Choline: needed for normal development of memory

Epigenetics, Nutrition, and the Brain: Improving Mental Health through Diet

The relationship between nutrition and brain health is intricate. Studies suggest that nutrients during early life impact not only human physiology but also mental health. Although the exact molecular mechanisms that depict this relationship remain unclear, there are indications that environmental factors such as eating, lifestyle habits, stress, and physical activity, influence our genes and modulate their function by epigenetic mechanisms to shape mental health outcomes. Epigenetic mechanisms act as crucial link between genes and environmental influences, proving that non-genetic factors could have enduring effects on the epigenome and influence health trajectories. We review studies that demonstrated an epigenetic mechanism of action of nutrition on mental health, focusing on the role of specific micronutrients during critical stages of brain development. The methyl-donor micronutrients of the one-carbon metabolism, such as choline, betaine, methionine, folic acid, VitB6 and VitB12 play critical roles in various physiological processes, including DNA and histone methylation. These micronutrients have been shown to alter gene function and susceptibility to diseases including mental health and metabolic disorders. Understanding how micronutrients influence metabolic genes in humans can lead to the implementation of early nutritional interventions to reduce the risk of developing metabolic and mental health disorders later in life.

Evaluation of the diagnostic utility on 1.5T and 3.0T 1H magnetic resonance spectroscopy for temporal lobe epilepsy

BACKGROUND

1H magnetic resonance spectroscopy (1H-MRS) can be used to study neurological disorders because it can be utilized to examine the concentrations of related metabolites. However, the diagnostic utility of different field strengths for temporal lobe epilepsy (TLE) remains unclear. The purpose of this study is to make quantitative comparisons of metabolites of TLE at 1.5T and 3.0T and evaluate their efficacy.

METHODS

Our retrospective collections included the single-voxel 1H-MRS of 23 TLE patients and 17 healthy control volunteers (HCs) with a 1.5T scanner, as well as 29 TLE patients and 17 HCs with a 3.0T scanner. Particularly, HCs were involved both the scans with 1.5T and 3.0T scanners, respectively. The metabolites, including the N-acetylaspartate (NAA), creatine (Cr), and choline (Cho), were measured in the left or right temporal pole of brain. To analyze the ratio of brain metabolites, including NAA/Cr, NAA/Cho, NAA/(Cho + Cr) and Cho/Cr, four controlled experiments were designed to evaluate the diagnostic utility of TLE on 1.5T and 3.0T MRS, included: (1) 1.5T TLE group vs. 1.5T HCs by the Mann-Whitney U Test, (2) 3.0T TLE group vs. 3.0T HCs by the Mann-Whitney U Test, (3) the power analysis for the 1.5T and 3.0T scanner, and (4) 3.0T HCs vs. 1.5T HCs by Paired T-Test.

RESULTS

Three metabolite ratios (NAA/Cr, NAA/Cho, and NAA/(Cho + Cr) showed the same statistical difference (p < 0.05) in distinguishing the TLE from HCs in the bilateral temporal poles when using 1.5T or 3.0T scanners. Similarly, the power analysis demonstrated that four metabolite ratios (NAA/Cr, NAA/Cho, NAA/(Cho + Cr), Cho/Cr) had similar distinction abilities between 1.5T and 3.0T scanner, denoting both 1.5T and 3.0T scanners were provided with similar sensitivities and reproducibilities for metabolites detection. Moreover, the metabolite ratios of the same healthy volunteers were not statistically different between 1.5T and 3.0T scanners, except for NAA/Cho (p < 0.05).

CONCLUSIONS

1.5T and 3.0T scanners may have comparable diagnostic potential when 1H-MRS was used to diagnose patients with TLE.

A Physiologically Relevant Dose of 50% Egg-Phosphatidylcholine Is Sufficient in Improving Gut Permeability while Attenuating Immune Cell Dysfunction Induced by a High-Fat Diet in Male Wistar Rats

BACKGROUND

Obesity is associated with increased intestinal permeability and a diminished immune response. Phosphatidylcholine (PC), a form of choline found in eggs, has been shown to beneficially modulate T-cell response in the context of obesity when provided as the sole form of choline in the diet.

OBJECTIVE

This study aimed to determine the impact of varying doses of PC as part of a high-fat diet (HFD) on immune cell function and intestinal permeability.

METHODS

Male Wistar rats 4 wk of age were randomly assigned to consume 1 of 6 diets for 12 wk containing the same amount of total choline but differing in the forms of choline: 1-control low-fat (CLF, 20% fat, 100% free choline [FC]); 2-control high-fat (CHF, 50% fat, 100% FC); 3-100% PC (100PC, 50% fat, 100% egg-PC); 4-75% PC (75PC, 50% fat, 75% egg-PC+25% FC); 5-50% PC (50PC, 50% fat, 50% egg-PC+50% FC); and 6-25% PC (25PC; 50% fat, 25% egg-PC+75% FC). Intestinal permeability was measured by fluorescein isothiocyanate-dextran. Immune function was assessed by ex vivo cytokine production of splenocytes and cells isolated from the mesenteric lymph node (MLN) after stimulation with different mitogens.

RESULTS

Feeding the CHF diet increased intestinal permeability compared with the CLF diet, and doses of PC 50% or greater returned permeability to levels similar to that of the CLF diet. Feeding the CHF diet lowered splenocyte production of interleukin (IL)-1β, IL-2, IL-10, and tumor necrosis factor-alpha, and MLN production of IL-2 compared with the CLF group. The 50PC diet most consistently significantly improved cytokine levels (IL-2, IL-10, tumor necrosis factor-alpha) compared with the CHF diet.

CONCLUSIONS

Our results show that a dose of 50% of total choline derived from egg-PC can ameliorate HFD-induced intestinal permeability and immune cell dysfunction.

Research progress on the regulation of production traits by gastrointestinal microbiota in dairy cows

The composition and abundance of microorganisms in the gastrointestinal tract of cows are complex and extensive, and they play a crucial role in regulating nutrient digestion, absorption, maintaining digestive tract stability, and promoting the production and health of the host. The fermentation carried out by these microorganisms in the gastrointestinal tract is fundamental to the health and productivity of cows. Rumen microorganisms produce the majority of enzymes required to break down feed substrates, such as cellulose, protein, lipids, and other plant materials, through fermentation. This process provides energy metabolism substrates that satisfy approximately 70% of the host's energy requirements for physiological activities. Gut microorganisms primarily decompose cellulose that is difficult to digest in the rumen, thereby providing heat and energy to the hosts. Additionally, they have an impact on host health and productivity through their role in immune function. Understanding the composition and function of the cow gut microbiota can help regulate dairy cattle breeding traits and improve their health status. As a result, it has become a popular research topic in dairy cattle breeding. This article provides a review of the composition, structure, physiological characteristics, and physiological effects of the cow gut microbiota, serving as a theoretical foundation for future studies that aim to utilize the gut microbiota for dairy cattle breeding or improving production traits. It may also serve as a reference for research on gut microbiota of other ruminants.

The Role of Choline in Neurodevelopmental Disorders-A Narrative Review Focusing on ASC, ADHD and Dyslexia

Neurodevelopmental disorders appear to be rising in prevalence, according to the recent Global Burden of Disease Study. This rise is likely to be multi-factorial, but the role of certain nutrients known to facilitate neurodevelopment should be considered. One possible contributing factor could be attributed to deficits in choline intake, particularly during key stages of neurodevelopment, which includes the first 1000 days of life and childhood. Choline, a key micronutrient, is crucial for optimal neurodevelopment and brain functioning of offspring. The present narrative review discusses the main research, describing the effect of choline in neurodevelopmental disorders, to better understand its role in the etiology and management of these disorders. In terms of findings, low choline intakes and reduced or altered choline status have been reported in relevant population subgroups: pregnancy (in utero), children with autism spectrum disorders, people with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder and those with dyslexia. In conclusion, an optimal choline provision may offer some neuronal protection in early life and help to mitigate some cognitive effects in later life attributed to neurodevelopmental conditions. Research indicates that choline may act as a modifiable risk factor for certain neurodevelopmental conditions. Ongoing research is needed to unravel the mechanisms and explanations.

Exercise Alleviates Behavioral Disorders but Shapes Brain Metabolism of APP/PS1 Mice in a Region- and Exercise-Specific Manner

Exercise plays a beneficial role in the management of Alzheimer's disease (AD), but its effects on brain metabolism are still far from being understood. Here, we examined behavioral changes of APP/PS1 mice after high-intensity interval training (HIIT) and moderate-intensity continuous training (MICT) and analyzed metabolomics profiles in the hippocampus, cortex, and hypothalamus by using nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy to explore potential metabolic mechanisms. The results demonstrate that both HIIT and MICT alleviated anxiety/depressive-like behaviors as well as learning and memory impairments of AD mice. Metabolomics analysis reveals that energy metabolism, neurotransmitter metabolism, and membrane metabolism were significantly altered in all three brain regions after both types of exercises. Amino acid metabolism was detected to be affected in the cortex and hypothalamus after HIIT and in the hippocampus and hypothalamus after MICT. However, only HIIT significantly altered astrocyte-neuron metabolism in the hippocampus and hypothalamus of AD mice. Therefore, our study suggests that exercise can shape brain metabolism of AD mice in a region- and exercise-specific manner, indicating that the precise modification of brain metabolism by a specific type of exercise might be a novel perspective for the prevention and treatment of AD.

Choline Supplementation Alters Hippocampal Cytokine Levels in Adolescence and Adulthood in an Animal Model of Fetal Alcohol Spectrum Disorders

Alcohol (ethanol) exposure during pregnancy can adversely affect development, with long-lasting consequences that include neuroimmune, cognitive, and behavioral dysfunction. Alcohol-induced alterations in cytokine levels in the hippocampus may contribute to abnormal cognitive and behavioral outcomes in individuals with fetal alcohol spectrum disorders (FASD). Nutritional intervention with the essential nutrient choline can improve hippocampal-dependent behavioral impairments and may also influence neuroimmune function. Thus, we examined the effects of choline supplementation on hippocampal cytokine levels in adolescent and adult rats exposed to alcohol early in development. From postnatal day (PD) 4-9 (third trimester-equivalent), Sprague-Dawley rat pups received ethanol (5.25 g/kg/day) or sham intubations and were treated with choline chloride (100 mg/kg/day) or saline from PD 10-30; hippocampi were collected at PD 35 or PD 60. Age-specific ethanol-induced increases in interferon gamma (IFN-γ), tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNF-α), and keratinocyte chemoattractant/human growth-regulated oncogene (KC/GRO) were identified in adulthood, but not adolescence, whereas persistent ethanol-induced increases of interleukin-6 (IL-6) levels were present at both ages. Interestingly, choline supplementation reduced age-related changes in interleukin-1 beta (IL-1β) and interleukin-5 (IL-5) as well as mitigating the long-lasting increase in IFN-γ in ethanol-exposed adults. Moreover, choline influenced inflammatory tone by modulating ratios of pro- to -anti-inflammatory cytokines. These results suggest that ethanol-induced changes in hippocampal cytokine levels are more evident during adulthood than adolescence, and that choline can mitigate some effects of ethanol exposure on long-lasting inflammatory tone.

Methyl Donors, Epigenetic Alterations, and Brain Health: Understanding the Connection

Methyl donors such as choline, betaine, folic acid, methionine, and vitamins B6 and B12 are critical players in the one-carbon metabolism and have neuroprotective functions. The one-carbon metabolism comprises a series of interconnected chemical pathways that are important for normal cellular functions. Among these pathways are those of the methionine and folate cycles, which contribute to the formation of S-adenosylmethionine (SAM). SAM is the universal methyl donor of methylation reactions such as histone and DNA methylation, two epigenetic mechanisms that regulate gene expression and play roles in human health and disease. Epigenetic mechanisms have been considered a bridge between the effects of environmental factors, such as nutrition, and phenotype. Studies in human and animal models have indicated the importance of the optimal levels of methyl donors on brain health and behavior across the lifespan. Imbalances in the levels of these micronutrients during critical periods of brain development have been linked to epigenetic alterations in the expression of genes that regulate normal brain function. We present studies that support the link between imbalances in the levels of methyl donors, epigenetic alterations, and stress-related disorders. Appropriate levels of these micronutrients should then be monitored at all stages of development for a healthier brain.

Prenatal choline, cannabis, and infection, and their association with offspring development of attention and social problems through 4 years of age

BACKGROUND

Prenatal choline is a key nutrient, like folic acid and vitamin D, for fetal brain development and subsequent mental function. We sought to determine whether effects of higher maternal plasma choline concentrations on childhood attention and social problems, found in an initial clinical trial of choline supplementation, are observed in a second cohort.

METHODS

Of 183 mothers enrolled from an urban safety net hospital clinic, 162 complied with gestational assessments and brought their newborns for study at 1 month of age; 83 continued assessments through 4 years of age. Effects of maternal 16 weeks of gestation plasma choline concentrations ⩾7.07 μM, 1 s.d. below the mean level obtained with supplementation in the previous trial, were compared to lower levels. The Attention Problems and Withdrawn Syndrome scales on Child Behavior Checklist 1½-5 were the principal outcomes.

RESULTS

Higher maternal plasma choline was associated with lower mean Attention Problems percentiles in children, and for male children, with lower Withdrawn percentiles. Higher plasma choline concentrations also reduced Attention Problems percentiles for children of mothers who used cannabis during gestation as well as children of mothers who had gestational infection.

CONCLUSIONS

Prenatal choline's positive associations with early childhood behaviors are found in a second, more diverse cohort. Increases in attention problems and social withdrawal in early childhood are associated with later mental illnesses including attention deficit disorder and schizophrenia. Choline concentrations in the pregnant women in this study replicate other research findings suggesting that most pregnant women do not have adequate choline in their diets.

Choline Supplementation Modifies the Effects of Developmental Alcohol Exposure on Immune Responses in Adult Rats

Prenatal alcohol exposure can disrupt the development of numerous systems, including the immune system. Indeed, alterations in cytokine levels may contribute to the neuropathological, behavioral, and cognitive problems, and other adverse outcomes observed in individuals with fetal alcohol spectrum disorders. Importantly, supplementation with the essential nutrient choline can improve performance in hippocampal-dependent behaviors; thus, the present study examined the effects of choline on plasma and hippocampal cytokines in adult rats exposed to ethanol in early development. From postnatal day (PD) 4–9 (third trimester equivalent), pups received ethanol (5.25 g/kg/day) or Sham intubations. Subjects were treated with choline chloride (100 mg/kg/day) or saline from PD10–30. On PD60, plasma and hippocampal tissue was collected before and after an immune challenge (lipopolysaccharide (LPS); 50 ug/kg). Prior to the immune challenge, ethanol-exposed subjects showed an overall increase in hippocampal pro-inflammatory cytokines, an effect mitigated by choline supplementation. In contrast, in the plasma, choline reduced LPS-related increases in pro-inflammatory markers, particularly in ethanol-exposed subjects. Thus, early choline supplementation may modify both brain and peripheral inflammation. These results suggest that early choline can mitigate some long-term effects of ethanol exposure on hippocampal inflammation, which may contribute to improved hippocampal function, and could also influence peripheral immune responses that may impact overall health.

Optimization of n-Hexane-Acetone System for Extraction of Phosphatidylcholine and Phosphatidylethanolamine by Response Surface Methodology

Eggs are nutritious and cheap and easily available. Egg yolk is one of the sources of phosphatidylcholine (PC) and phosphatidylethanolamine (PE). PC and PE have good emulsifying properties, and they are widely used and in high demand for pharmaceutical, feed and cosmetic applications. Red cordyceps egg yolk powder (RCEYP) was selected as the raw material to obtain high content of PC and PE by ethanol extraction and low temperature cryoprecipitation in n-hexane-acetone system (HAS), in which the process conditions of PC and PE extraction by HAS process were optimized. The phospholipids were quantified by high performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) with evaporative light scattering detector (ELSD). The effects of freezing time, material-liquid ratio, acetone washing times, solvent ratio of n-hexane to acetone and freezing temperature on the PC and PE contents and the phospholipid yield were investigated. The optimal conditions for the extraction of PC and PE from RCEYP by HAS were determined by Box-Behnken design (BBD) as follows: the solvent ratio of n-hexane to acetone was 1:6, the freezing time was 11.31 h, and the freezing temperature was -19℃. The total content of (PC+PE) in the phospholipids precipitated under these conditions amounted to 96.16%, of which 81.12% was PC and 15.04% was PE.

Choline chloride attenuates the allergic airway disease by inhibiting the lysophosphatidylcholine induced response in mouse model

Aims

Allergic airway disease manifestation is induced by lysophosphatidylcholine (LPC) through CD1d-restricted Natural killer T (NKT) cells. Choline chloride (ChCl) and LPC both have the “choline” moiety in their structure and this may interplay the effect in allergic airway disease pathway.

Main methods

To test the hypothesis, mice were sensitized with cockroach extract (CE); challenged with CE or exposed to LPC and were given ChCl 1hr later.

Key findings

A significant increase in Airway hyperresponsiveness (AHR), total and differential cell count, Th2 cytokines, 8-isoprostanes level in bronchoalveolar lavage fluid (BALF) and inflammation score based on lung histology were observed on challenge with CE or exposure to LPC (p ​< ​0.05) indicating LPC induced airway disease manifestation in mice. These parameters were reduced significantly after administering mice with ChCl (p ​< ​0.05). The inflammatory parameters were significantly increased in LPC exposed mice, not sensitized with CE, which were significantly decreased when mice were administered with ChCl demonstrating its role in the inhibition of LPC induced allergic airway disease manifestation. Docking of CD1d with LPC and ChCl indicated the competitive inhibition of LPC induced effect by ChCl. This was validated in vivo in the form of decreased CD1d-restricted NKT cells in BALF and lung of the immunized mice on ChCl administration. There was no effect of ChCl administration on CD1d expression in BALF and lung cells.

Significance

This study shows that ChCl attenuates the allergic response by inhibiting the LPC induced- NKT cell mediated AHR, inflammation and oxidative stress by competitive inhibition to LPC in binding to CD1d.

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ChCl down regulates LPC (critical for allergic manifestation) induced response.

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Results were validated in cockroach extract immunized mice model.

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In silico studies indicate competitive inhibition to LPC by ChCl in binding to CD1d.

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In silico results were also validated in vivo in terms of CD1d-restricted NKT cells.

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Study explains the mechanism of ChCl action against allergic disease.

Urinary metabolomics reveals the biological characteristics of early pregnancy in pigs

Background

Embryo implantation in sows is an important event during pregnancy. During this process, blastocysts undergo dramatic morphologic changes, and the endometrium becomes receptive. Studies have shown that developmental changes associated with the crosstalk between peri-implantation embryos and embryo-uterine are driven by various biomolecules secreted by the endometrium and embryos. In sows, changes in the uterus are also reflected in circulating body fluids and urine. Metabolomics reveals the metabolic state of cells, tissues, and organisms. In this study, we collected urine samples from large white sows during the peri-implantation period. The levels of urinary metabolites at different periods were analyzed using ultra-performance liquid chromatography/tandem mass spectrometry (UPLC–MS/MS) analysis techniques.

Results

A total of 32 samples were collected from 8 sows during the estrus period and at each phase of early pregnancy (9, 12, and 15 days of gestation). A total of 530 metabolites were identified with high confidence in all samples. Compared with samples collected during the estrus phase, 269 differential metabolites were found in samples obtained during early pregnancy.

Conclusions

The identified metabolites included lipids and lipid-like molecules, organic acids and their derivatives, organic oxygen compounds, organoheterocyclic compounds, benzenoids, among others. Metabolites, such as choline and pregnanediol-3-glucuronide, play important roles in pregnancy in sows and other animals. These results reveal the metabolic changes in urine of sows during early pregnancy phase. The differential urinary metabolites can be used for assessing peri-implantation status in sows. Understanding these metabolic changes may promote the management of pregnant sows through various interventions such as provision of proper nutrition.

Supplementary Information

The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1186/s40813-022-00256-z.

Egg-Phosphatidylcholine Attenuates T-Cell Dysfunction in High-Fat Diet Fed Male Wistar Rats

Obesity is associated with immune dysfunction including an impaired T-cell function characterized by a lower IL-2 (proliferation marker) production after stimulation. Phosphatidylcholine (PC), a form of choline mostly found in eggs, has been shown to beneficially modulate T-cell responses during the lactation period by increasing the production of IL-2. To determine the impact of egg-PC as part of a high-fat diet on immune function we randomly fed male Wistar rats one of three diets containing the same amount of total choline but differing in the form of choline: 1-Control low fat [CLF, 10% wt/wt fat, 100% free choline (FC)]; 2- Control high-fat (CHF, 25% wt/wt fat, 100% FC); 3- PC high-fat (PCHF, 25% wt/wt, 100% PC). After 9 weeks of feeding, rats were euthanized. Cell phenotypes and ex vivo cytokine production by splenocytes stimulated with phorbol 12-myristate 13-acetate plus ionomycin (PMA+I), lipopolysaccharide (LPS) and pokeweed (PWM) were measured by flow cytometry and ELISA, respectively. Rats fed the PCHF diet had a lower proportion of CD3+ cells when compared to both the CLF and the CHF. Following PMA+I stimulation, splenocytes from the CHF group produced less IL-2 and TNF-α compared to CLF and PCHF groups. No significant differences in cytokine production were found among groups after LPS and PWM stimulation. Our results show that feeding a high-fat diet impairs T-cell responses, as measured by ex vivo cytokine production, which can be attenuated by providing egg-PC.

Early Life Nutrition and Mental Health: The Role of DNA Methylation

Does the quality of our diet during early life impact our long-term mental health? Accumulating evidence suggests that nutrition interacts with our genes and that there is a strong association between the quality of diet and mental health throughout life. Environmental influences such as maternal diet during pregnancy or offspring diet have been shown to cause epigenetic changes during critical periods of development, such as chemical modifications of DNA or histones by methylation for the regulation of gene expression. One-carbon metabolism, which consists of the folate and methionine cycles, is influenced by the diet and generates S-Adenosylmethinoine (SAM), the main methyl donor for methylation reactions such as DNA and histone methylation. This review provides current knowledge on how the levels of one-carbon metabolism associated micronutrients such as choline, betaine, folate, methionine and B vitamins that play a role in brain function can impact our well-being and mental health across the lifespan. Micronutrients that act as methyl donors for SAM formation could affect global or gene methylation, altering gene expression and phenotype. Strategies should then be adopted to better understand how these nutrients work and their impact at different stages of development to provide individualized dietary recommendations for better mental health outcomes.

A Systematic Review of the Dietary Choline Impact on Cognition from a Psychobiological Approach: Insights from Animal Studies

The influence of dietary choline availability on cognition is currently being suggested by animal and human studies which have focused mainly on the early developmental stages. The aim of this review is to systematically search through the available rodent (rats and mice) research published during the last two decades that has assessed the effect of dietary choline interventions on cognition and related attentional and emotional processes for the entire life span. The review has been conducted according to Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) statement guidelines covering peer-reviewed studies included in PubMed and Scopus databases. After excluding duplicates and applying the inclusion/exclusion criteria we have reviewed a total of 44 articles published in 25 journals with the contribution of 146 authors. The results are analyzed based on the timing and duration of the dietary intervention and the behavioral tests applied, amongst other variables. Overall, the available results provide compelling support for the relevance of dietary choline in cognition. The beneficial effects of choline supplementation is more evident in recognition rather than in spatial memory tasks when assessing nonpathological samples whilst these effects extend to other relational memory tasks in neuropathological models. However, the limited number of studies that have evaluated other cognitive functions suggest a wider range of potential effects. More research is needed to draw conclusions about the critical variables and the nature of the impact on specific cognitive processes. The results are discussed on the terms of the theoretical framework underlying the relationship between the brain systems and cognition.

A Mediation Analysis to Identify Links between Gut Bacteria and Memory in Context of Human Milk Oligosaccharides

Elucidating relationships between the gut and brain is of intense research focus. Multiple studies have demonstrated that modulation of the intestinal environment via prebiotics or probiotics can induce cognitively beneficial effects, such as improved memory or reduced anxiety. However, the mechanisms by which either act remain largely unknown. We previously demonstrated that different types of oligosaccharides affected short- and long-term memory in distinct ways. Given that the oligosaccharide content of human milk is highly variable, and that formula-fed infants typically do not consume similar amounts or types of oligosaccharides, their potential effects on brain development warrant investigation. Herein, a mediation analysis was performed on existing datasets, including relative abundance of bacterial genera, gene expression, brain volume, and cognition in young pigs. Analyses revealed that numerous bacterial genera in both the colon and feces were related to short- and/or long-term memory. Relationships between genera and memory appeared to differ between diets. Mediating variables frequently included GABAergic and glutamatergic hippocampal gene expression. Other mediating variables included genes related to myelination, transcription factors, brain volume, and exploratory behavior. Overall, this analysis identified multiple pathways between the gut and brain, with a focus on genes related to excitatory/inhibitory neurotransmission.

Cross-Interplay between Osmolytes and mTOR in Alzheimer's Disease Pathogenesis

Alzheimer's disease, categorized by the piling of amyloid-β (Aβ), hyperphosphorylated tau, PHFs, NFTs and mTOR hyperactivity, is a neurodegenerative disorder, affecting people across the globe. Osmolytes are known for osmoprotectants and play a pivotal role in protein folding, function and protein stability, thus, preventing proteins aggregation, and counteracting effects of denaturing solutes on proteins. Osmolytes (viz., sorbitol, inositol, and betaine) perform a pivotal function of maintaining homeostasis during hyperosmotic stress. The selective advantage of utilising osmolytes over inorganic ions by cells is in maintaining cell volume without compromising cell function, which is important for organs such as the brain. Osmolytes have been documented not only as neuroprotectors but they also seem to act as neurodegenerators. Betaine, sucrose and trehalose supplementation has been seen to induce autophagy thereby inhibiting the accumulation of Aβ. In contrast, sucrose has also been associated with mTOR hyperactivity, a hallmark of AD pathology. The neuroprotective action of taurine is revealed when taurine supplementation is seen to inhibit neural damage, apoptosis and oxidative damage. Inositol stereoisomers (viz., scyllo-inositol and myo-inositol) have also been seen to inhibit Aβ production and plaque formation in the brain, inhibiting AD pathogenesis. However, TMAO affects the aging process adversely by deregulating the mTOR signalling pathway and then kindling cognitive dysfunction via degradation of chemical synapses and synaptic plasticity. Thus, it can be concluded that osmolytes may act as a probable therapeutic approach for neurodevelopmental disorders. Here, we have reviewed and focussed upon the impact of osmolytes on mTOR signalling pathway and thereby its role in AD pathogenesis.

Functional Expression of Choline Transporters in Human Neural Stem Cells and Its Link to Cell Proliferation, Cell Viability, and Neurite Outgrowth

Choline and choline metabolites are essential for all cellular functions. They have also been reported to be crucial for neural development. In this work, we studied the functional characteristics of the choline uptake system in human neural stem cells (hNSCs). Additionally, we investigated the effect of extracellular choline uptake inhibition on the cellular activities in hNSCs. We found that the mRNAs and proteins of choline transporter-like protein 1 (CTL1) and CTL2 were expressed at high levels. Immunostaining showed that CTL1 and CTL2 were localized in the cell membrane and partly in the mitochondria, respectively. The uptake of extracellular choline was saturable and performed by a single uptake mechanism, which was Na⁺-independent and pH-dependent. We conclude that CTL1 is responsible for extracellular choline uptake, and CTL2 may uptake choline in the mitochondria and be involved in DNA methylation via choline oxidation. Extracellular choline uptake inhibition caused intracellular choline deficiency in hNSCs, which suppressed cell proliferation, cell viability, and neurite outgrowth. Our findings contribute to the understanding of the role of choline in neural development as well as the pathogenesis of various neurological diseases caused by choline deficiency or choline uptake impairment.

Nutrition and neurodevelopment: the search for candidate nutrients in the Seychelles Child Development Nutrition Study

This review examines the role of nutrients in child development and outlines the key nutrients identified as potentially important to neurodevelopment among high fish consumers in the Seychelles Child Development Nutrition Study (SCDNS). It describes the clinical assessment of these nutrients in the blood and breast milk samples collected from the cohort of 300 pregnant women who were recruited, at their first antenatal visit, on the SCDNS. These key nutrients include the long chain polyunsaturated fatty acids (LCPUFA), docosohexaenoic acid (DHA) and arachidonic acid (AA), both of which may affect neurodevelopment in the later stages of fetal growth. Only DHA, however, is strongly associated with fish consumption, the predominant source of the neurotoxicant methyl mercury (MeHg). Any benefits of increased selenium status on neurodevelopment are likely to accrue via detoxification of MeHg during fetal growth, while benefits of optimal iodine or thyroid status are likely to be directly related to neurodevelopment during late fetal growth. Unlike LCPUFA, Se, and I, the status of the B vitamins, folate, vitamin B12, vitamin B6, and riboflavin are unlikely to be closely related to fish consumption but the status of each of these B vitamins is likely to impinge on overall status of choline, which is expected to have direct effects on neurodevelopment both prenatally and postnatally and may also impact on MeHg toxicity. Choline status, together with the status of two other candidate nutrients, zinc and copper, which are also likely to have effects on neurodevelopment prenatally and postnatally, are expected to have some correlation with fish consumption.

Longitudinal osmotic and neurometabolic changes in young rats with chronic cholestatic liver disease

Type C hepatic encephalopathy (type C HE) is increasingly suspected in children with chronic liver disease (CLD), and believed to underlie long-term neurocognitive difficulties. The molecular underpinnings of type C HE in both adults and children are incompletely understood. In the present study we combined the experimental advantages of in vivo high field ¹H magnetic resonance spectroscopy with immunohistochemistry to follow longitudinally over 8 weeks the neurometabolic changes in the hippocampus of animals having undergone bile duct ligation as pups. Rats who develop CLD early in life displayed pronounced neurometabolic changes in the hippocampus characterized by a progressive increase in glutamine concentration which correlated with plasma ammonia levels and a rapid decrease in brain myo-inositol. Other neurometabolic findings included a decrease in other organic osmolytes (taurine, choline-containing compounds and creatine), ascorbate and glutamate. At the cellular level, we observed an increase in glial fibrillary acidic protein (GFAP) and aquaporin 4 (AQP4) expression in the hippocampus at 4 weeks post bile duct ligation (BDL), together with astrocytic morphological alterations. These findings differ from observations in the brain of adult rats following BDL, and are in keeping with the commonly accepted theory of age-dependent vulnerability.

Neuroprotective Effects of Choline and Other Methyl Donors

Recent evidence suggests that physical and mental health are influenced by an intricate interaction between genes and environment. Environmental factors have been shown to modulate neuronal gene expression and function by epigenetic mechanisms. Exposure to these factors including nutrients during sensitive periods of life could program brain development and have long-lasting effects on mental health. Studies have shown that early nutritional intervention that includes methyl-donors improves cognitive functions throughout life. Choline is a micronutrient and a methyl donor that is required for normal brain growth and development. It plays a pivotal role in maintaining structural and functional integrity of cellular membranes. It also regulates cholinergic signaling in the brain via the synthesis of acetylcholine. Via its metabolites, it participates in pathways that regulate methylation of genes related to memory and cognitive functions at different stages of development. Choline-related functions have been dysregulated in some neurodegenerative diseases suggesting choline role in influencing mental health across the lifespan.

Vitamin B4 as a salt substitute in bread: A challenging and successful new strategy. Sensory perception and acceptability by French consumers

Numerous scientific studies have shown that overconsumption of salt can be harmful and promotes the development of cardiovascular diseases. For this reason, many international organizations and government agencies aim to reduce overall salt consumption from food. Recent exploratory work has shown that vitamin B4 can play the role of salt substitute. This study aims on the one hand to develop and optimize a bread recipe reduced in salt and enriched with vitamin B4. On the other, it aims to study the acceptability for consumers of this double innovation, combining the addition and withdrawal of a nutrient. The study was conducted with French consumers. The sensory test showed that vitamin B4 tends to increase the perception of salt in salt-reduced bread. The acceptance of reduced-salt and vitamin B4-enriched bread was investigated in three focus-groups, mixing blind tests, information input and spontaneous evocations. Three potential targets have been identified: health-oriented young people, young parents who want to educate children to engage in a healthy lifestyle, and people broadly sensitive to nutritional information. Consumers with a pleasure and taste-oriented profile were more skeptical of the new bread formula because of greater attachment to traditional, salty French bread.

Choline and choline-related nutrients in regular and preterm infant growth

BACKGROUND

Choline is an essential nutrient, with increased requirements during development. It forms the headgroup of phosphatidylcholine and sphingomyelin in all membranes and many secretions. Phosphatidylcholine is linked to cell signaling as a phosphocholine donor to synthesize sphingomyelin from ceramide, a trigger of apoptosis, and is the major carrier of arachidonic and docosahexaenoic acid in plasma. Acetylcholine is important for neurodevelopment and the placental storage form for fetal choline supply. Betaine, a choline metabolite, functions as osmolyte and methyl donor. Their concentrations are all tightly regulated in tissues.

CLINCAL IMPACT

During the fetal growth spurt at 24-34-week postmenstrual age, plasma choline is higher than beyond 34 weeks, and threefold higher than in pregnant women [45 (36-60) µmol/L vs. 14 (10-17) µmol/L]. The rapid decrease in plasma choline after premature birth suggests an untimely reduction in choline supply, as cellular uptake is proportional to plasma concentration. Supply via breast milk, with phosphocholine and α-glycerophosphocholine as its major choline components, does not prevent such postnatal decrease. Moreover, high amounts of liver PC are secreted via bile, causing rapid hepatic choline turnover via the enterohepatic cycle, and deficiency in case of pancreatic phospholipase A2 deficiency or intestinal resection. Choline deficiency causes hepatic damage and choline accretion at the expense of the lungs and other tissues.

CONCLUSION

Choline deficiency may contribute to the impaired lean body mass growth and pulmonary and neurocognitive development of preterm infants despite adequate macronutrient supply and weight gain. In this context, a reconsideration of current recommendations for choline supply to preterm infants is required.

Diffusion tensor imaging detects ventilation-induced brain injury in preterm lambs

Purpose

Injurious mechanical ventilation causes white matter (WM) injury in preterm infants through inflammatory and haemodynamic pathways. The relative contribution of each of these pathways is not known. We hypothesised that in vivo magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) can detect WM brain injury resulting from mechanical ventilation 24 h after preterm delivery. Further we hypothesised that the combination of inflammatory and haemodynamic pathways, induced by umbilical cord occlusion (UCO) increases brain injury at 24 h.

Methods

Fetuses at 124±2 days gestation were exposed, instrumented and either ventilated for 15 min using a high tidal-volume (V_T) injurious strategy with the umbilical cord intact (INJ; inflammatory pathway only), or occluded (INJ+UCO; inflammatory and haemodynamic pathway). The ventilation groups were compared to lambs that underwent surgery but were not ventilated (Sham), and lambs that did not undergo surgery (unoperated control; Cont). Fetuses were placed back in utero after the 15 min intervention and ewes recovered. Twenty-four hours later, lambs were delivered, placed on a protective ventilation strategy, and underwent MRI of the brain using structural, diffusion tensor imaging (DTI) and magnetic resonance spectroscopy (MRS) techniques.

Results

Absolute MRS concentrations of creatine and choline were significantly decreased in INJ+UCO compared to Cont lambs (P = 0.03, P = 0.009, respectively); no significant differences were detected between the INJ or Sham groups and the Cont group. Axial diffusivities in the internal capsule and frontal WM were lower in INJ and INJ+UCO compared to Cont lambs (P = 0.05, P = 0.04, respectively). Lambs in the INJ and INJ+UCO groups had lower mean diffusivities in the frontal WM compared to Cont group (P = 0.04). DTI colour mapping revealed lower diffusivity in specific WM regions in the Sham, INJ, and INJ+UCO groups compared to the Cont group, but the differences did not reach significance. INJ+UCO lambs more likely to exhibit lower WM diffusivity than INJ lambs.

Conclusions

Twenty-four hours after injurious ventilation, DTI and MRS showed increased brain injury in the injuriously ventilated lambs compared to controls. DTI colour mapping threshold approach provides evidence that the haemodynamic and inflammatory pathways have additive effects on the progression of brain injury compared to the inflammatory pathway alone.

Betaine in the Brain: Characterization of Betaine Uptake, its Influence on Other Osmolytes and its Potential Role in Neuroprotection from Osmotic Stress

Betaine (N-trimethylglycine), a common osmolyte, has received attention because of the number of clinical reports associating betaine supplementation with improved cognition, neuroprotection and exercise physiology. However, tissue analyses report little accumulation of betaine in brain tissue despite the presence of betaine/GABA transporters (BGT1) at the blood brain barrier and in nervous tissue, calling into question whether betaine influences neuronal function directly or indirectly. Therefore, the focus of this study was to determine what capacity nervous tissue has to accumulate betaine, specifically in the hippocampus, a region of the brain associated with learning and memory and one that is particularly susceptible to damage (e.g., seizure activity). Here we report that hippocampal slices actively accumulate betaine in a time, dose and osmolality dependent manner, resulting in peak intracellular concentrations four times extracellular concentrations within 8 h. Our data also indicate that betaine uptake differentially influences the accumulation of other osmolytes. Under isosmotic conditions, betaine uptake minimally impacted some osmolytes (e.g., glycerylphosphorylcholine and glutamate) while significantly reducing others (taurine, creatine, and myo-inositol). Under osmotic stress (hyperosmotic) conditions, we observed dramatic changes in osmolytes like glycine and glutamine-key players in inhibitory neurotransmission-and little change in osmolytes such as taurine, creatine and myo-inositol when betaine was available. These data suggest that betaine may influence pathways of inhibitory neurotransmitter production/recycling in addition to serving as an osmolyte and metabolic intermediate. In sum, our data provide detailed characterization of betaine uptake in the hippocampus that implicates betaine in the modulation of hippocampal neurophysiology and neuroprotection.

Combined Supplementation of Choline and Docosahexaenoic Acid during Pregnancy Enhances Neurodevelopment of Fetal Hippocampus

Choline is an essential nutrient for humans which plays an important role in structural integrity and signaling functions. Docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) is a polyunsaturated fatty acid, highly enriched in cell membranes of the brain. Dietary intake of choline or DHA alone by pregnant mothers directly affects fetal brain development and function. But no studies show the efficacy of combined supplementation of choline and DHA on fetal neurodevelopment. The aim of the present study was to analyze fetal neurodevelopment on combined supplementation of pregnant dams with choline and DHA. Pregnant dams were divided into five groups: normal control [NC], saline control [SC], choline [C], DHA, and C + DHA. Saline, choline, and DHA were given as supplements to appropriate groups of dams. NC dams were undisturbed during entire gestation. On postnatal day (PND) 40, brains were processed for Cresyl staining. Pups from choline or DHA supplemented group showed significant (p < 0.05) increase in number of neurons in hippocampus when compared to the same in NC and SC groups. Moreover, pups from C + DHA supplemented group showed significantly higher number of neurons (p < 0.001) in hippocampus when compared to the same in NC and SC groups. Thus combined supplementation of choline and DHA during normal pregnancy enhances fetal hippocampal neurodevelopment better than supplementation of choline or DHA alone.

No Acute Effects of Choline Bitartrate Food Supplements on Memory in Healthy, Young, Human Adults

Choline is a dietary component and precursor of acetylcholine, a crucial neurotransmitter for memory-related brain functions. In two double-blind, placebo-controlled cross-over experiments, we investigated whether the food supplement choline bitartrate improved declarative memory and working memory in healthy, young students one to two hours after supplementation. In experiment 1, 28 participants performed a visuospatial working memory task. In experiment 2, 26 participants performed a declarative picture memorization task. In experiment 3, 40 participants performed a verbal working memory task in addition to the visuospatial working memory and declarative picture task. All tasks were conducted approximately 60 minutes after the ingestion of 2.0–2.5g of either choline bitartrate or placebo. We found that choline did not significantly enhance memory performance during any of the tasks. The null hypothesis that choline does not improve memory performance as compared to placebo was strongly supported by Bayesian statistics. These results are in contrast with animal studies suggesting that choline supplementation boosts memory performance and learning. We conclude that choline likely has no acute effects on cholinergic memory functions in healthy human participants.

Hyphenated Analytical Methods in Determination of Biologically Active Compounds in Hen's Eggs

Hen's egg is a complete material needed for the development of the embryo; it is an important source of nutraceutical compounds, such as protein, fats, vitamins, trace metals, and minerals. Moreover, avian egg contains biologically active compounds that exhibit antibacterial and antimicrobial activities as well as antitumor, antiviral, antioxidant, immunomodulating, and therapeutic properties. Eggs are mostly very good sources of valuable, easily digestible proteins. This review focuses on the biologically active compounds from hen's egg and applications of these compounds in medicine and the pharmaceutical industry. Additionally, it gives an overview of the hyphenated separation techniques, including sample preparation, analysis, and identification, used in the proteomics and lipidomics analysis.

Nutrition and maternal, neonatal, and child health

This article reviews the central role of nutrition in advancing the maternal, newborn, and child health agenda with a focus on evidence for effective interventions generated using randomized controlled trials in low- and middle-income countries (LMIC). The 1000 days spanning from conception to 2 years of life are a critical period of time when nutritional needs must be ensured; failure to do so can lead to adverse impacts on short-term survival as well as long-term health and development [corrected]. The burden of maternal mortality continues to be high in many under-resourced settings; prenatal calcium supplementation in populations with low intakes can reduce the risk of pre-eclampsia and eclampsia morbidity and mortality and is recommended, and antenatal iron-folic acid use in many countries may reduce anemia, a condition that may be an underlying factor in postpartum hemorrhage. Sufficient evidence exists to promote multiple micronutrient supplementation during pregnancy to reduce fetal growth restriction and low birth weight. Early initiation of breastfeeding (within an hour), exclusive breastfeeding in the first 6 months of life, and vitamin A supplementation in the first few days of life in Asia (but not in Africa) reduce infant mortality. Biannual large-dose vitamin A supplements to children 6-59 months of age and zinc for treatment of diarrhea continue to be important strategies for improving child health and survival. Early nutrition and micronutrient status can influence child development but should be integrated with early responsive learning interventions. Future research is needed that goes beyond the 1000 days to ensure adequate preconceptional nutrition and health, with special emphasis on adolescents who contribute to a large proportion of first births in many LMIC. Thus, we make the case for integrating proven nutrition interventions with those for health in pregnant women, and with those for health and child development in neonates, infants, and young children to help advance the global MNCH agenda.

MTHFR deficiency or reduced intake of folate or choline in pregnant mice results in impaired short-term memory and increased apoptosis in the hippocampus of wild-type offspring

Genetic or nutritional disturbances in one-carbon metabolism, with associated hyperhomocysteinemia, can result in complex disorders including pregnancy complications and neuropsychiatric diseases. In earlier work, we showed that mice with a complete deficiency of methylenetetrahydrofolate reductase (MTHFR), a critical enzyme in folate and homocysteine metabolism, had cognitive impairment with disturbances in choline metabolism. Maternal demands for folate and choline are increased during pregnancy and deficiencies of these nutrients result in several negative outcomes including increased resorption and delayed development. The goal of this study was to investigate the behavioral and neurobiological impact of a maternal genetic deficiency in MTHFR or maternal nutritional deficiency of folate or choline during pregnancy on 3-week-old Mthfr(+/+) offspring. Mthfr(+/+) and Mthfr(+/-) females were placed on control diets (CD); and Mthfr(+/+) females were placed on folate-deficient diets (FD) or choline-deficient diets (ChDD) throughout pregnancy and lactation until their offspring were 3weeks of age. Short-term memory was assessed in offspring, and hippocampal tissue was evaluated for morphological changes, apoptosis, proliferation and choline metabolism. Maternal MTHFR deficiency resulted in short-term memory impairment in offspring. These dams had elevated levels of plasma homocysteine when compared with wild-type dams. There were no differences in plasma homocysteine in offspring. Increased apoptosis and proliferation was observed in the hippocampus of offspring from Mthfr(+/-) mothers. In the maternal FD and ChDD study, offspring also showed short-term memory impairment with increased apoptosis in the hippocampus; increased neurogenesis was observed in ChDD offspring. Choline acetyltransferase protein was increased in the offspring hippocampus of both dietary groups and betaine was decreased in the hippocampus of FD offspring. Our results reveal short-term memory deficits in the offspring of dams with MTHFR deficiency or dietary deficiencies of critical methyl donors. We suggest that deficiencies in maternal one-carbon metabolism during pregnancy can contribute to hippocampal dysfunction in offspring through apoptosis or altered choline metabolism.

A 24-hour dietary recall for assessing the intake pattern of choline among Bangladeshi pregnant women at their third trimester of pregnancy

Maternal choline intake during the third trimester of human pregnancy can modify systemic and local epigenetic marks in fetal-derived tissues, promoting better pregnancy outcomes, increased immunity, as well as improved mental and physical work capacity with proper memory and cognitive development. 103 pregnant women presenting to the antenatal care of Azimpur Maternity Hospital of Dhaka, Bangladesh in their third trimester of pregnancy were randomly selected for this cross sectional study exploring dietary intake patterns of choline. A dietary recall form was administered to estimate frequency and amount of food consumption of foods for the previous 24 hours. Most women reported diets that delivered less than the recommended choline intake (mean ± SD; 189.5 ± 98.2) providing only 42.72% of total RDA value. The results of this study may indicate that dietary choline among pregnant, Bangladeshi women may not be adequate to meet the needs of both, the mother and fetus. Further studies are warranted to determine clinical implications.

Estimation of choline intake from 24 h dietary intake recalls and contribution of egg and milk consumption to intake among pregnant and lactating women in Alberta

Despite recommendations for higher choline intakes during pregnancy and lactation, there is limited research regarding maternal intake during these important periods. In the present study, we estimated dietary choline intake during pregnancy and lactation in a population of Albertan women and the contribution of egg and milk consumption to intake. Dietary intake data were collected from the first 600 women enrolled in a prospective cohort study carried out in Alberta, Canada. During the first and/or second trimester, the third trimester and 3 months postpartum, 24 h dietary intake recall data were collected. A database was constructed including foods consumed by the cohort and used to estimate dietary choline intake. The mean total choline intake value during pregnancy was 347 (SD 149) mg/d, with 23% of the participants meeting the adequate intake (AI) recommendation. During lactation, the mean total choline intake value was 346 (SD 151) mg/d, with 10% of the participants meeting the AI recommendation. Phosphatidylcholine was the form of choline consumed in the highest proportion and the main dietary sources of choline were dairy products, eggs and meat. Women who consumed at least one egg in a 24 h period had higher (P< 0·001) total choline intake and were eight times more likely (95% CI 5·2, 12·6) to meet choline intake recommendations compared with those who did not consume eggs during pregnancy. Women who reported consuming ≥ 500 ml of milk in a 24 h period were 2·8 times more likely (95 % CI 1·7, 4·8) to meet daily choline intake recommendations compared with those consuming < 250 ml of milk/d during pregnancy. Choline intake is below the recommendation levels in this population and the promotion of both egg and milk consumption may assist in meeting the daily choline intake recommendations.

Dietary intake of choline and neural tube defects in Mexican Americans

BACKGROUND

Low maternal intake of dietary choline and betaine (a choline derivative) has recently been investigated as a possible risk factor for neural tube defects (NTDs).

METHODS

This case-control study examined the NTD risk associated with choline and betaine in 409 Mexican-American women who gave birth during 1995 to 2000 in the 14-county border region of Texas.

RESULTS

Using data from the food frequency questionnaire and the lowest quartiles of intake as the reference categories, a protective association was suggested between higher intakes of choline and betaine and NTD risk although the 95% confidence intervals for all risk estimates included 1.0. For choline intake in the second, third, and fourth quartiles, adjusted odds ratios were 1.2, 0.80, and 0.89, respectively. Betaine appeared more protective with odds ratios of 0.62, 0.73, and 0.61, respectively, for the second, third, and fourth quartiles of intake.

CONCLUSION

Study findings suggest that dietary betaine may help to prevent NTDs.

Maternal choline supplementation improves spatial learning and adult hippocampal neurogenesis in the Ts65Dn mouse model of Down syndrome

In addition to intellectual disability, individuals with Down syndrome (DS) exhibit dementia by the third or fourth decade of life, due to the early onset of neuropathological changes typical of Alzheimer's disease (AD). Deficient ontogenetic neurogenesis contributes to the brain hypoplasia and hypocellularity evident in fetuses and children with DS. A murine model of DS and AD (the Ts65Dn mouse) exhibits key features of these disorders, notably deficient ontogenetic neurogenesis, degeneration of basal forebrain cholinergic neurons (BFCNs), and cognitive deficits. Adult hippocampal (HP) neurogenesis is also deficient in Ts65Dn mice and may contribute to the observed cognitive dysfunction. Herein, we demonstrate that supplementing the maternal diet with additional choline (approximately 4.5 times the amount in normal rodent chow) dramatically improved the performance of the adult trisomic offspring in a radial arm water maze task. Ts65Dn offspring of choline-supplemented dams performed significantly better than unsupplemented Ts65Dn mice. Furthermore, adult hippocampal neurogenesis was partially normalized in the maternal choline supplemented (MCS) trisomic offspring relative to their unsupplemented counterparts. A significant correlation was observed between adult hippocampal neurogenesis and performance in the water maze, suggesting that the increased neurogenesis seen in the supplemented trisomic mice contributed functionally to their improved spatial cognition. These findings suggest that supplementing the maternal diet with additional choline has significant translational potential for DS.

The role of retinoic acid in hepatic lipid homeostasis defined by genomic binding and transcriptome profiling

Background

The eyes and skin are obvious retinoid target organs. Vitamin A deficiency causes night blindness and retinoids are widely used to treat acne and psoriasis. However, more than 90% of total body retinol is stored in liver stellate cells. In addition, hepatocytes produce the largest amount of retinol binding protein and cellular retinoic acid binding protein to mobilize retinol from the hepatic storage pool and deliver retinol to its receptors, respectively. Furthermore, hepatocytes express the highest amount of retinoid x receptor alpha (RXRα) among all the cell types. Surprisingly, the function of endogenous retinoids in the liver has received very little attention.

Results

Based on the data generated from chromatin immunoprecipitation followed by sequencing, the global DNA binding of transcription factors including retinoid x receptor α (RXRα) along with its partners i.e. retinoic acid receptor α (RARα), pregnane x receptor (PXR), liver x receptor (LXR), farnesoid x receptor (FXR), and peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor α (PPARα) has been established. Based on the binding, functional annotation illustrated the role of those receptors in regulating hepatic lipid homeostasis. To correlate the DNA binding data with gene expression data, the expression patterns of 576 genes that regulate lipid homeostasis were studied in wild type and liver RXRα-null mice treated with and without RA. The data showed that RA treatment and RXRα-deficiency had opposite effects in regulating lipid homeostasis. A subset of genes (114), which could clearly differentiate the effect of ligand treatment and receptor deficiency, were selected for further functional analysis. The expression data suggested that RA treatment could produce unsaturated fatty acids and induce triglyceride breakdown, bile acid secretion, lipolysis, and retinoids elimination. In contrast, RXRα deficiency might induce the synthesis of saturated fatty acids, triglyceride, cholesterol, bile acids, and retinoids. In addition, DNA binding data indicated extensive cross-talk among RARα, PXR, LXR, FXR, and PPARα in regulating those RA/RXRα-dependent gene expression levels. Moreover, RA reduced serum cholesterol, triglyceride, and bile acid levels in mice.

Conclusions

We have characterized the role of hepatic RA for the first time. Hepatic RA mediated through RXRα and its partners regulates lipid homeostasis.

The beneficial effect of folate-enriched egg on the folate and homocysteine levels in rats fed a folate- and choline-deficient diet

We investigated the effects of folate-enriched egg yolk powder on folate and homocysteine levels in plasma and liver of rats fed the folate- and choline-deficient diet to determine bioavailability in vivo. Three-wk-old Wistar rats were fed (1) the pteroylglutamate (PteGlu), (2) the choline, (3) the PteGlu and choline, (4) the folate-enriched egg yolk powder diet for 4 wk after having been fed the folate- and choline-deficient diet. The hepatic folate level in the folate-enriched egg yolk powder group was significantly higher than that in the folate- and choline-deficient or the control groups. The homocysteine concentration in plasma and liver of the folate-enriched egg yolk powder group was significantly lower than that of the folate- and choline-deficient or the PteGlu groups. The S-adenosyl-methionine (SAM)/S-adenosyl-homocysteine (SAH) ratio in the folate-enriched egg yolk powder group was significantly higher than that in the folate- and choline-deficient group. These effects were similar in the PteGlu and choline, but not the PteGlu or the choline groups. These data suggest that the intake of folate-enriched eggs, as well as of both folate and choline, induced the beneficial effects on folate and homocysteine metabolism. Thus, folate-enriched eggs could be used as beneficial source of folate with a high bioavailability.

Marine omega-3 phospholipids: metabolism and biological activities

The biological activities of omega-3 fatty acids (n-3 FAs) have been under extensive study for several decades. However, not much attention has been paid to differences of dietary forms, such as triglycerides (TGs) versus ethyl esters or phospholipids (PLs). New innovative marine raw materials, like krill and fish by-products, present n-3 FAs mainly in the PL form. With their increasing availability, new evidence has emerged on n-3 PL biological activities and differences to n-3 TGs. In this review, we describe the recently discovered nutritional properties of n-3 PLs on different parameters of metabolic syndrome and highlight their different metabolic bioavailability in comparison to other dietary forms of n-3 FAs.

Choline supply of preterm infants: assessment of dietary intake and pathophysiological considerations

BACKGROUND

Choline forms the head group of phosphatidylcholines, comprising 40-50 % of cellular membranes and 70-95 % of phospholipids in surfactant, bile, and lipoproteins. Moreover, choline serves as the precursor of acetylcholine and is important for brain differentiation and function. While accepted as essential for fetal and neonatal development, its role in preterm infant nutrition has not yet gained much attention.

METHODS

The adequate intake of choline of preterm infants was estimated from international recommendations for infants, children, and adults. Choline intake relative to other nutrients was determined retrospectively in all inborn infants below 1,000 g (extremely low birth weight) or below 28 weeks gestational age, admitted to our department in 2006 and 2007 (N = 93).

RESULTS

Estimation of adequate intake showed that children with 290 g body weight need more choline than those with 1,200 g (31.4 and 25.2 mg/kg/day, respectively). Day-by-day variability was high for all nutrient intakes including choline. In contrast to the continuous intrauterine choline delivery, median supply reached a plateau at d11 (21.7 mg/kg/day; 25th/75th percentile: 19.6; 23.9). Individual choline supply at d0-d1 and d2-d3 was <10 mg/kg/day in 100 and 69 % of infants, respectively. Furthermore, intakes <10 mg/kg/day were frequently observed beyond day 11. Median adequate intakes (27.4 mg/kg/day at 735 g body weight) were achieved in <2 %.

CONCLUSIONS

Nutritional intake of choline in this cohort of preterm infants was frequently less than the estimated adequate intake, with particular shortage until postnatal d10. Because choline is important for brain development, future studies are needed to investigate the effects of adequate nutritional choline intake on long-term neurodevelopment in VLBW infants.