of body weight, heavy preruminant calves do not respond in protein retention to an increased intake of indispensable amino acids in dose-response studies. The marginal efficiency of protein utilization is low compared with pigs and milk-fed lambs at a similar stage of maturity. A reductionist approach was taken to perceive the potential mechanisms for the low protein utilization in preruminant calves. Neither an imbalance in the dietary protein to energy ratio nor a single limiting indispensable amino acid was responsible for the low efficiency. Also, amino acids were not specifically used to detoxify ammonia. Alternative hypotheses to explain the low efficiency are discussed and result in (i) a reduced post-absorptive supply of amino acids: e.g. by fermentation of milk in the (premature) rumen or preferential amino acid utilization by specific tissues; or (ii) a reduced post-absorptive amino acid utilization: e.g. by decreased insulin sensitivity, utilization of amino acids for gluconeogenesis or an asynchronous nutrient supply. In conclusion, several mechanisms for the low efficiency of protein utilization in heavy preruminant calves were excluded. Other physiological processes which are potentially involved remain to be studied, because the large potential for improving protein utilization in heavy preruminant calves asks for further exploration of their amino acid metabolism.
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van Zyl L, Ferreira A. Amino acid requirements of springbok (Antidorcas marsupialis), blesbok (Damaliscus dorcas phillipsi) and impala (Aepyceros melampus) estimated by the whole empty body essential amino acid profile. Small Rumin Res 2003. [DOI: 10.1016/s0921-4488(02)00248-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/27/2022]
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Hüsier BR, Blum JW. Metabolic and endocrine changes in response to endotoxin administration with or without oral arginine supplementation. J Dairy Sci 2002; 85:1927-35. [PMID: 12214985 DOI: 10.3168/jds.s0022-0302(02)74269-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
This study was performed to investigate blood metabolite, tumor necrosis factor-alpha, and hormone responses to intravenous administration of lipopolysaccharides (2 microg of endotoxin of Escherichia coli 026:B6/kg body weight at times of feeding) in veal calves orally supplemented with arginine (0.25 g/kg of body weight twice daily for 4 d; group GrA) compared with calves not supplemented with arginine (group GrC). Arginine supplementation alone caused a significant rise of plasma arginine, urea, and insulin concentrations, whereas glucagon concentrations tended to increase, but there were no significant group differences. Concentrations of triglycerides, NEFA, glucose, protein, albumin, growth hormone, insulin-like growth factor-I, 3.5.3'-triiodothyronine, and thyroxine were not affected by arginine supplementation. Lipopolysaccharide administration alone caused a rise of tumor necrosis-factor-a, lactate, and cortisol concentrations and concentrations of tumor necrosis-factor-a after 1 h, and of triglycerides and urea after 6 h were higher, whereas of glucose after 3 h were lower in GrA than in GrC. Concentrations of NEFA, glucose, protein, albumin, insulin, growth hormone, insulin-like growth factor-I, 3.5.3'-triiodothyronine, and thyroxine were not affected by lipopolysaccharide administration. In conclusion, arginine supplementation had selective effects on plasma metabolites and hormones, but barely modified lipopolysaccharide effects. Effects of lipopolysaccharides in the postprandial state were different from what is usually seen in the fasted state.
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Affiliation(s)
- B R Hüsier
- Division of Animal Nutrition and Physiology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Berne, Switzerland
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Longenbach J, Heinrichs A. A review of the importance and physiological role of curd formation in the abomasum of young calves. Anim Feed Sci Technol 1998. [DOI: 10.1016/s0377-8401(98)00130-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
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Sanz Sampelayo MR, Allegretti L, Ruiz Mariscal I, Gil Extremera F, Boza J. Dietary factors affecting the maximum feed intake and the body composition of pre-ruminant kid goats of the Granadina breed. Br J Nutr 1995; 74:335-45. [PMID: 7547848 DOI: 10.1079/bjn19950139] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/25/2023]
Abstract
An experiment was carried out with kid goats of the Granadina breed to identify the dietary factors affecting voluntary feed intake of the kid goat and those that additively could determine its body composition. The animals used were from birth to 61 d of age, fed ad lib. on different milk replacers containing 200, 240 and 280 g crude protein/kg DM and 200, 240 and 280 g fat/kg DM, thus giving nine dietary treatments. The utilization of the milk replacers and the animals' body composition were determined by balance and slaughter trials. There were significant positive effects of protein concentration of the milk replacers on component digestibilities, energy metabolizability, feed intake, empty-body weights, empty-body composition and protein and fat retention. The concentration of fat in the milk replacers also had a significant positive effect on the digestible and metabolizable energy concentration of the diets and on fat retention. The relationships existing between feed intake and diet composition (concentration of digestible protein, metabolizable energy and digestible protein:metabolizable energy ratio) as well as between empty-body composition or protein and fat retention and diet composition, were examined. From these it was deduced that feed intake was significantly influenced by the digestible protein concentration of the diets. The higher the digestible protein concentration the higher the feed intake up to a maximum digestible protein concentration value. As the digestible protein concentration of the diets was the dietary factor which significantly influenced feed intake, this also significantly influences the body composition and the protein and fat retention. The protein concentration of the feed at which metabolizable energy intake in these animals would be greatest was estimated to be 347 g/kg DM.
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Abstract
The basic principles of dairy cow feeding apply equally to the dairy heifer. Ration balancing must be accomplished in order to formulate least-cost, nutrient-balanced rations for each age group of heifers. Forage testing enables rations to be developed that utilize the various quality forages that are available on a farm and allows optimum allocation of forages for maximum profitability of the farm feeding system. In addition to feeding management, housing, ventilation, health care, grouping, cleanliness, and many other management factors can complement a sound heifer nutrition program.
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Erickson PS, Schauff DJ, Murphy MR. Diet digestibility and growth of holstein calves fed acidified milk replacers containing soy protein concentrate. J Dairy Sci 1989; 72:1528-33. [PMID: 2760313 DOI: 10.3168/jds.s0022-0302(89)79263-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/02/2023]
Abstract
Three experiments were conducted to determine the effects of acidification of milk replacers containing soy protein concentrate on diet digestibility and growth of Holstein bull calves. In Experiment 1, six calves (6 wk old) were fed at 10% of BW/d either acidified milk replacer containing soy protein concentrate or untreated milk replacer containing soy protein concentrate. Replacers were reconstituted to 12.5% DM for 10-d adjustment and 4-d collection periods to determine digestibility and N balance. Digestibilities of DM, ether extract, and N were similar between treatments. Nitrogen retention and N retention as a percentage of that absorbed were higher for calves fed the acidified diet. In Experiment 2, 20 calves (1 wk old) were fed diets identical to those diets fed in Experiment 1 at 20% of BW/d for 4 wk. Calves were allowed to adjust to the diet for 5 d. Growth parameters were measured and amount of feed offered was adjusted weekly. Calves fed the untreated diet had higher daily weight gains, girth gains, height gains, and better feed utilization. In Experiment 3, 21 calves were fed either the aforementioned diets or a replacer based on milk proteins at 10% of BW/d (12.5% DM) for 4 wk. Growth parameters were measured and DM intakes were adjusted weekly. Growth and feed conversion were similar across diets. Replacers containing soy protein concentrate or large amounts of whey may need to be supplemented with additional methionine to maximize rate of gain.
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Affiliation(s)
- P S Erickson
- Department of Animal Sciences, University of Illinois, Urbana 61801
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Sedgman CA, Roy JH, Thomas J, Stobo IJ, Ganderton P. Digestion, absorption and utilization of single-cell protein by the preruminant calf. The true digestibility of milk and bacterial protein and the apparent digestibility and utilization of their constituent amino acids. Br J Nutr 1985; 54:219-44. [PMID: 4063307 DOI: 10.1079/bjn19850107] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/08/2023]
Abstract
Two experiments of Latin square design were made, each with four Friesian bull calves fitted with re-entrant duodenal and ileal cannulas at 4-10 d of age. The calves were used to study the effect of giving milk-substitutes containing 0, 300, 500 and 700 g bacterial protein (Pruteen)/kg total protein on apparent digestibility of nitrogen fractions and amino acids and true digestibility of 3H-labelled milk protein and 35S-labelled bacterial protein in the small intestine. A third experiment of Latin square design with four intact Friesian calves was used to measure apparent digestibility of nutrients throughout the alimentary tract and retention of N, calcium and phosphorus. At the duodenum, volume of outflow, its pH, and outflow of total-N(TN), protein-N (PN) and non-protein-N (NPN) decreased with time after feeding. At the ileum, volume of outflow and TN outflow were unaffected by time after feeding but PN outflow decreased; NPN outflow at the ileum increased to a maximum 6 h after feeding and then declined. Increased inclusion of Pruteen did not affect the volume of outflow at the duodenum or ileum, but duodenal PN outflow increased. At the ileum, pH values were lower and TN, PN and NPN outflows were higher with increasing concentration of Pruteen in the diet. Apparent digestibility in the small intestine tended to decrease with greater amounts of Pruteen, but was only significant for NPN. Apparent digestibility from mouth to ileum significantly decreased for TN and PN as Pruteen inclusion increased. Amino acid concentration in duodenal outflow, with the exception of that of arginine, reflected intake. The total amount of each amino acid in ileal outflow increased and the apparent digestibility of most amino acids decreased with greater amounts of Pruteen in the diet. Apparent digestibility of nucleic acid-N from Pruteen was very high. True digestibility in the small intestine and between mouth and ileum of 3H-labelled milk protein was high and did not differ between dietary treatments. True digestibility of 35S-labelled Pruteen was low for the milk-protein diet and tended to increase linearly as more dietary Pruteen was included. Dry matter concentration in faeces and a high apparent digestibility throughout the whole alimentary tract of carbohydrates did not differ between treatments.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 400 WORDS)
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Storm E, Orskov ER. The nutritive value of rumen micro-organisms in ruminants. 4. The limiting amino acids of microbial protein in growing sheep determined by a new approach. Br J Nutr 1984; 52:613-20. [PMID: 6498152 DOI: 10.1079/bjn19840128] [Citation(s) in RCA: 73] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/20/2023]
Abstract
Four experiments were carried out to identify and quantify the limiting amino acids (AA) in rumen microbial protein (RMP). A method was developed which involved first, an assessment of the efficiency of utilization of absorbed AA-nitrogen (U) of RMP, defined as the retention of AA-N from RMP absorbed from the small intestine, and second, addition of a mixture of AA similar to the absorbed AA profile in a quantity defined by the U of RMP and equal to (1-U)/U. Third, it involved removal of each AA in turn and measurement of the resultant N retention. Using this approach it was possible to calculate both the order and extent of AA limitations in RMP. Apart from methionine which was found to be the most limiting AA, only lysine, arginine and histidine reduced N retention when omitted, and accordingly only these AA were limiting in RMP. The method is discussed in detail and the amount of supplementary AA required to utilize RMP fully is calculated.
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Schwab CG, Muise SJ, Hylton WE, Moore JJ. Response to abomasal infusion of methionine of weaned dairy calves fed a complete pelleted starter ration based on by-product feeds. J Dairy Sci 1982; 65:1950-61. [PMID: 7174963 DOI: 10.3168/jds.s0022-0302(82)82444-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/23/2023]
Abstract
Three abomasal infusion trials were to determine the first-limiting amino acid for nitrogen retention of postweaned Holstein bull calves fed a starter ration based on cereal by-product feeds. Ration ingredients contributed the following percentages of total amino acids: wheat middlings 38, brewer's grains 24, hominy feed 21, oat hulls 10, distiller's grains 6, and molasses 1. Dry matter of the pelleted ration contained 13 to 14% crude protein and .23 to .26% sulfur. Each trial was a replicated 4 x 4 Latin square with 9-day periods. Calves were weaned at 4 wk and infusions initiated at 5 to 6 wk of age. Abomasal infusion of the 10 essential amino acids, an isonitrogenous quantity of an equimolar mixture of alanine, asparagine, glutamate, glycine, and serine, or an isocaloric quantity of glucose indicated that essential amino acid(s) rather than nonspecific nitrogen or energy was limiting protein synthesis. Quadratic responses in urine nitrogen excretion and retained nitrogen occurred when 0, .3, .6, and 1.2 g L-methionine/kg starter ration were infused. Greatest responses occurred with .6 g methionine, which increased retained nitrogen 11 and 19% and decreased urine nitrogen 7 and 10%. The relationship between infused methionine and plasma methionine was linear. Infusions in all trials had no effect on digestibility of energy and nitrogen.
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Abstract
Strides have been significant in the knowledge of calf and heifer rearing during the last 25 yr. Much information has been gathered on digestive enzymes, development of the digestive system, and metabolism. Investigations have clarified further the role of colostrum in immunity and nutrition of the young calf. Several sources of nutrients have been tested for their suitability in formulation of acceptable milk replacers and calf starters. Once-a-day feeding of milk, colostrum, or milk replacer and early weaning are practical management procedures. Labor and cost efficient methods of feeding and caring for young calves have developed. Extensive work on rearing rates and methods of rearing was published during these 25 yr. Successful schemes have evolved for feeding heifers to freshen at an optimal age and to occupy a respectful position in the milking line. Developments in housing have been phenomenal – from the calf hutch to environmentally controlled nurseries for calves. Heifer housing has ranged from relatively simple, but labor-efficient housing, to complete confinement systems. Herd health programs have developed to minimize many disease problems that can be particularly disastrous in large herds. Contract rearing of herd replacements has become a more frequently chosen option in this period. Budgets for rearing calves from birth to freshening have appeared in recommendations for raising heifers.
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Tzeng D, Davis CL. Amino acid nutrition of the young calf. Estimation of methionine and lysine requirements. J Dairy Sci 1980; 63:441-50. [PMID: 6768779 DOI: 10.3168/jds.s0022-0302(80)82951-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/21/2023]
Abstract
A semipurified diet containing 14 crystalline amino acids as the sole source of nitrogen was used qualitatively and quantitatively to determine dietary needs of the young calf for lysine and methionine. Body weight gain, nitrogen balance, and concentrations of free amino acids in plasma were the criteria to assess the response of young calves to the experimental diets containing graded amounts of lysine and methionine. By these methods the methionine requirement as D-L methionine in the absence of cystine ranged from .17 to .23 g/day/kg body weight (.65 g/kg weight.75).
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