Sleep habits in German athletes before important competitions or games

Sleep Characteristics in Dance Students Related to Psychological Inflexibility

Introduction: Dance, as a performance activity, is associated with various problems. Among these challenges, sleep disturbances are notably prevalent. Aims: This study aimed to explore the potential relationship between sleep characteristics-specifically chronotype and subjective sleep quality- and psychological inflexibility in dance students. Methods: This research adopted a cross-sectional design using non-probabilistic sampling. The data were collected in paper format by visiting public conservatories and private academies, and online. One hundred fourteen dance students, with a mean age of 23.87 years, participated in the study. Assessment tools included the Acceptance and Action Questionnaire-II, Pittsburgh Sleep Quality Index, and the Composite Scale of Morningness. Results: The results revealed that 80.7% of all students reported poor sleep quality, compared to 19.3% who reported good sleep quality. Differences emerged in both subjective sleep quality (F(2, 113) = 4.825, P = .010) and chronotype (F(2, 113) = 6.172, P = .003) when students were grouped according to low, medium, or high levels of psychological inflexibility. Those with low inflexibility, as opposed to those with high inflexibility, report better sleep quality, with no differences observed between medium and high inflexibility groups. Students with high-medium levels of psychological inflexibility showed a higher risk (OR = 6.373 times higher) of experiencing poor sleep quality compared to those with low psychological inflexibility. In terms of chronotype, the low inflexibility group is inclined to be more of a morning type than the medium and high inflexibility groups, with no differences between the latter 2 groups. Students categorized as having low inflexibility tend to have a longer history of dancing under the guidance of a teacher and dedicate more hours and days per week to rehearsal. Conclusion: Conservatories can become "healthy spaces." In this regard, sleep hygiene programs and Acceptance and Commitment Therapy interventions can provide guidance to professionals working with dancers in professional companies and conservatories.

Exploring the impact of sleep on emotional and physical well-being in professional cricketers: a cohort study over an in-season training period

Background

Professional athletes navigate a multitude of unique challenges associated to sport-specific factors (e.g., training, travel and competition) and non-sport factors (e.g., performance pressure, stress and anxiety) that can interfere with healthy sleep behaviors. Sleep plays a key role in proper biopsychosocial development as well as short- and long-term biological, physical, psychological, and cognitive health. As poor sleep quality is known to impair proper brain function, this study aimed to investigate the effect of sleep quality on a professional athlete's ability to train, recover, and perform, as well as their overall emotional and physical well-being.

Methods

A cohort study was performed in 40 professional male cricket athletes from the Dutch national cricket team (mean age 26.5 ± 5.1 years). The athletes were monitored across a 22 weeks in-season training period. Sleep quality and overall emotional and physical well-being were assessed using daily sleep diaries and questionnaires which scored the readiness to train, stress levels, fatigue, muscle soreness and flu symptoms respectively. Quality of sleep and subsequent association with the consecutive elements of the well-being questionnaire were assessed through statistical using the student t-test and clinical differences with the methodology of Osoba and colleagues: <5% "no change", 5%-10% "little change"; 10%-20% "moderate change"; and >20% "very much change".

Results

The results demonstrated that the professional athletes assessed their sleep quality as average with a mean score of 3.4 out of 5. Lower perceived quality of sleep (<75th percentile) was correlated with a decreased readiness to train (mean score 3.2 [IQR: 3.0-4.0] vs. 3.5 [IQR: 3.0-5.0]; P < 0.001) and increased extent of muscle soreness (2.7 [IQR: 2.0-3.0] vs. 2.3 [IQR: 2-3]; P < 0.001), stress level (mean score 2.3 [IQR: 2.0-3.0] vs. 1.9 [IQR: 1.0-2.0]; P < 0.001) and perceived fatigue (mean score 2.9 [IQR: 2.0-3.0] vs. 2.3 [IQR: 2.0-3.0]; P < 0.001). Likewise, in patients with lower perceived quality of sleep, the proportion of players presenting with flu symptoms increased over 4-fold (4.1% vs. 17%; P < 0.001).

Conclusions

This study highlights that good sleep quality positively influences the overall emotional and physical well-being of professional athletes. Our results emphasize the importance of targeted sleep interventions to improve sleep quality and subsequently optimize psychological and physiological wellness.

Sleep Patterns During Pre-Competition Training Phase: A Comparison Between Male and Female Collegiate Swimmers

Purpose

While there is a rising focus on sleep issues among athletes, a notable gap exists in the comparative analysis of sleep patterns between male and female athletes. This study aims to evaluate the sleep patterns of collegiate swimmers during a specific period (pre-competition training phase) based on the National Sleep Foundation's recommendations and compares sleep differences between males and females.

Patients and Methods

15 swimmers (6 males and 9 females) completed the Athlete Sleep Screening Questionnaire (ASSQ) and wore actigraphy devices for 8 consecutive nights to record objective sleep patterns including bedtime, wake time, sleep onset latency, total sleep time, wake after sleep onset, and sleep efficiency.

Results

The total sleep time of collegiate male (5.0±0.4 h, 4.6 to 5.4h) and female (6.0±0.7 h, 5.5 to 6.5h) swimmers was less than 7 hours per night, and male swimmers' sleep efficiency (76.7±8.9%, 67.4 to 86.0%) was lower than the 85% standard. Male swimmers had less objectively measured sleep duration (p=0.006, d=1.66, large effect), lower sleep efficiency (p=0.013, d=1.51, large effect), and longer wake after sleep onset (p=0.096, d=0.94, moderate effect). Female swimmers had higher sleep difficulty scores (p=0.06, d=1.08, moderate effect), and there was a significant difference in the distribution of sleep difficulty scores between male and female swimmers (p=0.033, V=0.045, small effect).

Conclusion

Collegiate swimmers exhibited poor sleep patterns during pre-competition preparation, and the sleep fragmentation of male swimmers was more pronounced. There were sex differences in both subjective and objective measured sleep patterns, with male swimmers having less sleep and low efficiency, while female swimmers experienced more significant sleep disturbances.

Changing Sleep Architecture through Motor Learning: Influences of a Trampoline Session on REM Sleep Parameters

Previous research has shown that learning procedural tasks enhances REM sleep the following night. Here, we investigate whether complex motor learning affects sleep architecture. An experiment in which twenty-two subjects either learned a motor task (trampolining) or engaged in a control task (ergometer) was carried out in a balanced within-group design. After an initial laboratory adaptation night, two experimental nights were consecutive. The results indicate that learning a motor task had an effect on REM sleep parameters and, therefore, support the hypothesis that learning a procedural skill is related to an increase in REM sleep parameters. However, the statistical effect on REM sleep is smaller than found in previous studies. One might speculate that the motor learning was not intense enough compared to other studies. For sports practice, the results suggest that REM sleep, which is particularly rich in the morning, plays an important role in motor memory consolidation. Thus, this phase should not be interrupted after complex motor skill learning sessions. In future studies, other motor tasks should be applied.

Sleep patterns before and after competition: A real-world examination of elite athletes

Good sleep before and after competitions is crucial to cognitive, physiological performance and recovery. Yet, elite athletes face a unique set of challenges when acquiring good sleep before and after competitions, and indeed commonly report sleep problems when it matters most. This study examined the sleep of elite athletes before and after competition compared to before and after free days. A total of 1808 unique nights of actigraphy (n = 1495) and sleep diary (n = 1335) data from elite Australian Football League and National Rugby League male athletes (N = 85, M-age = 24.4 ± 3.6) were collected and analysed using multi-level mixed models. On nights before competitions, athletes advanced sleep timings (p < .001, d = 0.63) and increased total sleep time (p < .001, d = 0.65) compared to nights before free days. On nights after competitions, athletes delayed sleep timings (p < .001, d = 1.64), reduced total sleep time (p < .001, d = 1.28), and had significantly worse quality sleep (p < .001, d = 0.71) compared to nights after free days. Sleep was especially worse following night competitions. While elite athletes and organisations may be implementing effective sleep strategies to optimise sleep the night before competitions, strategies to improve sleep after competitions may be lacking. We discuss potential factors contributing to this asymmetry and propose areas for research moving forward.

Sleep restriction between consecutive days of exercise impairs sprint and endurance cycling performance

The study aim was to determine the effect of sleep restriction (3 h) between consecutive days of exercise on sprint and endurance cycling performance, wellness, and mood. A total of 10 well-trained males performed 2 consecutive-day trials separated by a normal night sleep (control [CONT]; mean [SD] sleep duration 3.0 [0.2] h) or sleep restriction (RES; mean [SD] sleep duration 3.0 [0.2] h). Experimental trials included a 90-min fixed-paced cycling bout and the respective sleep conditions on Day 1, followed by two 6-s peak power (6-s PP) tests, a 4- and 20-min time trial (TT) on Day 2. Profile of Mood States (POMS) and wellness questionnaires were recorded on Day 1 and Day 2. Blood lactate and glucose, heart rate (HR), and rating of perceived exertion were recorded throughout Day 2. Power output (PO) was significantly reduced for RES in the 6-s PP trial (mean [SD] 1159 [127] W for RES versus 1250 [186] W for CONT; p = 0.04) and mean PO during the 20-min TT (mean [SD] 237 [59] W for RES versus 255 [58] W for CONT; p = 0.03). There were no differences for HR, lactate and glucose, or POMS between CONT and RES in all experimental trials (p = 0.05-0.89). Participants reported a reduction in overall wellness prior to exercise on Day 2 following RES (mean [SD] 14.5 [1.6] au) compared to CONT (mean [SD] 16 [3.0] au; p = 0.034). Sleep restriction and the associated reductions in wellness, reduce cycling performance during consecutive days of exercise in a range of cycling tests that are relevant to both track and road cyclists.

Napping behaviour, daytime sleepiness, and arousal in high performance athletes and non-athlete controls

Napping offers a strategy to manage sleep, aid recovery and enhance performance in elite sport. However, relatively little research attention has focussed on the natural history of athlete napping or tested the widely held assumption that athlete napping is mainly a consequence of degraded night-time sleep. Within a sample of 158 team (n = 76) and individual (n = 80) sport athletes, and 82 non-athlete controls, we analysed napping behaviour in relation to sleep quality, daytime sleepiness, and pre-sleep somatic and cognitive arousal. There was no significant association between athlete/non-athlete status and the prevalence, frequency, or duration of naps. Comparisons of athlete nappers and non-nappers found no significant differences in sleep quantity or quality. While nap propensity was significantly related to higher daytime sleepiness, this influence was moderated or augmented by levels of pre-sleep cognitive arousal. For some nappers, those with higher levels of arousal may need to be sleepier than those with lower levels of arousal in order to successfully initiate daytime sleep. Approximately 50% of athletes did not nap. If the benefits of athlete napping are to be fully exploited, the needs of this substantial group for whom napping may be problematic should be recognised and addressed.

Narrative review: The role of circadian rhythm on sports performance, hormonal regulation, immune system function, and injury prevention in athletes

Objectives

This study was a narrative review of the importance of circadian rhythm (CR), describes the underlying mechanisms of CR in sports performance, emphasizes the reciprocal link between CR, endocrine homeostasis and sex differences, and the unique role of the circadian clock in immune system function and coordination.

Method

As a narrative review study, a comprehensive search was conducted in PubMed, Scopus, and Web of Science (core collection) databases using the keywords "circadian rhythm", "sports performance", "hormonal regulation", "immune system", and "injury prevention". Inclusion criteria were studies published in English and peer-reviewed journals until July 2023. Studies that examined the role of CR in sports performance, hormonal status, immune system function, and injury prevention in athletes were selected for review.

Results

CR is followed by almost all physiological and biochemical activities in the human body. In humans, the superchiasmatic nucleus controls many daily biorhythms under solar time, including the sleep-wake cycle. A body of literature indicates that the peak performance of essential indicators of sports performance is primarily in the afternoon hours, and the evening of actions occurs roughly at the peak of core body temperature. Recent studies have demonstrated that the time of day that exercise is performed affects the achievement of good physical performance. This review also shows various biomarkers of cellular damage in weariness and the underlying mechanisms of diurnal fluctuations. According to the clock, CR can be synchronized with photonic and non-photonic stimuli (i.e., temperature, physical activity, and food intake), and feeding patterns and diet changes can affect CR and redox markers. It also emphasizes the reciprocal links between CR and endocrine homeostasis, the specific role of the circadian clock in coordinating immune system function, and the relationship between circadian clocks and sex differences.

Conclusion

The interaction between insufficient sleep and time of day on performance has been established in this study because it is crucial to balance training, recovery, and sleep duration to attain optimal sports performance.

The Impact of Kiwifruit Consumption on the Sleep and Recovery of Elite Athletes

BACKGROUND

Poor sleep and resultant under-recovery can negatively impact training adaptations, increase the risk of injury and reduce subsequent performance. Due to the 'food first' approach adopted by many athletes, there is scope for investigation of 'functional food' based interventions (i.e., kiwifruit contains melatonin which plays a role in circadian rhythm regulation) designed to promote athlete recovery and/or enhance sleep quality and quantity.

METHODS

Following the baseline assessment (Week 1) all subjects began the intervention (Weeks 2-5). During the 4-week intervention, participants were asked to consume 2 medium-sized green kiwifruit (Actinidia Deliciosa) an hour before bed. Participants completed a questionnaire battery at baseline and post-intervention, and a daily sleep dairy for the duration of the study.

RESULTS

The results demonstrated a positive impact of kiwifruit consumption on key aspects of sleep and recovery in elite athletes. From baseline to post-intervention, there were clinically significant improvements in sleep quality (i.e., improved PSQI global scores and sleep quality component scores) and improvements in recovery stress balance (reduced general stress and sports stress scales). Moreover, the intervention improved sleep as evidenced by significant increases in total sleep time and sleep efficiency % and significant reductions in number of awakenings and wake after sleep onset.

CONCLUSION

The findings broadly suggested that kiwifruit does impact positively on sleep and recovery in elite athletes.

Tracking sleep in the field: sleep quality and sleep behaviours of elite track and field athletes during preparation and competition

Elite athletes are susceptible to inadequate sleep, which may peak during competition and be exacerbated by poor sleep behaviours. This study sought to characterise and compare the sleep quality and sleep behaviours of elite track and field athletes during preparation and major competitions. Forty elite international track and field athletes (50% female, aged 25.1 ± 3.9 years) completed the Athlete Sleep Screening Questionnaire and the Athlete Sleep Behaviour Questionnaire on three separate occasions: during habitual training, during a pre-meet training camp and during a major international competition. Overall, 62.5% of athletes reported at least mild sleep difficulty during competition. Athletes reported higher sleep difficulty and poorer sleep behaviour during major competitions and the pre-meet training camp compared to habitual training (P = .001-.025). No significant differences were observed between the training camp and major competition. Global sleep behaviour scores were underpinned by unique characteristics at each timepoint. Sleep behaviour (R² = .330, P = .017), injury status (R² = .253, P = .003) and major championship experience (R² = .113, P = .034) were associated with sleep difficulty during competition. Sleep quality and behaviours vary according to stage of the track and field season, providing a foundation for targeted intervention.

The prevalence of orthorexia in exercising populations: a systematic review and meta-analysis

AIM

Orthorexia Nervosa (ON) describes a pathological obsession with proper and high-quality nutrition that is necessary to research further in order to elucidate its prevalence and correlates which may bear implications for prevention and treatment. The aim of this study was to review studies that report the prevalence of ON in people who exercise, calculate an overall prevalence through a random-effects meta-analysis approach and investigate the association of ON prevalence using a random-effects meta-regression. In addition, a sub-group-analysis based on ON-instruments and a sensitivity analysis excluding students samples, were conducted.

METHOD

Systematic searches were conducted in the following online databases: PubMed, Embase, Web of Science, PsychInfo, CINAHL, Google Scholar and OpenNet. The following search terms were used: Orthore* AND (prevalenc* OR incidenc* OR frequen* OR cut-off OR epidem*). A total of 613 unique hits were reviewed by two blinded authors, and 24 studies were coded and assessed for risk of bias (Holy et.al). The meta-regression included three independent variables (sex, type of sport, and sample size).

RESULTS

The overall prevalence of ON in the exercising population was 55.3% (95% CI 43.2-66.8). Cochran's Q was 11,436.38 (df = 23, p < 0.0000), and the I² was 98.4%, indicating high heterogeneity across studies. The sensitivity showed an overall prevalence of 51.3% (95% CI 51.3-70.0). There was a significant difference in prevalence estimates based on the instruments used (Q_bet = 33.6, df = 2, p < 0.01).

DISCUSSION

The overall prevalence of ON in exercising populations was very high. The between-study disparity was large and was partly explained by the ON-instrument administered. One fourth of the studies had a moderate risk of bias. The majority of the studies did not specify relevant demographic information about the sample, and information about the type of sport was frequently missing.

Intensified Olympic Preparation: Sleep and Training-Related Hormonal and Immune Responses in Water Polo

PURPOSE

To investigate whether sleeping activity, hormonal responses, and wellness are altered in elite water polo players during their preparation toward the Tokyo Olympics.

METHODS

Eight elite-level water polo players participated in 3 consecutive training phases: (1) before the commencement of a residential-based conditioning camp (PRE-CAMP; 3 d), (2) residential-based conditioning camp (5 d), and (3) a congested period of training and competition (POST-CAMP; 8 d). Nocturnal sleep was monitored for 14 consecutive days in PRE-CAMP (2 d), CAMP (5 d), and POST-CAMP (7 d). Postawakening salivary cortisol, immunoglobulin-A, and subjective wellness were measured during PRE-CAMP, CAMP, and POST-CAMP, and internal training/match load (ITL) was calculated daily. The averaged values for dependent variables were compared among training phases and analyzed using linear mixed models.

RESULTS

At CAMP compared with PRE-CAMP, ITL was higher (P < .01), and sleep onset and offset were earlier (P < .01). At this period, sleep interruptions and salivary cortisol were higher (P < .01, d = 1.6, d = 1.9, respectively), and subjective wellness was worsened (P < .01, d = 1.3). At POST-CAMP, the reduction of workload was followed by increased sleep efficiency, reduced sleep interruptions, and moderately affected salivary cortisol, yet overall wellness remained unaltered. In POST-CAMP, 2 of the players demonstrated severe symptoms of illness.

CONCLUSIONS

At the highest level of the sport and prior to the Olympics, large increments in workload during a training camp induced meaningful sleep interruptions and salivary cortisol increases, both of which were reversed at POST-CAMP. We suggest that the increased workload alongside the inadequate recovery affects sleep patterns and may increase the risk of infection.

Effect of Training/Competition Load and Scheduling on Sleep Characteristics in Professional Rugby League Athletes

ABSTRACT

Conlan, G, McLean, B, Kemp, J, and Duffield, R. Effect of training/competition load and scheduling on sleep characteristics in professional rugby league athletes. J Strength Cond Res 36(12): 3390-3397, 2022-This study examined the effect of training/competition load, scheduling, and associated factors on sleep behavior in professional rugby league athletes. Sleep characteristics were assessed in 26 professional rugby league athletes using wrist-mounted actigraphy and nightly sleep diaries. Sleep actigraphy assessed the time into and out of bed, the duration in bed, sleep duration, efficiency, latency, wake after sleep onset, number of awakenings, and the awakening length. Sleep was measured during 3 different weeks: (a) preseason low training load (TL) (2,356 ± 322 AU), (b) preseason high TL (3,542 ± 445 AU), and (c) in-season match week (1,526 ± 409 AU). The influences of internal TL (session rating of perceived exertion load), training schedule, age, and training location on sleep behavior were analyzed. Repeated-measures 2-way analysis of variance and effect size analyses (d) compared sleep variables between training weeks. The mean weekly sleep duration was significantly lower during high TL week (5 hours 53minutes ± 14 min/night; p = 0.015, d = 0.59) compared with the low TL (6 hours 25minutes ± 8 min·night -1 ) or match weeks (6 hours 26minutes ± 10 min·night -1 ; p = 0.02, d = 2.04). Reduced sleep duration in the high TL week occurred alongside earlier out-of-bed times compared with the low TL ( p = 0.003, d = 1.46) and match weeks ( p = 0.001, d = 5.99). Regardless, the lowest sleep duration was on match night ( p = 0.0001, d = 1.22). Earlier training start times resulted in earlier wake times ( p = 0.003, d = 4.84), shorter in-bed durations ( p = 0.0001, d = 0.62), and shorter sleep durations ( p = 0.002, d = 0.32). Younger athletes slept for longer durations ( p = 0.029, d = 1.70) and perceived their sleep quality to be superior ( p = 0.006, d = 14.94) compared with older athletes. Sleep attained by rugby league athletes is influenced by training and competition schedules, with early training start times and late-night matches being primary drivers of sleep behavior. Coaching staff should have awareness surrounding the implications of training and playing schedules on athlete sleeping patterns.

Effects of Transcranial Direct Current Stimulation on Sleep in Athletes: A Protocol of a Randomized Controlled Trial

Background: Sleep disturbances are common among athletes. There is recently a growing interest in improving sleep quality by using noninvasive brain stimulation techniques such as transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS). We hypothesized that bilateral dorsolateral prefrontal cortex anodal tDCS could improve sleep in different sports athletes. A randomized controlled trial is to be conducted to test this hypothesis. Methods: Eighty-four athletes are selected based on specific eligibility criteria and randomly allocated to the intervention or control group. Each participant will receive a 20-min session of bilateral anodal tDCS with an intensity of 1.5 mA (0.057 mA/cm2) in density 3 times a week for 2 weeks. The tDCS current will be delivered only for 30 seconds in the control group. This study’s outcome is a set of subjective and objective sleep parameters. Conclusion: This study assessed the effect of a novel tDCS protocol represented by bilateral anodal stimulation and may result in important advances in sleep management among athletes. Because of the high incidence and impact of athletes’ poor sleep quality, it is particularly important to explore effective interventions. Trial Registration: ClinicalTrials.gov: NCT05318352.

Schlaf und Wettkämpfe bei jungen AthletInnen

Hintergrund

Schlaf spielt auch für SportlerInnen eine wichtige Rolle, vor allem vor Wettkämpfen.

Ziel der Arbeit

In einer Stichprobe von NachwuchsathletInnen soll erfasst werden, ob ein gestörter Schlaf vorliegt und welche Ursachen und Auswirkungen ein gestörter Schlaf vor Wettkämpfen aus subjektiver Sicht hat.

Material und Methode

Mittels eines Online-Fragebogens wurden 46 SchülerInnen eines Sportgymnasiums (Tenero, Schweiz) befragt.

Ergebnisse

Über zwei Drittel der jugendlichen Athletinnen berichten über einen schlechteren Schlaf vor wichtigen Wettkämpfen oder Spielen. 40 % dieser AthletInnen gaben an, dass der schlechte Schlaf vor dem Wettkampf/Spiel ihre Leistung beeinträchtigt hat.

Diskussion

Da aus subjektiver Sicht schlechter Schlaf die Wettkampfleistungen beeinträchtigen kann, ist es sinnvoll, dieses Thema intensiver zu beforschen (kontrollierte Studien) und Schlafinterventionen für diese Zielgruppe zu entwickeln.

Effects of COVID-19 Lockdown on Physical Performance, Sleep Quality, and Health-Related Quality of Life in Professional Youth Soccer Players

Background

In March 2020, the COVID-19 outbreak led to the declaration of a pandemic. The accompanying restrictions on public life caused a change in the training routines of athletes worldwide. The present study aimed to investigate the effects of a 13-week supervised home training program on physical performance, sleep quality, and health-related quality of life in professional youth soccer players during the first COVID-19 lockdown in Germany.

Methods

Eight professional soccer players (age range 16–19; height: 1.81 ± 0.07 m; body weight: 72.05 ± 6.96 kg) from a Bundesliga team in Germany participated in this study. During the lockdown, they trained 5–6 days per week with home-based training plans and were monitored via tracking apps and video training. To determine the effects of home training, measurements were taken before (March 2020) and after (June 2020) the home training period. Bioelectrical impedance analysis was used to determine body composition, and an isokinetic strength test and a treadmill step test, including lactate measurements, were used to measure physical performance. Two questionnaires were responded to in order to assess health-related quality of life [Short-Form 36 Health Survey (SF-36)] and sleep quality (Pittsburgh Sleep Quality Index).

Results

When comparing measurements before and after the home training period, we observed significant increases in the following variables: body weight (72.05 ± 6.96 kg vs. 73.50 ± 6.68 kg, p = 0.034), fat mass (11.99 ± 3.13 % vs. 13.98 ± 3.92 %, p = 0.030), body mass index (22.04 ± 0.85 kg/m2 vs. 22.49 ± 0.92 kg/m2, p = 0.049), and mental health component summary score (MCS) of the questionnaire SF-36 (53.95 ± 3.47 vs. 58.33 ± 4.50, p = 0.044). Scores on the general health (77.88 ± 14.56 vs. 89.75 ± 13.76, p = 0.025) and mental health (81.50 ± 9.30 vs. 90.00 ± 11.71, p = 0.018) subscales of the SF-36 also increased significantly.

Conclusion

The COVID-19 lockdown led to an increase in body composition parameters and showed an improvement in the MCS and scores on the general and mental health subscales of the SF-36. Physical performance and sleep quality could be maintained during the home training period. These observations may help trainers for future training planning during longer interruptions in soccer training.

Sleep and Athletic Performance: Impacts on Physical Performance, Mental Performance, Injury Risk and Recovery, and Mental Health: An Update

Sleep health is an important consideration for athletic performance. Athletes are at high risk of insufficient sleep duration, poor sleep quality, daytime sleepiness and fatigue, suboptimal sleep schedules, irregular sleep schedules, and sleep and circadian disorders. These issues likely have an impact on athletic performance via several domains. Sleep loss and/or poor sleep quality can impair muscular strength, speed, and other aspects of physical performance. Sleep issues can also increase risk of concussions and other injuries and impair recovery after injury. Cognitive performance is also impacted in several domains, including vigilance, learning and memory, decision making, and creativity.

Acute Sleep Deprivation Impairs Motor Inhibition in Table Tennis Athletes: An ERP Study

Excellent response inhibition is the basis for outstanding competitive athletic performance, and sleep may be an important factor affecting athletes’ response inhibition. This study investigates the effect of sleep deprivation on athletes’ response inhibition, and its differentiating effect on non-athlete controls’ performance, with the aim of helping athletes effectively improve their response inhibition ability through sleep pattern manipulation. Behavioral and event-related potential (ERP) data were collected from 36 participants (16 table tennis athletes and 20 general college students) after 36 h of sleep deprivation using ERP techniques and a stop-signal task. Sleep deprivation’s different effects on response inhibition in the two groups were explored through repeated-measures ANOVA. Behavioral data showed that in a baseline state, stop-signal response time was significantly faster in table tennis athletes than in non-athlete controls, and appeared significantly longer after sleep deprivation in both groups. ERP results showed that at baseline state, N2, ERN, and P3 amplitudes were lower in table tennis athletes than in non-athlete controls, and corresponding significant decreases were observed in non-athlete controls after 36 h of sleep deprivation. Table tennis athletes showed a decrease in P3 amplitude and no significant difference in N2 and ERN amplitudes, after 36 h of sleep deprivation compared to the baseline state. Compared to non-athlete controls, table tennis athletes had better response inhibition, and the adverse effects of sleep deprivation on response inhibition occurred mainly in the later top-down motor inhibition process rather than in earlier automated conflict detection and monitoring.

Evidence‐Based Recovery in Soccer – Low‐Effort Approaches for Practitioners

Strategies to improve recovery are widely used among soccer players at both amateur and professional levels. Sometimes, however, recovery strategies are ineffective, improperly timed or even harmful to players. This highlights the need to educate practitioners and athletes about the scientific evidence of recovery strategies as well as to provide practical approaches to address this issue. Therefore, recent surveys among soccer athletes and practitioners were reviewed to identify the recovery modalities currently in use. Each strategy was then outlined with its rationale, its physiological mechanisms and the scientific evidence followed by practical approaches to implement the modality. For each intervention, practical and particularly low-effort strategies are provided to ensure that practitioners at all levels are able to implement them. We identified numerous interventions regularly used in soccer, i.e., sleep, rehydration, nutrition, psychological recovery, active recovery, foam-rolling/massage, stretching, cold-water immersion, and compression garments. Nutrition and rehydration were classified with the best evidence, while cold-water immersion, compression garments, foam-rolling/massage and sleep were rated with moderate evidence to enhance recovery. The remaining strategies (active recovery, psychological recovery, stretching) should be applied on an individual basis due to weak evidence observed. Finally, a guide is provided, helping practitioners to decide which intervention to implement. Here, practitioners should rely on the evidence, but also on their own experience and preference of the players.

Sleep Quality and Well-Being in Junior Elite Athletes

Abstract. Little cross-sectional and even less longitudinal research has been conducted on sleep quality and well-being in junior elite athletes. This study analyzed the relationship between subjective sleep quality and both psychological and physiological well-being in junior elite athletes using both a cross-sectional ( N = 625 athletes; 49.9 % = female; M = 16.4 years, SD = 3.5 years) and a longitudinal approach ( n = 79; 44.3 % = female; M = 16.4 years, SD = 3.5 years) over a period of M = 1.66 years ( SD = 0.87 years). The results demonstrated that both samples showed that subjective sleep quality is correlated with well-being in junior elite athletes. In addition, the results showed that athletes of prepuberty age reported significantly better sleep quality than athletes during and after puberty, and that the relationship between sleep quality and psychological well-being is stronger in female junior athletes than in male athletes. This study emphasizes the need to ensure quality sleep in junior elite athletes.

Der Zusammenhang zwischen Schlaf und Training bei jugendlichen Elite-Mannschaftsathleten in Österreich

Zusammenfassung. In dieser Studie wurde das Schlaf-Wach-Verhalten jugendlicher Elite-Mannschaftsathleten in Österreich im Zusammenhang mit deren Training untersucht. Dafür wurden 104 Athleten ( M=14.52 Jahre, SD=0.40), die jeweils Mitglied eines U15/U16 Teams im Fußball ( n=69) oder Eishockey ( n =35) waren, über mehrere Wochen (14 – 42 Tage) per Aktigraphie und Schlafprotokoll untersucht. Zusätzlich wurden der Chronotyp (D-MEQ) und die allgemeine Schlafqualität (PSQI) erhoben. Es wurde angenommen, dass die Schlafqualität vor Trainings- und Spieltagen geringer ist als vor Ruhetagen und dass sich eine geringe Schlafqualität negativ auf die Trainingsintensität auswirkt. Es konnte gezeigt werden, dass die Athleten an Ruhetagen eine längere Schlafdauer aufweisen. Es hat sich außerdem bestätigt, dass eine kürzere Schlafdauer und längere Einschlaflatenz einen negativen Einfluss auf die wahrgenommene Trainingsintensität am folgenden Tag haben. Ein stärkerer Einbezug der Schlafqualität bei Leistungsanalysen und in der Gestaltung von Trainingsplänen wird empfohlen.

Relationship between sleep quality, mood state, and performance of elite air-rifle shooters

Background

To evaluate the impact of pre-competition sleep quality on the mood and performance of elite air-rifle shooters.

Methods

Elite shooters who participated in an air-rifle shooting-competition from April 2019 to October 2019 were evaluated using actigraphy, including Total Sleep Time (TST), Sleep Efficiency (SE), Sleep Latency (SL), Wake-time after Sleep Onset (WASO). Sleep quality was assessed by Pittsburgh sleep quality index (PSQI) and Profile of Mood State (POMS). Mood state was assessed by Competitive State Anxiety Inventory-2.

Results

Study included 23 shooters, of them 13 male and 10 female with the mean age 23.11 ± 4.82 years. The average time to fall asleep was 20.6 ± 14.9 min, TST was 7.0 ± 0.8 h and SE was 85.9 ± 5.3%. Average sleep quality was 5.2 ± 2.2 and tended to decrease as the competition progressed. Pre-competition sleep time in female athletes was significantly higher compared to the competition day (P = 0.05). Pre-competition SL was significantly longer in women than in men (P = 0.021). During training and pre-competition, the tension, fatigue, depression, and emotional disturbance were significantly lower in athletes with good sleep quality. Athletes with good sleep quality had significantly more energy. The PSQI total score positively correlated with cognitive anxiety (r = 0.471, P < 0.01), and somatic anxiety (r = 0.585, P < 0.01), and negatively correlated with energy (− 0.504, P < 0.01) and self-confidence scores (r = − 0.523, P < 0.01).

Conclusion

Poor sleep quality negatively impacted the mood of athletes; however, sleep indices and competition performance of athletes during competitions were not significantly correlated.

Cranial Electrotherapy Stimulation to Improve the Physiology and Psychology Response, Response-Ability, and Sleep Efficiency in Athletes with Poor Sleep Quality

Athletes often have poor sleep quality before a competition. Sleep quality can stabilize mood and improve sports performance. The randomized controlled study explored the effects of cranial electrotherapy stimulation (CES) on the physiology, psychology, response-ability, and sleep quality of athletes who had poor sleep quality before a competition. Athletes who had poor sleep quality (Pittsburgh Sleep Quality Scale score > 5) and had a competition in less than 2 months were recruited. The athletes were grouped into the CES group, which received a 2-week CES treatment (n = 20, age = 21.55 ± 2.26 years), and a placebo group (n = 20, age = 21.05 ± 1.46 years), which received a 2-week sham CES treatment. We performed biochemical analysis, a simple reaction time test, choice reaction time tests, the Profile of Mood States, heart rate variability (HRV), and an Actigraphy activity recorder to measure outcomes before and after the interventions. Our results revealed no significant differences in blood urea nitrogen, creatine phosphate, testosterone, cortisol, and saliva pH between and within groups (p > 0.05). Significant decreases in negative mood states (i.e., anger, tension, and depression) and choice reaction time in the CES group were noted (p < 0.05), moreover, the anger, tension, and depression mood decreased from 0.36 ± 0.45 (95% CI = 0.16–0.55), 1.62 ± 0.97 (95% CI = 1.19–2.04), and 1.67 ± 1.06 (95% CI = 1.20–2.13) to 0.11 ± 0.20 (95% CI = 0.02–0.19, p = 0.03), 1.12 ± 0.74 (95% CI = 0.79–1.44, p = 0.04), and 0.81 ± 0.75 (95% CI = 0.48–1.13, p = 0.001), respectively. Additionally, choice reaction time was decreased from 420.85 ± 41.22 ms (95% CI = 402.78–438.91) to 399.90 ± 36.71 ms (95% CI = 383.81–415.98, p = 0.04) and was also noted in the CES group. For HRV, and Actigraphy activity for sleep measure, the low-frequency (LF)/high-frequency (HF) ratios changed from 1.80 ± 1.39 (95% CI = 1.19–2.40) to 1.21 ± 0.73 (95% CI = 0.89–1.53, p = 0.10), and sleep efficiency decreased from 87.94 ± 6.76% (95% CI = 84.97–90.90) to 81.75 ± 9.62% (95% CI = 77.53–85.96, p = 0.02) in the CES group. The change in LF/HF after the trial were found between CES and placebo groups (p < 0.05). Yet, the decrease in sleep efficiency in the placebo group were noted (p < 0.05). However, we found that the regression line for sleep efficiency was decreased less during the study while using CES. The CES intervention could reduce negative emotions, improve choice reaction times, enhance the parasympathetic and sympathetic nerve activity imbalances, and slow sleep efficiency deterioration. Regardless, small effect sizes of the application of CES on psychology response, response-ability, and sleep efficiency were concluded in athletes with poor sleep quality before a competition.

Assessment of sleep disturbances with the athlete sleep screening Questionnaire in Chinese athletes

This study investigated the factors that are associated with sleep disturbances among Chinese athletes. Sleep quality and associated factors were assessed by the Athlete Sleep Screening Questionnaire (ASSQ, n ​= ​394, aged 18–32 years, 47.6% female). Sleep difficulty score (SDS) and level of sleep problem (none, mild, moderate, or severe) were used to classify participants' sleep quality. Categorical variables were analyzed by Chi-square or fisher's exact tests. An ordinal logistic regression analysis was used to explore factors with poor sleep (SDS ≥8).

Approximately 14.2% of participants had moderate to severe sleep problem (SDS ≥8). Fifty-nine percent of the athletes reported sleep disturbance during travel, while 43.3% experienced daytime dysfunction when travelling for competition. No significant difference was found in the SDS category between gender, sports level and events. Athletes with evening chronotype were more likely to report worse sleep than athletes with morning and intermediate chronotype (OR, 2.25; 95%CI, 1.44–3.52; p ​< ​0.001). For each additional year of age, there was an increase of odds ratio for poor sleep quality (OR, 1.15; 95%CI, 1.04–1.26; p ​= ​0.004), while each additional year of training reduced the odds ratio (OR, 0.95; 95%CI, 0.91–0.99; p ​= ​0.044). To improve sleep health in athletes, chronotype, travel-related issues, age and years of training should be taken into consideration.

•

Sleep problems in athletes have been noticed in recent years. By using the clinically validated questionnaire (ASSQ) in Chinese athletes, we found that 14.2% of Chinese athletes had sleep disturbance.

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By using a multivariate ordinal logistic regression model, we were able to detect chronotype, travel-related issues, age and years of training were important influencing factors on poor sleep quality in Chinese athletes.

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The novel findings observed in this study shed new light on the current sleep health and possible factors affecting sleep disturbances of Chinese athletes and provide a new perspective for Chinese athletes to optimize their sleep strategies that improve sleep quality.

The Sleep Behaviors of Elite Australian Rules Footballers Before and After Games During an Entire Season

Purpose: Most athletes sleep poorly around competition. The aim of this study was to examine sleep before/after games during an entire season in elite Australian Rules footballers (N = 37) from the same team. Methods: Sleep was monitored using activity monitors for 4 consecutive nights (beginning 2 nights before games) during 19 rounds of a season. Differences in sleep on the nights before/after games, and differences in sleep before/after games as a function of game time (day vs evening), location (local vs interstate), and outcome (win vs loss), were examined using linear mixed effects models. Results: Players fell asleep earlier (+1.9 h; P < .001), and woke up later (+1 h; P < .001) on the night before games compared with the night of games. Players obtained less sleep on the night of games than on the night before games (5.2 h vs 7.7 h; P < .001), and this reduction was exacerbated when games were played in the evening—after evening games, players obtained approximately 40 minutes less sleep than after day games (P < .001). Sleep duration on the nights before and after games was not affected by game location or game outcome, but players had later sleep onset (P < .001) and offset times (P < .001) on most nights when sleeping away from home. Conclusions: Elite footballers obtain good sleep on the night before games but obtain approximately 30% less sleep on the night of games. Given the role of sleep in recovery, it will be important to determine whether a reduction in sleep duration of this magnitude impairs recovery on the days following games.

Sleep, health, and well-being in elite athletes from different sports, before, during, and after international competition

Objectives: Limited research has been conducted on sleep problems in elite athletes at international competition, and how this relates to their general health and well-being. Methods: Sixty-five elite international athletes (37 males, 28 females, 21.8 ± 2.1 years) from different sports completed validated sleep (Athlete Sleep Screening Questionnaire), health (Subjective Health Complaints Inventory) and well-being (Sports Profile of Mood States) questionnaires; 1 month pre-competition, at the end of international competition, and 1 month post-competition. Results: Twenty-three percent of the elite athletes were identified as having a moderate or severe clinically significant sleep problem during competition, with 82% reporting less than 8 h of sleep per night. Athletes with a moderate or severe clinically significant sleep problem during competition had significantly greater general health complaints (p = 0.002), mood disturbance (p = 0.001) and poorer sleep hygiene (p = 0.002). Swimmers had more sleep difficulty pre and during competition compared to athletics and soccer (p = 0.009). Conclusion: Sleep disturbance during international competition is common and associated with poorer health and lower mood. Swimmers may be more at risk of sleep difficulty pre and during competition compared to those competing in athletics and soccer. Sleep services may be required to support elite athletes at international competition.

Does observance of Ramadan affect sleep in athletes and physically active individuals? A systematic review and meta-analysis

The purpose of this systematic review and meta-analysis is to provide an accurate description of the effect of Ramadan observance on sleep duration, sleep quality, daily nap duration, and daytime sleepiness in athletes and physically active individuals. Five electronic databases (PubMed, Web of Science, Scopus, Wiley, and Taylor and Francis) were used to search for relevant studies conducted with athletes or physically active individuals during Ramadan, published in any language, and available before May 23, 2021. Studies that included assessments of sleep quantity and/or quality, and/or daytime sleepiness, and/or daily naps in athletes and physically active individuals were included. The methodological quality of the studies was assessed using "QualSyst". Of the 18 papers included in this study (298 participants in total), 14 were of strong quality, two were moderate, and the remaining two were rated as weak. Individuals who continued to train during Ramadan experienced a decrease in sleep duration (number of studies, K = 17, number of participants, N = 289, g = -0.766, 95% confidence interval [CI] -1.199 to -0.333, p = 0.001). Additionally, the global score of the Pittsburgh Sleep Quality Index increased from 4.053 (K = 5, N = 65, 95% CI 3.071-5.034) pre-Ramadan, to 5.346 (95% CI 4.362-6.333) during Ramadan, indicating a decrease in sleep quality. The duration of daytime naps increased during compared to pre-Ramadan (K = 2, N = 31, g = 1.020, 95% CI 0.595-1.445, p = 0.000), whereas Epworth Sleepiness Scale scores remained unchanged during versus pre-Ramadan (K = 3, N = 31, g = 0.190, 95% CI -0.139-0.519, p = 0.257). In conclusion, individuals who continued to train during Ramadan experienced a decrease in sleep duration, impairment of sleep quality, and increase in daytime nap duration, with no change in daytime sleepiness levels.

Sleep Behaviors and Handedness in Gifted and Non-Gifted Children

Patterns of sleep behaviors appear to differ across students with special needs including those classified with developmental disorders, attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder, and autism. One understudied segment of the special needs population is that of gifted children, students who bring their own unique set of behavioral characteristics. In the present study, it was hypothesized that because of unique cognitive and socio-emotional intensities, gifted children would experience elevated levels of sleep disturbance in comparison to their non-gifted peers. Handedness was also surveyed for additional insight into cerebral organization. The study's participants were 35 gifted and 23 non-gifted students between the ages of 8-12. To measure sleep behaviors, data from the Child Sleep Habits Questionnaire (Abbreviated), Sleep Self-Report, and a sleep diary were collected. To assess handedness, the Edinburgh Handedness Inventory was administered. Results indicated that although gifted students did trend toward experiencing more sleep disturbance, when compared to non-gifted students, no significant differences were found in mean bedtime, hours slept, sleeping problems, or use of electronic devices before bedtime. In terms of handedness, gifted participants displayed more left-hand bias. Although no differences were found between sleep patterns of gifted vs. non-gifted children, this study adds to the limited evidential base on gifted children, handedness, and sleep. Additional research on sleep behaviors within this special needs cohort may be warranted.

Cannabis and Athletic Performance

Cannabis is widely used for both recreational and medicinal purposes on a global scale. There is accumulating interest in the use of cannabis and its constituents for athletic recovery, and in some instances, performance. Amidst speculation of potential beneficial applications, the effects of cannabis and its two most abundant constituents, delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) and cannabidiol (CBD), remain largely un-investigated. The purpose of this review is to critically evaluate the literature describing the effects of whole cannabis, THC, and CBD, on athletic performance and recovery. While investigations of whole cannabis and THC have generally shown either null or detrimental effects on exercise performance in strength and aerobic-type activities, studies of sufficient rigor and validity to conclusively declare ergogenic or ergolytic potential in athletes are lacking. The ability of cannabis and THC to perturb cardiovascular homeostasis warrants further investigation regarding mechanisms by which performance may be affected across different exercise modalities and energetic demands. In contrast to cannabis and THC, CBD has largely been scrutinized for its potential to aid in recovery. The beneficial effects of CBD on sleep quality, pain, and mild traumatic brain injury may be of particular interest to certain athletes. However, research in each of these respective areas has yet to be thoroughly investigated in athletic populations. Elucidating the effects of whole cannabis, THC, and CBD is pertinent for both researchers and practitioners given the widespread use of these products, and their potential to interact with athletes' performance and recovery.

Slow Wave Sleep of Elite and Nonelite Gymnasts Is Influenced by Weekly Training Hours, Not by Fitness Level

PURPOSE

This study aimed to determine the influencing factors of potential differences in sleep architecture between elite (EG) and nonelite (NEG) female artistic gymnasts.

METHODS

Twelve EG (15.1 [1.5] y old) and 10 NEG (15.3 [1.8] y old) underwent a nocturnal polysomnography after a regular training day (5.8 [0.8] h vs 2.6 [0.7] h), and, on a separate test day, they performed an incremental treadmill test after a rest day in order to determine physical fitness status. A multiple linear regression assessed the predictive value of training and fitness parameters toward the different sleep phases. Total sleep time and sleep efficiency (proportion of time effectively asleep to time in bed), as well as percentage of nonrapid eye movement sleep phase 1 (NREM1) and 2 (NREM2), slow wave sleep (SWS), and rapid eye movement sleep (REM), during a single night were compared between EG and NEG using an independent-samples t test.

RESULTS

Peak oxygen uptake influenced NREM1 (β = 1.035, P = .033), while amount of weekly training hours predicted SWS (β = 1.897, P = .032). No differences were documented between EG and NEG in total sleep time and sleep efficiency. SWS was higher in EG (36.9% [11.4%]) compared with NEG (25.9% [8.3%], P = .020), compensated by a lower proportion of NREM2 (38.7% [10.2%] vs 48.4% [6.5%], P = .017), without differences in NREM1 and REM.

CONCLUSIONS

The proportion of SWS was only predicted by weekly training hours and not by training hours the day of the polysomnography or physical fitness, while NREM1 was linked with fitness level. Sleep efficiency did not differ between EG and NEG, but in EG, more SWS and less NREM2 were identified.

Around the world in 16 days: the effect of long-distance transmeridian travel on the sleep habits and behaviours of a professional Super Rugby team

There is a scarcity of research examining the effects of long-distance transmeridian travel (LDTT) on the sleep and match performance of team sport players. To address this, 37 elite male rugby union players from a Super Rugby team undertaking LDTT were recruited. The participants completed validated sleep questionnaires and wore a wrist-worn activity monitor (Readiband™) during a Super Rugby season (including during periods of LDTT crossing 5, 6, and 13 time-zones) to ascertain objective measures of sleep. Sleep measures were compared using mixed model analysis to ascertain the effects of competition and LDTT on sleep. Total sleep time (TST) increased in the days prior to matches, and decreased following matches (accompanied by a later time at sleep onset), particularly when next-day early-morning flights were required. TST was decreased when sleep was attempted during LDTT, except for in the last travel bout where players napped in addition to achieving night-time sleep. TST was also reduced for the night immediately following LDTT, except for in Condition 3 where players delayed wake time and also achieved naps. This study exemplifies the challenges that team-sport athletes face in obtaining regular sleep when LDTT is required.

The effects of Ramadan intermittent fasting on sleep-wake behaviour and daytime sleepiness in team sport referees

The aim of the present study was to evaluate the impact of Ramadan fasting on sleep quality and daytime sleepiness in team sport referees. Seventy-eight male amateur team sport referees (age: 31.1 ± 10.8 years) participated in this study. Participants responded to the Arabic version of the Pittsburgh Sleep Quality Index (PSQI) and the Epworth sleepiness scale (ESS) questionnaires before (10-days prior) and during (last 7-days) the month of Ramadan.PSQI and ESS scores increased significantly during Ramadan (both p < .001, ES = 0.56 and 0.54, respectively) with 83.3% of participants scoring ≥5 in the PSQI. The percentage of participants suffering from severe excessive daytime sleepiness (ESS score ≥ 16) was 3.8% before vs. 7.7% during Ramadan (p < 0.001). Sleep duration decreased by ~ 1 h during Ramadan (p < .001, ES = 0.61) and was associated with a delay in bedtime of ~ 2 h (p < 0.001, ES = 0.7) and of wake-up time of ~ 1 h (p < 0.001, ES = 0.5). The score for daytime dysfunction and subjective sleep perception, as components of the PSQI, increased (both p < 0.001; ES = 0.79, ES = 0.57, respectively), whereas the score for the use of sleep medication decreased during vs. before Ramadan (p = 0.041, ES = 0.47). Ramadan fasting impaired sleep quality and increased daytime sleepiness in team sport referees. Future studies, using objective assessment tools, are warranted.

Can a tDCS treatment enhance subjective and objective sleep among student-athletes?

INTRODUCTION

Previous studies have shown that student-athletes suffer from sleep difficulties. This study explored the impact of tDCS on sleep parameters among student-athletes.

METHOD

Thirty student-athletes (15 females, 15 males, age 21.1 ± 2.1 years) were recruited. All participants underwent a series of questions to rule out depressive and anxiety disorders or any specific tDCS exclusion criteria. All participants were advised to maintain their usual sleep schedule.

RESULTS

Compared polysomnographic and Psychomotor Vigilance Task data analyses did not show any improvement after experimental tDCS. Regardless of groups, PVT mean reaction time was decreased. Regarding the questionnaires, data analyses showed improvement on the PSQI (p < .001), ISI (p < .001) and ASSQ (p < .007) scores after tDCS.

DISCUSSION

tDCS appears to increase total sleep time and should be further explored. Improvements in subjective sleep suggest that tDCS bears interesting possibilities into the enhancement of sleep among student-athletes.

Prevalence of poor sleep quality in athletes before competition

OBJECTIVES

The purpose of this study was to investigate athletes sleep quality before competition and its relationship with age, gender, sport modality, competitive level, competition result, and practice time.

METHODS

The sample was 1010 Brazilian athletes (656 men and 354 women; 511 young and 499 adults), with an age of 20 ± 7 years old. Participants answered the question 'How would you evaluate the quality of your sleep in the past few days?' Participants rated their sleep quality on a Likert-type scale as follows: 1 = very poor, 2 = poor, 3 = regular, 4 = good, 5 = excellent.

RESULTS

Young athletes were 2.30 times more likely to experience poor sleep than adult athletes (p < 0.01; 95% Confidence Interval [CI] = 1.47-3.61). Individual athletes were 3.45 times more likely to present poor sleep compared to athletes of team sports (p = 0.00; 95% CI = 2.18-5.48). International athletes were 1.71 times more likely to present regular sleep compared to regional athletes (p = 0.01; 95% CI = 1.16-2.51). Conclusions: Thus, our study indicates that young, individual sports, and international athletes may be at higher risk of poor sleep quality before competitions.

The Sleep and Recovery Practices of Athletes

BACKGROUND

Athletes maintain a balance between stress and recovery and adopt recovery modalities that manage fatigue and enhance recovery and performance. Optimal TST is subject to individual variance. However, 7-9 h sleep is recommended for adults, while elite athletes may require more quality sleep than non-athletes.

METHODS

A total of 338 (elite n = 115, 74 males and 41 females, aged 23.44 ± 4.91 years; and sub-elite n = 223, 129 males and 94 females aged 25.71 ± 6.27) athletes were recruited from a variety of team and individual sports to complete a battery of previously validated and reliable widely used questionnaires assessing sleep, recovery and nutritional practices.

RESULTS

Poor sleep was reported by both the elite and sub-elite athlete groups (i.e., global PSQI score ≥5-elite 64% [n = 74]; sub-elite 65% [n = 146]) and there was a significant difference in sport-specific recovery practices (3.22 ± 0.90 vs. 2.91 ± 0.90; p < 0.001). Relatively high levels of fatigue (2.52 ± 1.32), stress (1.7 ± 1.31) and pain (50%, n = 169) were reported in both groups. A range of supplements were used regularly by athletes in both groups; indeed, whey (elite n = 22 and sub-elite n = 48) was the most commonly used recovery supplement in both groups. Higher alcohol consumption was observed in the sub-elite athletes (12%, n = 26) and they tended to consume more units of alcohol per drinking bout.

CONCLUSION

There is a need for athletes to receive individualised support and education regarding their sleep and recovery practices.

Identifying electronic-sport athletes' sleep-wake cycle characteristics

Organized electronic-sport competitions (e-Sport) is related to several health problems, including sleep disorders. The objective of this study was to evaluate the characteristics of the sleep-wake cycle of League of Legends (LoL) athletes during their pre-training, training, pre-competition, and competition routines. Twenty male elite LoL players completed the questionnaires related to sleep pattern (Pittsburgh Sleep Quality Index), sleepiness (Epworth Sleepiness Scale), and chronotype (Morningness-Eveningness Questionnaire), and they wore an actigraph for 7 days. Pre-training and pre-competition assessments were carried out by questionnaires (n = 20) and training and competition assessments by actigraph (n = 16). The chronotype that most Eathletes presented was a moderately evening type. They presented a poor sleep quality and were borderline for excessive daytime sleepiness. Sleep onset and offset times were significantly prolonged during the competition condition (t = 2.11, p < .05; t = 2.51, p < .05). Correlations showed a relationship between PSQI and Sleepiness in the pre-training and pre-competition conditions (r = 0.50, p = .02) and chronotype with sleep onset (r = 0.61, p = .01), total sleep time (r = 0.55, p = .02), and time awake (r = 0.49, p = .04) in the competition condition. Linear regression analysis indicated associations between the PSQI and sleepiness (25%; p = .02) during pre-training and pre-competition. During the competition there were associations between chronotype and sleep onset (37%; p = .01), chronotype and time awake (24%; p = .04), and chronotype and TST (30%; p = .02). In general, the findings support the conclusion that LoL athletes presented an altered sleep pattern during their training routines.

Sleep Quality and Duration in European Adolescents (The AdolesHealth Study): A Cross-Sectional, Quantitative Study

Sleep is a vital element of adolescents' overall health; it influences their body and mind and thus affects their quality of life. Adequate sleep quality and duration are essential for maintaining optimal metabolic health and lowering the risk of developing several medical conditions, such as cardiovascular disease. The current study aimed to assess the perceived sleep quality and duration of 1717 European adolescents from three different European countries (Spain, Iceland and Estonia) aged 13- to 16-years (900 boys, 817 girls) using the Pittsburgh Sleep Quality Index (PSQI). A multivariate analysis of variance (MANOVA) was performed to examine differences between groups and two-factor analysis of variance (ANOVA) was used to analyze city and age differences. The probability of having poor sleep quality and duration was calculated by Odd-Ratio (OR). Our study found poor sleep quality in 44% of the boys and 53% of the girls, whereas 68% and 69%, respectively did not get the recommended hours of sleep (i.e., 8-10 h). No difference was found between adolescents from Estonia, Iceland and Spain regarding sleep duration. In contrast, Spanish and Estonian adolescents reported higher probabilities of having poor sleep quality. Finally, girls had a significantly higher probability of poor sleep quality than boys.

The Impact of Self-Reported Sleep Quantity on Perceived Decision-Making in Sports Officials During a Competitive Season

Objectives: While sleep research in athletes is extensive, no research has investigated sleep in sports officials during a competitive season. This study explored the (a) self-reported quantity and quality of sleep obtained by sports officials according to the time of competition (day or evening) and (b) impact of reduced sleep on perceived decision-making ability. Design: Sports officials (n = 371) from various sporting codes completed an online questionnaire that evaluated self-reported sleep quantity and quality on habitual nights, before competition, and after competition, as well as perceived decision-making constructs. Results: With sleep restriction defined as less than 7 h of sleep, mixed-effects logistic regression revealed that the estimated probability of reporting reduced sleep quantity increased (p< .05) on habitual nights (0.58), before competition (0.48), and after competition (0.56). The estimated probability of reporting poor sleep quality was 0.01-0.04 across all nights. When considering time of competition (day or evening), reduced sleep quantity was experienced after evening competition (odds ratio [OR] = 3.33, p < .05), while poorer sleep quality (p< .05) was experienced following day (OR = 2.1) and evening (OR = 12.46) competition compared to habitual nights. Furthermore, the impact of reduced sleep on perceived decision-making constructs was negative, with the estimated probability of reporting impaired perceived decision-making between 0.13 and 0.21. Conclusion: Overall, sports officials are vulnerable to reduced quantity and quality of sleep before and after competition, with impaired perceived decision-making ability following nights of less than average sleep.

Sleep pattern and staging in elite adolescent rugby players during the in-season competitive phase compared to an age matched non-athlete population

Young athletes must contend with the constraints of elite sports on top of school commitments and the physiological processes associated with adolescence. This study assessed week and weekend sleep and schedule of activities in elite adolescent rugby players during the in-season competitive phase compared with age-matched non-athlete controls. 32 adolescents (GR: 16 elite rugby players, GC: 16 controls) from the same boarding school filled out a daily schedule of activities and a sleep diary, and wore a multichannel electroencephalogram for 14 days. They later filled out questionnaires on their sleep quality, sleepiness, and perceived stress. Both groups showed insufficient sleep duration during the week (<7 h). Only GC caught up on their sleep debt during the weekend (increased TIB, TST and time spent in REM sleep, all p < 0.001). Weekend TIB, TST and, N3 sleep remained similar to that for weekdays in GR. However, GR experienced lower sleep quality (decreased SE, increased WASO, all p < 0.01) and a decrease in REM sleep (p < 0.01). Schedules of activities showed an increase in time spent on overall activities during the weekend, mainly due to competition and sport-specific travel, which resulted in a decrease in sleep opportunity time compared with GC (p < 0.001). Δ sleep opportunity time (weekend-week) was associated with Δ TST (weekend-week), and Δ TST (weekend-week) was associated with sleepiness and perceived stress. Busy schedules during the competitive season decreased sleep opportunity time and prevented elite adolescent rugby players from catching up on their sleep at weekends.HIGHLIGHTS Adolescent rugby players have insufficient sleep during both week and weekend of the in-season competitive phaseCongested schedule prevented elite adolescent rugby players from catching up on their sleep at weekends.Sleep considerations are necessary when planning the weekend sporting schedules.

The Sleep of Elite Australian Rules Footballers During Preseason: A Comparison of Men and Women

PURPOSE

Australian football has elite men's (Australian Football League; AFL) and women's (Australian Football League Women's; AFLW) competitions. This study compared AFL and AFLW players' sleep and characterized players' sleep in the context of current sleep recommendations.

METHODS

A total of 70 players (36 AFL, 34 AFLW) had their sleep monitored via actigraphy over a 10-day preseason period. Sleep outcomes and their intraindividual variation, were compared between AFL and AFLW players using linear mixed models. Proportions of players sleeping ≥7 and ≥8 hours per night, and achieving ≥85% sleep efficiency, were compared using chi-square analyses.

RESULTS

Compared with AFL players, AFLW players slept less (7.9 [0.5] vs 7.1 [0.6] h, P = .000), had lower sleep efficiency (89.5% [2.8%] vs 84.0% [4.4%], P = .000), and greater intraindividual variation in sleep efficiency (3.1% [0.9%] vs 5.1% [2.1%], P = .000). A total of 47% of AFLW versus 3% of AFL players averaged <7 hours sleep (χ2 = 18.6, P = .000). A total of 88% of AFLW versus 50% of AFL players averaged <8 hours sleep (χ2 = 11.9, P = .001). A total of 53% of AFLW versus 14% of AFL players averaged <85% sleep efficiency (χ2 = 12.1, P = .001).

CONCLUSIONS

AFLW players slept less and had poorer sleep quality than AFL players. Many AFLW players do not meet current sleep duration or sleep quality recommendations. Research should test strategies to improve sleep among Australian rules footballers, particularly among elite women.

A Combined Sleep Hygiene and Mindfulness Intervention to Improve Sleep and Well-Being During High-Performance Youth Tennis Tournaments

PURPOSE

To investigate the effects of combined sleep hygiene recommendations and mindfulness on actigraphy-based sleep parameters, perceptual well-being, anxiety, and match outcomes during high-performance junior tennis tournaments.

METHODS

In a randomized crossover design, 17 high-performance junior tennis players completed the baseline, control, and intervention (INT) conditions across 3 separate weeks. The baseline consisted of unassisted, habitual sleep during a regular training week, and the control was unassisted sleep during a tournament week. The players attended a sleep education workshop and completed a nightly sleep hygiene protocol during a tournament week for the INT. Analysis was performed on the weekly means and on the night prior to the first match of the tournament (T-1).

RESULTS

Significant differences were observed for increased time in bed, total sleep time, and an earlier bedtime (P < .05) across the INT week. These parameters also significantly improved on T-1 of the INT. A moderate effect size (P > .05, d > 1.00) was evident for decreased worry on T-1 of the INT. Small effect sizes were also evident for improved mood, cognitive anxiety, and sleep rating across the INT week. The match performance outcomes remained unchanged (P > .05).

CONCLUSIONS

Sleep hygiene INTs increase the sleep duration of high-performance junior tennis players in tournament settings, including the night prior to the tournament's first match. The effects on perceptual well-being and anxiety are unclear, although small trends suggest improved mood, despite no effect on generic match performance outcomes.

Exploring the Relationship Between Sleep Quality, Sleep Hygiene, and Psychological Distress in a Sample of Canadian Varsity Athletes

Student athletes balance academic, social, and athletic demands, often leading to increased levels of stress and poor sleep. This study explores the relationship between sleep quality, sleep hygiene, and psychological distress in a sample of student athletes. Ninety-four student athletes completed the six-item Kessler Psychological Distress Scale (K6), Sleep Hygiene Practice Scale, and four components from the Pittsburgh Sleep Quality Index. Age, gender, and sport were also collected. The Pittsburgh Sleep Quality Index revealed that 44.7% of student athletes received ≥6.5 hr of sleep each night; 31% of athletes showed signs of severe mental illness according to the K6. Stepwise regression predicted K6 scores with the Pittsburgh Sleep Quality Index and the Sleep Hygiene Practice Scale scores as independent variables. A significant model accounting for 26% of the variation in K6 scores emerged; sleep schedule and sleep disturbances were significant predictors. Athletic staff should highlight the importance of sleep for mental health; suggestions on how to help athletes are provided.

Sleep and the athlete: narrative review and 2021 expert consensus recommendations

Elite athletes are particularly susceptible to sleep inadequacies, characterised by habitual short sleep (<7 hours/night) and poor sleep quality (eg, sleep fragmentation). Athletic performance is reduced by a night or more without sleep, but the influence on performance of partial sleep restriction over 1-3 nights, a more real-world scenario, remains unclear. Studies investigating sleep in athletes often suffer from inadequate experimental control, a lack of females and questions concerning the validity of the chosen sleep assessment tools. Research only scratches the surface on how sleep influences athlete health. Studies in the wider population show that habitually sleeping <7 hours/night increases susceptibility to respiratory infection. Fortunately, much is known about the salient risk factors for sleep inadequacy in athletes, enabling targeted interventions. For example, athlete sleep is influenced by sport-specific factors (relating to training, travel and competition) and non-sport factors (eg, female gender, stress and anxiety). This expert consensus culminates with a sleep toolbox for practitioners (eg, covering sleep education and screening) to mitigate these risk factors and optimise athlete sleep. A one-size-fits-all approach to athlete sleep recommendations (eg, 7-9 hours/night) is unlikely ideal for health and performance. We recommend an individualised approach that should consider the athlete's perceived sleep needs. Research is needed into the benefits of napping and sleep extension (eg, banking sleep).

The Impact of the German Strategy for Containment of Coronavirus SARS-CoV-2 on Training Characteristics, Physical Activity and Sleep of Highly Trained Kayakers and Canoeists: A Retrospective Observational Study

Aim: To characterize the impact of the German strategy for containment of Coronavirus SARS-CoV-2 (social distancing and lockdown) on the training, other habitual physical activity, and sleep in highly trained kayakers and canoeists.

Method: During the 4 weeks immediately prior to and following the beginning of the German government's strategy for containment of Coronavirus SARS-CoV-2 on March 23, 2020, 14 highly trained athletes (VO_2peak: 3,162 ± 774 ml/min; 500-m best time: 117.9 ± 7.9 s) wore a multi-sensor smartwatch to allow continuous assessment of heart rate, physical activity, and sleep duration.

Result: In comparison to before lockdown, the overall weekly training time and the average length of each session of training during the lockdown decreased by 27.6% (P = 0.02; d = 0.91) and 15.4% (P = 0.36; d = 0.36), respectively. At the same time, the number of sessions involving specific (i.e., canoeing and kayaking) and non-specific (i.e., running, cycling) training, respectively, did not change (P = 0.36–0.37; d = 0.34–0.35). The number of sessions involving strength (+17.4%; P = 0.03; d = 0.89) or other types of training (+16.7%; P = 0.06; d = 0.75) increased during the lockdown with 2.8–17.5% more training time involving a heart rate <60%, 82–88, 89–93, or 94–100% of individual peak heart rate (HR_peak) (P = 0.03–0.86; d = 0.07–1.38), and 4.3–18.7% less time with a heart rate of 60–72 or 73–83% HR_peak (P = < 0.001–0.0.26; d = 0.44–2.24). The daily duration of sleep was ~30 min (6.7%) longer during the lockdown (P < 0.001; d = 1.53) and the overall time spent lying down was 17% greater (P < 0.001; d = 2.26); whereas sitting time (−9.4%; P = 0.003; d = 1.23), the duration of light (15 min; −7.3%; P = 0.04; d = 0.83), and moderate (−18.6%; P = 0.01; d = 1.00) physical activity other than training (−9.4%; P = 0.22; d = 0.00) were all lower during lockdown.

Conclusion: The present data revealed that following the German lockdown for containment of the Coronavirus SARS-CoV-2, highly trained kayakers and canoeists spent less overall time training each week (−27.6%) with, on average, shorter training sessions (−15.1%) and less light-to-moderate physical activity outside of training. Moreover, they performed more strength training sessions per week, and all engaged in more training at intensities >82 and <60% of HR_peak and spent longer periods lying down and sleeping during the lockdown.

Sleep quality monitoring in individual sports athletes: parameters and definitions by systematic review

In the present review, we identify which instruments and parameters are used for sleep quality monitoring in individual sport athletes and which definitions were used for sleep quality parameters in this literature field. Systematic searches for articles reporting the qualitative markers related to sleep in team sport athletes were conducted in PubMed, Scopus and Web of Science online databases. The systematic review followed the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews. The initial search returned 3316 articles. After the removal of duplicate articles, eligibility assessment, 75 studies were included in this systematic review. Our main findings were that the most widely used measurement instruments were Actigraphy (25%), Rating Likert Scales (16%) and Sleep Diary (13%). On sleep quality parameters (Sleep duration = 14%; Wake after sleep onset = 14%; Sleep Quality = 12%; Sleep Effciency = 11% and Sleep Latency = 9%), the main point is that there are different definitions for the same parameters in many cases reported in the literature. We conclude that the most widely used instruments for monitoring sleep quality were Actigraphy, Likert scales and Sleep diary. Moreover, the definitions of sleep parameters are inconsistent in the literature, hindering the understanding of the sleep-sport performance relationship.

Assessment of sleep health in collegiate athletes using the Athlete Sleep Screening Questionnaire

STUDY OBJECTIVES

The objective of this study was to characterize sleep health in a large, diverse population of college athletes. The study utilized the Athletic Sleep Screening Questionnaire, a clinically validated questionnaire, designed to screen athletes for a clinically significant degree of poor sleep health, and to determine if they require intervention.

METHODS

College athletes from 4 different National College Athletic Association institutions were surveyed using the Athletic Sleep Screening Questionnaire. Descriptive information including sex, sport, and college year was also collected. The Athletic Sleep Screening Questionnaire was scored according to prior clinically validated methods to determine a sleep difficulty score, clinical sleep problem category (none, mild, moderate, or severe), and need for assessment by a physician due to poor sleep health.

RESULTS

A total of 1055 surveys were collected with a 95% response rate. Respondents were 36% female, 64% male, and included athletes competing in 15 different sports. Approximately 25% of participants were found to have a clinically meaningful problem with their sleep. Athletes entering their second or higher year of college were more likely to report worse sleep compared to those entering their first year (one-way analysis of variance, Kruskall-Wallis P < .001).

CONCLUSIONS

A substantial portion of college athletes experience poor sleep health and would benefit from interventions aimed at improving sleep. The Athletic Sleep Screening Questionnaire appears to be a cost- and time-efficient way to evaluate sleep health in a large athletic population.

The Effect of Timing and Type of Exercise on the Quality of Sleep in Trained Individuals

Sleep is an extremely important component for overall health and for a well-balanced training program. Recent studies have highlighted the interaction between sleep, recovery, and performance in elite and recreational athletes alike. Exercise has been known to affect the quality of sleep, nevertheless the impact is not well understood in the current research, particularly the effects of exercise timing and intensity on sleep quality. The purpose of this study was to understand if exercise timing and intensity significantly impact sleep quality among recreational exercisers. The participants involved were recreational exercisers who were self-grouped into an AM or PM exercise group. They participated in a seven-day quantitative, quasi-experimental, exploratory study wearing an Actigraph watch. The participant's intensity was also self-grouped into moderate intensity or high intensity based on criteria cut points. Data was analyzed using a factorial ANOVA to examine if there was a significant difference between exercise timing and intensity on sleep quality of the participants. There were no significant differences in sleep quality in either the time group (AM vs PM) or the intensity group (MOD vs VIG) within the four measures of sleep that were looked at throughout this study; total sleep time, sleep onset latency, sleep efficiency % and wake after sleep onset (TST, SOL, SE, and WASO). Results within both, the AM and PM group and the MOD and VIG group, results showed no significant differences. These results conclude that neither exercise intensity or timing had an effect on sleep quality.

Decreased Physical Activity and Sleep, Not Sport Specialization, Predict Illness in Middle School Athletes

BACKGROUND

The relationships between sport specialization, physical activity, sleep, and illness in younger athletes are unknown. Therefore, the purpose of this study was to evaluate the independent effects of sport specialization, sleep, and physical activity on illness in middle school athletes.

HYPOTHESIS

Decreased sleep, decreased physical activity, and higher levels of sport specialization will be associated with an increased risk of illness among middle school athletes.

STUDY DESIGN

Prospective cohort study.

LEVEL OF EVIDENCE

Level 4.

METHODS

Parents of middle school-aged children reported baseline sport specialization (low, moderate, or high) as well as sleep duration, physical activity, and illnesses every week throughout the academic year. A mixed-effects logistic regression model was used to assess the association between illness and specialization while accounting for sleep and physical activity for the prior week as fixed effects and each individual as a random effect.

RESULTS

A total of 233 children (mean age, 12.1 ± 1.2 years; 61% male) participated, of whom 41%, 25%, and 34% were categorized as low, moderate, and high specialization, respectively. The proportion of individuals who experienced illness did not differ by specialization level (low, 76%; moderate, 70%; high, 59%; P = 0.064). In the multivariable model, the odds of illness compared with the low specialization group was not significantly different for moderate (odds ratio [OR], 0.93; 95% CI, 0.70-1.23; P = 0.61) or high specialization (OR, 0.76; 95% CI, 0.56-1.03; P = 0.073). A decreased risk of illness was associated with greater prior week sleep (OR, 0.79; 95% CI, 0.69-0.91; P < 0.001) and physical activity (OR, 0.94; 95% CI, 0.92-0.96; P < 0.001).

CONCLUSION

Sport specialization is not associated with an increased risk of illness among middle school athletes, while increased sleep duration and physical activity appear to reduce the risk of illness.

CLINICAL RELEVANCE

Interventions to promote physical activity and improve sleep may reduce the risk of illness in early adolescent athletes.