Test-retest reliability of a new executive function battery for use in early childhood

To tell the truth or not: What effortful control, false belief, and sympathy tell us about preschoolers' instrumental lies

This study aimed to examine the predictors of instrumental lies in preschool children, specifically focusing on false belief, effortful control, and sympathy. Instrumental lies are intentional falsehoods used to achieve personal goals such as avoiding punishment and obtaining an undeserved reward. A total of 192 preschool children (age range = 32-73 month-olds), along with their mothers and fathers, participated in the study. The Temptation Resistance Paradigm, an experimental task, was employed to elicit instrumental lies from the children. The children also completed first-order false belief measures, and their parents filled out questionnaires assessing their children's effortful control and sympathy skills. Results revealed a positive association between children's effortful control and their decisions to tell instrumental lies. However, no significant relationship was found between false belief and instrumental lying. Age moderated the link between sympathy and the decision to tell instrumental lies, with sympathy being negatively associated with lie-telling behavior among older children but showing no effect among younger children. The study variables did not predict the maintenance of instrumental lies. Overall, this study provides valuable insights into the role of effortful control and sympathy as underlying temperamental and emotional processes influencing children's decisions to engage in instrumental lie-telling.

A short executive functioning questionnaire in the context of early childhood screening: psychometric properties

Early childhood executive functioning (EF) predicts later adjustment and academic achievement. However, measuring EF consistently and efficiently across settings in early childhood can be challenging. Most researchers use task-based measures of EF, but these methods present practical challenges that impede implementation in some settings. The current study of 380 3-5-year-old children in the United States evaluated the psychometric properties of a new 14-item parent-reported measure of EF in a diverse urban school district. This questionnaire aimed to capture a normative range of EF skills in ecologically valid contexts. There was evidence for two specific subscales - one that measures children's EF challenges and another that measures children's EF skills. Results suggested that several items demonstrated differential item functioning by age and race. After adjusting for measurement differences across demographic groups and controlling for age at screening, the EF challenges subscale was more strongly related to task-based measures of EF than was the EF skills subscale. EF challenges predicted third-grade math achievement, controlling for demographic variables and a performance-based measure of children's early cognitive and academic skills. Results suggest that this parent report of EF could be a useful and effective early childhood screening tool.

Norms, convergent validity, test-retest reliability, and practice effects for verbal fluency overall performance, clustering, and switching in Spanish-speaking children

OBJECTIVE

We conducted two empirical studies (in a cross-sectional and a longitudinal design) with the aim at establishing normative data (including norms for strategy use [i.e., clustering and switching strategies] and performance over time), and examining the convergent validity, the test-retest reliability (3-4 wks interval) and the changes in performance with practice (1 year interval) of the different verbal fluency (VF) quantitative and qualitative scores in Spanish-speaking children and adolescents.

METHOD

In S1 (n = 620 6- to 15-year-old Spanish-speaking children and adolescents), MANCOVA and Pearson's correlations were employed. In S2 (n = 148 6- to 12-year-old Spanish-speaking children), intraclass correlation coefficient (ICC), paired t-tests, and Confirmatory Factor Analysis (CFA) were used.

RESULTS

S1 results showed an age effect on all VF measures (quantitative and qualitative). The number of switches/clusters was more related to total word productivity and to executive functions (EF) than the mean cluster size. In S2, a significant increase in phonological VF performance was observed on number of switches and word productivity scores from baseline (Time 1) to repeat testing at Time 2. Practice effects were observed at Time 3 on all measures except for semantic and phonological mean cluster size. Test-retest reliability coefficients at Time 2 for number of clusters and switches, but not for mean cluster size, fell in the moderate range, ranging from ICCs .61 to ICCs .81. Test-retest reliability coefficients for total word productivity were higher (ICCs above .80) and stronger when testing as a unity with CFA methods (ϕ=.94, p < .001).

CONCLUSIONS

These data may be relevant for informing the neuropsychological assessment of spontaneous cognitive flexibility in children with typical development (TD) and those with developmental or acquired disorders.

The Mood, Mother and Child Study: Protocol for a Prospective Longitudinal Study and Randomized Controlled Trial

BACKGROUND

Perinatal depression affects >400,000 mother-child dyads in the United States every year and is associated with numerous adverse maternal and child developmental outcomes. Previous research implicates the dysregulation of oxytocin and the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis functioning in mothers and children as potential mechanisms mediating or moderating the transmission of risk associated with maternal depression.

OBJECTIVE

The Mood, Mother and Child study will examine the psychobiological sources of risk and resilience within mother-child dyads affected by maternal depression. This manuscript describes (1) the study rationale and aims, (2) the research design and procedures and how they were altered in response to the COVID-19 pandemic, and (3) the data analysis plan to test the study hypotheses.

METHODS

This is a prospective longitudinal study with an embedded randomized controlled trial that examines (1) correlations among postpartum depression and anxiety symptoms, maternal and child oxytocin and HPA axis functioning, and child developmental outcomes and (2) the causal relationship between exogenous oxytocin and HPA reactivity. This study is funded by the National Institute of Child Health and Human Development with institutional review board approval.

RESULTS

Recruitment and data collection have commenced, and the expected results will be available in 2024. Analyses are presented for testing the proposed hypotheses.

CONCLUSIONS

The unique combination of a prospective longitudinal research design with an embedded randomized controlled trial will allow the Mood, Mother and Child study to apply a developmental lens to the study of maternal depression and anxiety symptoms from birth to middle childhood and the psychobiological mechanisms promoting risk and resiliency for both mother and child outcomes. This will be the first study that simultaneously evaluates (1) the role of oxytocin using multiple methodologies, (2) the causal relationships between exogenous oxytocin and HPA axis functioning among mothers with differing levels of depression and anxiety symptoms, and (3) the multiple mediating and moderating roles of parenting behaviors and maternal and child psychobiological characteristics. The goals of these aims are to provide insights into the psychobiological effects of oxytocin in women and inform future clinical trials to treat perinatal mood disorders.

TRIAL REGISTRATION

ClinicalTrials.gov NCT03593473; https://classic.clinicaltrials.gov/ct2/show/NCT03593473.

INTERNATIONAL REGISTERED REPORT IDENTIFIER (IRRID)

DERR1-10.2196/51132.

Estimating the Reliability and Stability of Cognitive Processes Contributing to Responses on the Implicit Association Test

Implicit measures were initially assumed to assess stable individual differences, but other perspectives posit that they reflect context-dependent processes. This pre-registered research investigates whether the processes contributing to responses on the race Implicit Association Test are temporally stable and reliably measured using multinomial processing tree modeling. We applied two models-the Quad model and the Process Dissociation Procedure-to six datasets (N = 2,036), each collected over two occasions, examined the within-measurement reliability and between-measurement stability of model parameters, and meta-analyzed the results. Parameters reflecting accuracy-oriented processes demonstrate adequate stability and reliability, which suggests these processes are relatively stable within individuals. Parameters reflecting evaluative associations demonstrate poor stability but modest reliability, which suggests that associations are either context-dependent or stable but noisily measured. These findings suggest that processes contributing to racial bias on implicit measures differ in temporal stability, which has practical implications for predicting behavior using the Implicit Association Test.

Sensitive caregiving and reward responsivity: A novel mechanism linking parenting and executive functions development in early childhood

Sensitive caregiving is an essential aspect of positive parenting that influences executive functions development, but the mechanisms underlying this association are less clear. Using data from the Family Life Project, a large prospective longitudinal sample of 1292 families residing in rural, predominately low-income communities, the current study examined whether sensitive caregiving impacts executive functions development by shaping behavioral reward processing systems in early postnatal life. Results indicated that higher levels of sensitive caregiving during infancy were associated with heightened reward responsivity at age 4, which in turn predicted superior executive functions ability at age 5. Notably, children's reward responsivity partially mediated the relationship between sensitive caregiving in infancy and executive functions ability at school entry. These findings add to prior work on early experience and children's executive functions and highlight caregiver scaffolding of developing reward processing systems as a potential foundational mechanism for supporting adaptive behavior and self-regulation across the lifespan.

EF Touch – Testbatterie zur Erfassung der exekutiven Funktionen bei 3- bis 5- Jährigen

Zusammenfassung. Vorschulkinder mit guten exekutiven Funktionen (EF) haben auch gute individuelle Voraussetzungen für die Schulbereitschaft und den Schulerfolg. Bislang fehlt jedoch im deutschsprachigen Raum eine Testbatterie für Kinder im Vorschulalter. Ziel der Arbeit war es daher, die Testbatterie EF Touch ( Willoughby & Blair, 2015 ) auf ihre Nutzbarkeit für den deutschen Sprachraum zu überprüfen. Die EF Touch wurde in einer Konstruktionsstichprobe von N = 90 Kindern (50 Mädchen; M-Alter = 3.39 Jahre, SD = 0.78) erprobt. Alle Aufgaben wiesen akzeptable bis sehr gute interne Konsistenzen auf (α = .51 – .93), die meisten korrelierten signifikant miteinander ( r = .39 – .51). Die zugrundeliegende Strukur der EF war erwartungsgemäß einfaktoriell. Zusätzlich zeigte sich ein signifikanter Zusammenhang ( r = -.43) mit der Elterneinschätzung der EF im Fragebogen BRIEF-P ( Daseking & Petermann, 2013 ). Es ergaben sich bei allen Aufgaben bessere Ergebnisse bei älteren Kindern. Nachdem die Nutzbarkeit der Testbatterie im deutschen Sprachraum gezeigt werden konnte, wird im nächsten Schritt eine repräsentative Normstichprobe erhoben.

Self-regulation in preschool: Are executive function and effortful control overlapping constructs?

The concepts of executive function (EF) and effortful control (EC) are strikingly similar. EF originate from neurocognitive research and are described as an accumulation of cognitive processes that serve the goal-oriented self-regulation (SR) of an individual. EC originates from temperament research and is defined as the efficiency of executive attention, including the ability to inhibit a dominant response, to activate a subdominant response, to proceed in a planned manner and to recognize conflicts or errors. The aim of this article was to examine the association between the constructs of EF and EC at the preschool-age. Eighty-eight children (49 female; M-age = 3.93 years, SD = .78) were tested with a computerized battery designed to assess EF at 3-6 years of age (EF Touch). Children's parents completed questionnaires assessing EF impairments (BRIEF-P) and EC (CBQ). Associations between the constructs and their conceptual overlap were analyzed using correlations and confirmatory factor analyses. We found significant correlations between EF and EC measures. A one-factor confirmatory model fitted the data very well and indicated that EF and EC are indeed overlapping and highly similar constructs. Therefore, our results show that measures of EC and EF have substantial overlap in preschoolers and suggest an integrated model of self-regulation.

Acute effects of a motor coordination intervention on executive functions in kindergartners: a proof-of-concept randomized controlled trial

BACKGROUND

Executive functions are pivotal for future academic and social functioning. Causal effects of physical activity on executive functions have been shown in adults. The primary objective of this study was to test the proof-of-concept (i.e., feasibility of implementation and acceptance) of a motor coordination intervention and a sedentary control condition in kindergartners and its preliminary effectiveness on subsequent executive function performance.

METHODS

The study used a two-group post-test only design. All children aged between 4 and 7 years old were eligible. One hundred and three children (46% girls; age: M = 5.71 years, 95% CI = 5.50 to 5.92) recruited in a middle-sized town in Germany were randomly assigned to a 20-min motor coordination intervention (n = 51) or a sedentary control condition (n = 52), both of which were conducted in a one-on-one experimenter-child setting in the university or kindergarten. A second blinded-to-condition experimenter assessed the executive function outcomes directly following the conditions. Proof-of-concept criteria were the implementation of the intervention with a moderate-to-vigorous physical activity level assessed via heart rate sensors, and with motor coordination demands, analyzed via video recordings; children's acceptance via self-reported enjoyment of the conditions; and the post-assessments of executive functions with a behavioral and computerized task.

RESULTS

The motor coordination intervention and the control condition were feasible in a one-on-one setting with kindergartners. The intervention revealed heart rate increases and challenging motor coordination tasks. Children in both conditions indicated they enjoy them. Performance in the two executive function tasks did not differ between children in the motor coordination intervention and the control condition.

CONCLUSIONS

A one-on-one experimenter-child setting was feasible to deliver in kindergartners. Future intervention studies should consider pre-testing of executive functions and take into account children's characteristics as potential moderators, such as motor coordination skills.

Multimodal music training enhances executive functions in children: Results of a randomized controlled trial

Music training programs have shown mixed results on children's executive functions. The purpose of the present study was to evaluate the impact of a 10-week multimodal music program with vocal development, bimanual coordination, and musical improvisation, on children's executive functions. We hypothesized that a 10-week music program would enhance executive functions in working memory in 4- to 6-year-old children. Eighty-four children were randomly assigned to a multimodal music program, an active control Lego program, or no treatment control condition (i.e., randomized controlled design). All children completed measures of music aptitude, music achievement, and executive functions (i.e., EF Touch) pre- and post-training. Results revealed enhanced pitch accuracy and working memory for children in the music training group as compared to the other conditions. Children in the Lego condition demonstrated significant enhancements of spatial working memory. Tonal music aptitude significantly predicted performance on measures of working memory. Contributions to the literature include the randomized controlled design, group multimodal music program appropriate for 4- to 6-year-old children, and the use of executive function measures sensitive to individual differences.

Effects of Group-Play Moderate to Vigorous Intensity Physical Activity Intervention on Executive Function and Motor Skills in 4- to 5-Year-Old Preschoolers: A Pilot Cluster Randomized Controlled Trial

The aim of the present study is to examine the effect of group-play intervention on executive function (EF) in preschoolers. This group-play intervention was integrated as moderate to vigorous physical activity and cognitively loaded exercise to promote EF in preschoolers. An 8-week group-play MVPA intervention program, consisting of a series of outdoor physical and cognitively loaded games, was designed to improve preschoolers' EF. This intervention program was implemented in group-play form, and conducted by teachers who received standardized training before the intervention. Two classes of second grade preschoolers (N = 62) were randomly allocated to experimental (n = 30, M age = 4.16, SD = 0.29) and control (n = 32, M age = 4.7, SD = 0.43) groups. The intervention group received the intervention three times a week, while the control group exercised as usual in preschool. Before, in the middle of, and after the intervention, 10-m running, standing broad jump, throwing, body flexion, balance beam, and skip jump were assessed as tests of motor skills. In addition, three components of EF were measured separately before, in the middle of, and after the intervention: inhibitory control was assessed by using the silly sound Stroop task, working memory was tested using the empty house task, and shifting was assessed using the dimensional change card sorting task. Although both groups showed an increasing trend in terms of motor skills and EF during the intervention, the increasing amounts of the intervention group were significantly higher than the control group. The findings of the present study suggested that group-play intervention has positive effects on aspects of EF in addition to motor skills in preschoolers.

The structure of executive functions in preschool children and chimpanzees

Executive functions (EF) are a core aspect of cognition. Research with adult humans has produced evidence for unity and diversity in the structure of EF. Studies with preschoolers favour a 1-factor model, in which variation in EF tasks is best explained by a single underlying trait on which all EF tasks load. How EF are structured in nonhuman primates remains unknown. This study starts to fill this gap through a comparative, multi-trait multi-method test battery with preschoolers (N = 185) and chimpanzees (N = 55). The battery aimed at measuring working memory updating, inhibition, and attention shifting with three non-verbal tasks per function. For both species the correlations between tasks were low to moderate and not confined to tasks within the same putative function. Factor analyses produced some evidence for the unity of executive functions in both groups, in that our analyses revealed shared variance. However, we could not conclusively distinguish between 1-, 2- or 3-factor models. We discuss the implications of our findings with respect to the ecological validity of current psychometric research.

Associations Among Food Delay of Gratification, Cognitive Measures, and Environment in a Community Preschool Sample

Much of the work on the development of appetite self-regulation in early childhood employs tasks assessing Delay of Gratification (DoG). While this skill is thought to rely on "cool" cognitive processes like effortful control, executive functioning, and self-regulation, demonstration of how laboratory measures of food DoG relate to common assessments of those cognitive processes in community samples of children is needed. This study presents secondary data investigating the associations between two laboratory tasks of food DoG, the Snack Delay and Tongue Tasks, and an array of laboratory and parent-report cognitive measures in a sample of 88 children ages 3-6 (M age = 4.05, SD = 0.76), as well as how four measures of the child's environment were associated with food DoG. Results indicated that both measures of food DoG were positively correlated with performance on the cognitive tasks, with stronger associations observed for the Tongue Task. Family income was positively associated with food DoG as measured by the Tongue Task, and child negative life events in the past year were negatively correlated with food DoG as measured by the Snack Delay Task. These findings present the pattern of associations between cognitive tasks and food DoG, the development of which may be meaningfully affected by specific aspects of family environment.

Infant Attentional behaviors Are Associated With ADHD Symptomatology and Executive Function in Early Childhood

Objective: We explored associations between infant attentional behaviors as measured by the First Year Inventory (FYIv2.0) and dimensional ratings of ADHD symptomatology and executive function (EF) in early childhood. Methods: This study included parents (N = 229) who filled out the FYIv2.0 when their children were 12 months of age. When children were approximately 54 months (4.5 years) of age, parents completed reports of children's ADHD symptomatology and EF abilities. Correlation and regression analyses were conducted among measures. Results: We found significant associations among the variables of interest, both cross-sectionally and longitudinally, as well as gender differences. Notably, non-social sensory attention (NSA) was significantly related to 54-month ADHD symptom severity. All three 12-month attention variables were significantly related to 54-month EF. Conclusion: Results suggest that infant attentional behaviors predict later ADHD-related behaviors in early childhood. Future research should explore associations using laboratory-based measures and could inform early intervention efforts.

Effects of household chaos and parental responsiveness on child executive functions: a novel, multi-method approach

Background

Executive functions can be adversely affected by contextual risks in the home environment including chaos and parenting challenges. Furthermore, household chaos negatively influences parenting practices. Few studies, however, have examined the role of parenting in the association between household chaos and child executive functions.

Methods

Using a sample of 128 school-aged children (mean = 61.9 months, SD = 2.0, range 58–68 months) and their mothers, the present study examined direct and indirect effects (via parental responsiveness) of household chaos on child executive functioning. Multi-measures were used including performance-based assessments, behavioural observations, questionnaires, and video-home tours.

Results

Household chaos had both a direct effect on child executive functions (β = − .31, 95% CI [− .58, − .04]) and an indirect effect (β = − .05, 95% [− .13, − .01]) via parental responsiveness. Further, the indirect effect was only significant for household instability.

Conclusion

These findings indicate that parental responsiveness may be compromised by household chaos, with implications for the executive functions of school-aged children. Preventative strategies are needed to improve the stability in the home and strengthen parenting practices.

Home Language Environment and Executive Functions in Mexican American and Chinese American Preschoolers in Head Start

Research Findings

Using two groups of dual language learners (DLLs), the current study examined links between two developmental constructs closely linked to school readiness: the home language environment (HLE) and executive function (EF). In a sample of 90 children (age range = 38-70 months, 59% girls) from either Mexican American (MA, N = 46) or Chinese American (CA, N = 44) low-income families enrolled in Head Start preschool programs, parents reported on their HLE (home language balance, home English/heritage language activities) and children's EF (inhibitory control and attention shifting) was measured by cognitive tasks. Findings showed preschool-aged DLLs in low-income immigrant families received more heritage language exposure relative to English language exposure at home. Several demographic variables (parental education, per capita income, DLL group, child age of English acquisition, child generation, child English receptive vocabulary) were related to various aspects of HLE. Controlling for covariates, the amount of heritage language activities at home was uniquely and positively related to children's attention shifting.

Practice or Policy

The findings underscore the importance of incorporating language background considerations when designing intervention programs that target HLE and EF in low-income DLLs.

Lifetime stressors, hair cortisol, and executive function: Age-related associations in childhood

Extant research is mixed regarding the relations among lifetime exposure to stressors, adrenocortical activity, and executive function (EF), particularly in children. Aggregate measures of adrenocortical activity like hair cortisol concentration (HCC), timing of stress exposure, and age at assessment may clarify these associations. This cross-sectional study examined the association among parent-reported exposure to stressors, hair cortisol concentration (HCC), and children's EF via a tablet task in a community sample (n = 318, 52.5% female) of children across a wide age range (4-13 years, M = 9.4, SD = 2.3). Path analyses revealed that parent-reported child lifetime exposure to stressors, but not past-year stressful life events, negatively predicted HCC. There was also a marginally significant moderation by age such that HCC was associated negatively with EF for younger children (age < 9.7 years) but not older children. HCC did not significantly mediate the association between lifetime exposure to stressors and EF. Findings are consistent with the proposition that chronically high cortisol production has a neurotoxic effect on brain regions supporting EF. However, lifetime exposure to stressors predicted relatively lower cumulative cortisol production, consistent with a stress inoculation effect in this normative-risk sample.

The contribution of good sleep to working memory in preschool: A matter of sleep quality or duration?

Good sleep is essential for efficient cognitive performance. The present research examined the link between sleep and working memory (WM) during early childhood, a period of major advances in neurodevelopment. The sample included 80 healthy children, 40 3-year-olds and 40 4-year-olds, attending childcare settings. The children were individually tested using WM tasks; parents completed sleep questionnaires. On a group level, WM improved with age. Process model analysis demonstrated the effect of age on WM (P=0.001) and indicated an age-specific involvement of sleep quality (P=0.01). Whereas sleep duration was not associated with WM, at 4years of age, sleep disturbance with physical symptoms (e.g., breathing, motor) was associated with poor WM performance. Among 3-year-old girls, fear-related sleep disruption was associated with better WM performance. Together, the results suggest that the association between sleep and WM is dependent on: (a) specific aspects of sleep, (b) age, and (c) gender. More research is essential for unraveling the underlying neuro-maturational processes and mechanisms.

Test-Retest Reliability and Measurement Invariance of Executive Function Tasks in Young Children With and Without ADHD

Objective: Measurement reliability is assumed when executive function (EF) tasks are used to compare groups or to examine relationships between cognition and etiologic and maintaining factors of psychiatric disorders. However, the test-retest reliabilities of many commonly used EF tasks have rarely been examined in young children. Furthermore, measurement invariance between typically developing and psychiatric populations has not been examined. Method: Test-retest reliability of a battery of commonly used EF tasks was assessed in a group of children between the ages of 5 and 6 years old with (n = 63) and without (n = 44) ADHD. Results: Few individual tasks achieved adequate reliability. However, confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) models identified two factors, working memory and inhibition, with test-retest correlations approaching 1.0. Multiple indicators multiple causes (MIMIC) models confirmed configural measurement invariance between the groups. Conclusion: Problems created by poor reliability, including reduced power to detect group differences, index change over time, or to identify relationships with other measures, may be mitigated using latent variable approaches.

Using Repeated-Measures Data to Make Stronger Tests of the Association between Executive Function Skills and Attention Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder Symptomatology in Early Childhood

Theoretical models of Attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) have long implicated executive function (EF) skills as contributing to the etiology, maintenance, and changes in ADHD symptomatology over time. Although there is interest making within-person inferences (i.e., deficits in EF skills give rise to ADHD behaviors), most of the evidence has been derived from studies that conflated between- and within-person sources of variance. Here, we use repeated-measures data to test within-person association between EF skills and ADHD behaviors. Participants included 1160 children from the Family Life Project, an ongoing prospective longitudinal study of child development in low-income, nonmetropolitan communities. We tested the magnitude of the association between EF skills and ADHD behaviors when children were 3, 4, and 5 years old. Consistent with meta-analyses, unadjusted bivariate associations between EF and ADHD (which reflect combined between- and within-person variation) were of moderate magnitude (rs = -0.20 to -0.30). However, after controlling for all time-invariant, between-person sources of variation, the within-person associations between EF skills and ADHD behaviors were weak (βs - 0.04 to -0.05, ps = 0.01). These results suggest that EF skills may contribute less prominently to ADHD behaviors in early childhood than is commonly assumed and provoke broader questions about developmental models of ADHD.

Self-Regulation in Early and Middle Childhood as a Precursor to Social Adjustment Among Low-Income, Ethnic Minority Children

Although existing research has shed much light on the development of ethnic minority children, many studies focus on maladjustment, such as behavioral problems, without also speaking to positive experiences in children's lives, such as friendship. An aspect of development that predicts both positive and negative outcomes for children is self-regulation. The present study investigates precursors and sequelae of self-regulation in middle childhood among low-income, ethnic minority children. The four self-regulatory constructs examined in the current study include low-level executive function (EF; e.g., working memory), high-level EF (e.g., planning), effortful control (EC; e.g., delay of gratification), and impulsivity (e.g., does not think before doing). EC in preschool was related to high-level EF and impulsivity in elementary school. High-level EF explained positive and negative aspects of social development during middle childhood. Additionally, self-regulation during elementary school played a mediating role between EC in preschool and social development in middle childhood.

Comparability, stability, and reliability of internet-based mental chronometry in domestic and laboratory settings

The internet-based assessment of response time (RT) and error rate (ERR) has recently become a well-validated alternative to traditional laboratory-based assessment, because methodological research has provided evidence for negligible setting- and setup-related differences in RT and ERR measures of central tendency. However, corresponding data on potential differences in the variability of such performance measures are still lacking, to date. Hence, the aim of this study was to conduct internet-based mental chronometry in both poorly standardized domestic and highly standardized laboratory environments and to compare the variabilities of the corresponding performance measures. Using the Millisecond Inquisit4Web software, 127 men and women completed three different RT-based cognitive paradigms (i.e., go/no-go, two-back, and number-letter). Each participant completed all paradigms in two environments (i.e., at home and in the laboratory), with a time lag of seven days and in a counterbalanced order. Mixed-effects modeling was employed to estimate the between-setting variability across a comprehensive set of performance measures, including conventional measures of central tendency (i.e., mean RT and ERR) and further measures characterizing the joint distribution of RT/ERR. The latter measures were estimated using the diffusion model. The results suggested negligible differences between the domestic and laboratory settings. Thus, this study provides novel evidence suggesting that the statistical power of internet-based mental chronometry is commonly not compromised by increased environmental variance. The within- and between-session reliabilities were in a satisfactory range-that is, comparable to performance measures collected offline in laboratory settings. In consequence, our results support the broad applicability, robustness, and cost efficiency of mental chronometry assessment using the internet.

Measuring executive function skills in young children in Kenya: Associations with school readiness

Most of what is known about the association between children's executive function (EF) and school readiness skills is derived from research conducted in Western countries. We tested whether these associations were evident in a middle-income country context. Participants were 1,480 children, aged 4-7 years old, who participated in an endline assessment of the Tayari program, an early childhood education (ECE) model that is being delivered by the Kenyan education system. High rates of task completion, low rates of floor effects, and high rates of assessor quality ratings supported the feasibility of large-scale direct assessments of EF with young children. Assessor ratings of children's attention-related behaviors during testing were positively associated with their performance on EF tasks (rs = 0.12-0.27). An EF composite score was not related to demographic factors or to children's exposure to the Tayari program. However, the EF composite score was uniquely associated with performance-based measures of early literacy (β = 0.18, 95% confidence interval [CI] = 0.05, 0.31), early numeracy (β = 0.16, 95% CI = 0.07, 26), and social-emotional competencies (β = 0.12, 95% CI = 0.03, 0.20), even after adjustment for multiple covariates. These results are discussed with respect to the ways in which EF skills inform ongoing efforts to invest in ECE in low- and middle-income countries.

Cognitive Abilities and Mathematical Competencies at School Entry

The aim of this study was to identify mathematical competencies in early childhood and cognitive correlates of those competencies in a prospective longitudinal sample of children (N=1292) in predominantly low-income and nonurban communities in the United States. General mental ability (IQ), processing speed, vocabulary, and the working memory, inhibitory control, and cognitive flexibility components of executive function (EF) were assessed when children were ages 4 and 5. Math ability was assessed prior to school entry using a norm-referenced assessment. Exploratory factor analysis indicated that items from the math assessment loaded onto factors representing conceptual and procedural skill. IQ, processing speed, vocabulary, and a unitary EF composite all related to both conceptual and procedural skill. When EF components were examined separately, however, only the inhibitory control aspect of EF was related to conceptual skill and only the working memory aspect of EF was related to procedural skill.

Does early executive function predict teacher-child relationships from kindergarten to second grade?

Teacher-child relationships have been linked to children's classroom engagement and to academic achievement. However, researchers have paid minimal attention to individual child factors that predict the development of these relationships. In the current study, we examined executive function (EF) prior to school entry as a predictor of teacher-child relationships at kindergarten through second grade. We also examined externalizing behavior problems, verbal intelligence, and academic achievement as mediators of these associations. Data were from the Family Life Project, a prospective, longitudinal sample of N = 1,292 families from predominantly low-socioeconomic status (SES) and rural communities in Pennsylvania and North Carolina. Children were administered a multidimensional battery of EF when they were 48 months old and standardized measures of verbal intelligence and academic achievement at prekindergarten. Parents reported on externalizing behavior problems when children were 60 months old. Kindergarten, first-, and second-grade teachers reported on teacher-child relationships. Growth curve models revealed that EF at 48 months positively predicted closeness and negatively predicted conflict with teachers in kindergarten but not change in closeness or conflict over time. Verbal intelligence mediated the associations between EF and both closeness and conflict. EF continued to significantly predict conflict, but not closeness, with kindergarten teachers when the mediator was included in the model. The results of this study are discussed in the context of the implications of children's self-regulation for classroom engagement in a low-SES sample. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2018 APA, all rights reserved).

Socioeconomic Risk and School Readiness: Longitudinal Mediation Through Children's Social Competence and Executive Function

The association of socioeconomic status with academic readiness and school achievement is well established. However, the specific contributions of cognitive and social aspects of self-regulation, and potential reciprocal relations between them in the prediction of school readiness and early school achievement have not previously been examined. This study examined mediational processes involving children's executive function (EF) skills at 58 months and Grade 1 (G1) and social competence in Kindergarten (K) and G1, as potential pathways by which early-life poverty-related risks influence Grade 2 (G2) math and reading achievement. Data came from the Family Life Project, which is a prospective longitudinal study of 1,292 children and families followed from birth in primarily low-income, non-urban counties in Pennsylvania (PA) and North Carolina (NC). Autoregressive cross-lagged mediation analyses indicated that EF at 58 months through EF at G1 mediated negative associations between cumulative risk exposure and academic skills, with this pathway mediating 36% of the total effect. Furthermore, social competence at K through EF at G1 mediated negative associations between early-life cumulative socioeconomic risk and academic skills, mediating 16% of the total effect. These findings provide evidence that poverty-related risks can influence school readiness and academic achievement via EF. Additionally, these results provide preliminary support for the premise that social competence through EF is a pathway by which cumulative poverty-related risk predicts early academic competence. Our findings are consistent with studies demonstrating developmental associations between EF and social competence. Furthermore, our findings are consistent with prekindergarten programs for children in poverty that emphasize both cognitive and social aspects of self-regulation.

The unity and diversity of executive functions: A systematic review and re-analysis of latent variable studies

Confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) has been frequently applied to executive function measurement since first used to identify a three-factor model of inhibition, updating, and shifting; however, subsequent CFAs have supported inconsistent models across the life span, ranging from unidimensional to nested-factor models (i.e., bifactor without inhibition). This systematic review summarized CFAs on performance-based tests of executive functions and reanalyzed summary data to identify best-fitting models. Eligible CFAs involved 46 samples (N = 9,756). The most frequently accepted models varied by age (i.e., preschool = one/two-factor; school-age = three-factor; adolescent/adult = three/nested-factor; older adult = two/three-factor), and most often included updating/working memory, inhibition, and shifting factors. A bootstrap reanalysis simulated 5,000 samples from 21 correlation matrices (11 child/adolescent; 10 adult) from studies including the three most common factors, fitting seven competing models. Model results were summarized as the mean percent accepted (i.e., average rate at which models converged and met fit thresholds: CFI ≥ .90/RMSEA ≤ .08) and mean percent selected (i.e., average rate at which a model showed superior fit to other models: ΔCFI ≥ .005/.010/ΔRMSEA ≤ -.010/-.015). No model consistently converged and met fit criteria in all samples. Among adult samples, the nested-factor was accepted (41-42%) and selected (8-30%) most often. Among child/adolescent samples, the unidimensional model was accepted (32-36%) and selected (21-53%) most often, with some support for two-factor models without a differentiated shifting factor. Results show some evidence for greater unidimensionality of executive function among child/adolescent samples and both unity and diversity among adult samples. However, low rates of model acceptance/selection suggest possible bias toward the publication of well-fitting but potentially nonreplicable models with underpowered samples. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2018 APA, all rights reserved).

On the Reliability of Switching Costs Across Time and Domains

Bilingual speakers are suggested to use control processes to avoid linguistic interference from the unintended language. It is debated whether these bilingual language control (BLC) processes are an instantiation of the more domain-general executive control (EC) processes. Previous studies inconsistently report correlations between measures of linguistic and non-linguistic control in bilinguals. In the present study, we investigate the extent to which there is cross-talk between these two domains of control for two switch costs, namely the n-1 shift cost and the n-2 repetition cost. Also, we address an important problem, namely the reliability of the measures used to investigate cross-talk. If the reliability of a measure is low, then these measures are ill-suited to test cross-talk between domains through correlations. We asked participants to perform both a linguistic- and non-linguistic switching task at two sessions about a week apart. The results show a dissociation between the two types of switch costs. Regarding test-retest reliability, we found a stronger reliability for the n-1 shift cost compared to the n-2 repetition cost within both domains as measured by correlations across sessions. This suggests the n-1 shift cost is more suitable to explore cross-talk of BLC and EC. Next, we do find cross-talk for the n-1 shift cost as demonstrated by a significant cross-domain correlation. This suggests that there are at least some shared processes in the linguistic and non-linguistic task.

Executive function and childhood stuttering: Parent ratings and evidence from a behavioral task

PURPOSE

The purpose of this study was to examine the executive function (EF) abilities of preschool children who do (CWS) and do not stutter (CWNS) using a parent-report questionnaire and a behavioral task.

METHOD

Participants were 75 CWS and 75 CWNS between the ages of 3;0 and 5;11 (years; months). Parents rated their children's EF abilities using the Behavioral Rating Inventory of Executive Function-Preschool Version (BRIEF-P; Gioia, Espy, & Isquith, 2003). Children's ability to integrate cognitive flexibility, inhibitory control, and working memory was measured using a behavioral task, the Head-Toes-Knees-Shoulders (HTKS; Cameron Ponitz, McClelland, Matthews, & Morrison, 2009).

RESULTS

The CWS were judged by their parents as being less proficient in working memory, shift/flexibility, and overall EF than the parents of the CWNS. Children in the CWS group were also 2½ to 7 times more likely than children in the CWNS group to exhibit clinically significant difficulties with EF. Behavioral task findings revealed that 3-year old CWS performed more poorly than their peers on the HTKS. Parental ratings of executive function and working memory were significantly and moderately correlated with receptive and expressive vocabulary skills only for the CWNS group.

CONCLUSION

CWS have more difficulty with EF in everyday life and may experience early delays in their ability to integrate aspects of attention and EF compared to CWNS.

Are sluggish cognitive tempo symptoms associated with executive functioning in preschoolers?

The aim of this study is to investigate whether sluggish cognitive tempo (SCT) symptoms are associated with neurocognitive task performance and ratings of real-world executive functioning (EF) in preschoolers at risk for attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). The associations between parent- and teacher-rated SCT symptoms and neuropsychological task performance and ratings of EF in 61 4-year-old preschool children (51 boys, 10 girls) with self-regulation difficulties were examined, with regression analyses controlling for the effects of ADHD inattention symptoms. In the study sample, higher teacher-rated SCT symptoms are significantly associated with poorer performance on tasks of visual-perceptual abilities, auditory and visual attention, sustained and selective attention, inhibitory control, pre-numerical/numerical concepts, and slower processing speed, but SCT symptoms are not significantly associated with working memory, attention shifting or cognitive flexibility when controlling for ADHD inattention. Higher parent-rated SCT symptoms are significantly associated with visual-perceptual abilities. ADHD inattention symptoms are more strongly associated than SCT with daily life EF ratings; neither parent- nor teacher-rated SCT symptoms are significantly associated with daily life ratings of inhibition, working memory, or planning/organization after controlling for ADHD inattention. This study suggests that SCT symptoms contribute to EF deficits at least on neurocognitive tasks assessing visual-perceptual/spatial abilities, attention to detail and processing speed, as observed in this sample of young children at risk for ADHD, and may be an important intervention target.

Children's Sensitivity to Cost and Reward in Decision Making Across Distinct Domains of Probability, Effort, and Delay

Many behavioral paradigms used to study individuals' decision making tendencies do not capture the decision components that contribute to behavioral outcomes, such as differentiating decisions driven toward a reward from decisions driven away from a cost. This study tested a novel decision making task in a sample of 403 children (age 9 years) enrolled in an ongoing longitudinal study. The task consisted of 3 blocks representing distinct cost domains (delay, probability, effort) wherein children were presented with a deck of cards, each of which consisted of a reward and a cost. Children elected whether to accept or skip the card at each trial. Reward-cost pairs were selected using an adaptive algorithm to strategically sample the decision space in the fewest number of trials. Using person-specific regression models, decision preferences were quantified for each cost domain with respect to general tolerance (intercept), as well as parameters estimating the effect of incremental increases in reward or cost on the probability of accepting a card. Results support the relative independence of decision making tendencies across cost domains, with moderate correlations observed between tolerance for delay and effort. Specific decision parameters showed unique associations with cognitive and behavioral measures including executive function, academic motivation, anxiety, and hyperactivity. Evidence indicates that sensitivity to reward is an important factor in incentivizing decisions to work harder or wait longer. Dissociating the relative contributions of reward and cost sensitivity in multiple domains may facilitate the identification of heterogeneity in sub-optimal decision making.

Examining an Executive Function Battery for Use with Preschool Children with Disabilities

Performance-based assessments of EF for use with young children who have or are at risk for disabilities are lacking. The current study investigates the use of a computerized battery for children with subclinical behaviors (N = 846) across a variety of developmental disabilities and evaluates practical information about feasibility of task administration. Results reveal that children with disabilities performed similarly to their typically developing peers across a variety of metrics for evaluating the battery, ranging from percent correct scores to administrator quality ratings. Thus, the battery may be considered an easy-to-administer, performance-based assessment tool in which children with disabilities do not perform systemically worse than typically developing peers.

Executive Function Buffers the Association between Early Math and Later Academic Skills

Extensive evidence has suggested that early academic skills are a robust indicator of later academic achievement; however, there is mixed evidence of the effectiveness of intervention on academic skills in early years to improve later outcomes. As such, it is clear there are other contributing factors to the development of academic skills. The present study tests the role of executive function (EF) (a construct made up of skills complicit in the achievement of goal-directed tasks) in predicting 5th grade math and reading ability above and beyond math and reading ability prior to school entry, and net of other cognitive covariates including processing speed, vocabulary, and IQ. Using a longitudinal dataset of N = 1292 participants representative of rural areas in two distinctive geographical parts of the United States, the present investigation finds EF at age 5 strongly predicts 5th grade academic skills, as do cognitive covariates. Additionally, investigation of an interaction between early math ability and EF reveals the magnitude of the association between early math and later math varies as a function of early EF, such that participants who have high levels of EF can “catch up” to peers who perform better on assessments of early math ability. These results suggest EF is pivotal to the development of academic skills throughout elementary school. Implications for further research and practice are discussed.

Executive function in children born preterm: Risk factors and implications for outcome

Executive function (EF) refers to the set of cognitive processes involved in the self-regulation of emotion and goal-directed behavior. These skills and the brain systems that support them develop throughout childhood and are frequently compromised in preterm children, even in those with broadly average global cognitive ability. Risks for deficits in EF in preterm children and attendant problems in learning and psychosocial functioning are higher in those with more extreme prematurity, neonatal complications, and related brain abnormalities. Associations of higher levels of EF with more supportive home and school environments suggest a potential for attenuating these risks, especially with early identification. Further research is needed to understand how deficits in EF evolve in preterm children, refine assessment methods, and develop interventions that either promote the development of EF in this population or help children to compensate for these weaknesses.

The Childhood Executive Functioning Inventory (CHEXI): Factor structure, measurement invariance, and correlates in US preschoolers

This study tests the factor structure, measurement invariance, and correlates of the Childhood Executive Functioning Inventory (CHEXI) with a large and diverse sample of 3- to 5-year-olds (n = 844). Consistent with previous studies, a two-factor model that distinguishes working memory from inhibition provides the best fit to the observed data. This two-factor model has been shown to demonstrate strong measurement invariance for different subgroups of children (boys vs. girls, high vs. low income). Whereas boys tend to have greater working memory and inhibition difficulties (Cohen's d = 0.15 and 0.20, respectively), children from low-income households tend to have more working memory problems than their peers from high-income households (Cohen's d = 0.25). Finally, correlations between CHEXI scores, examiner reports of child behavior, and child performance on a battery of executive function (EF) tasks were investigated. CHEXI scores were found to be more consistently related to examiner reports of child behavior than child performance on EF tasks. Tthe strengths and weaknesses of the CHEXI as a questionnaire measure of EF are discussed, and directions for future research are suggested.

Executive functioning in Spanish- and English-speaking Head Start preschoolers

A growing percentage of low-income children in the United States come from Spanish-speaking homes and are dual language learners (DLLs). Recent research shows that bilingual children, compared to monolinguals, have enhanced executive functioning (EF), a set of foundational cognitive skills that predict higher social-emotional competence and academic achievement in preschool and beyond. Although this association has been found among children of different backgrounds, no study to date has assessed whether bilingual Latino preschoolers from low-income backgrounds have higher EF than their monolingual peers and their emerging bilingual peers, respectively. The current study assessed 303 predominantly Latino Head Start preschoolers (83.5% Latino and 13.5% African American) to examine this relationship. Using a language screener, three groups were formed (148 Spanish-English bilinguals, 83 English monolinguals, and 72 Spanish-dominant emerging bilinguals) and subsequently compared on a latent factor of EF. As predicted, results indicated that the bilingual group outperformed the monolingual English group on EF. Implications for the findings of the lack of EF differences between the Spanish-dominant emerging bilinguals and the other two groups are also discussed. This study advances our understanding of the intersection between language and cognitive development for young low-income Latino DLLs growing up in the United States and highlights bilingualism as a potential advantage in this population. A video abstract of this article can be viewed at: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=J2Eq_MwLRfQ.

The test-retest reliability of the latent construct of executive function depends on whether tasks are represented as formative or reflective indicators

This study investigates the test-retest reliability of a battery of executive function (EF) tasks with a specific interest in testing whether the method that is used to create a battery-wide score would result in differences in the apparent test-retest reliability of children's performance. A total of 188 4-year-olds completed a battery of computerized EF tasks twice across a period of approximately two weeks. Two different approaches were used to create a score that indexed children's overall performance on the battery-i.e., (1) the mean score of all completed tasks and (2) a factor score estimate which used confirmatory factor analysis (CFA). Pearson and intra-class correlations were used to investigate the test-retest reliability of individual EF tasks, as well as an overall battery score. Consistent with previous studies, the test-retest reliability of individual tasks was modest (rs ≈ .60). The test-retest reliability of the overall battery scores differed depending on the scoring approach (r_mean = .72; r_{factor_score} = .99). It is concluded that the children's performance on individual EF tasks exhibit modest levels of test-retest reliability. This underscores the importance of administering multiple tasks and aggregating performance across these tasks in order to improve precision of measurement. However, the specific strategy that is used has a large impact on the apparent test-retest reliability of the overall score. These results replicate our earlier findings and provide additional cautionary evidence against the routine use of factor analytic approaches for representing individual performance across a battery of EF tasks.

Measuring executive function in early childhood: A case for formative measurement

This study tested whether individual executive function (EF) tasks were better characterized as formative or reflective indicators of the latent construct of EF. EF data that were collected as part of the Family Life Project (FLP), a prospective longitudinal study of families who were recruited at the birth of a new child (N = 1,292), when children were 3, 4, and 5 years old. Vanishing tetrad tests were used to test the relative fit of models in which EF tasks were used as either formative or reflective indicators of the latent construct of EF in the prediction of intellectual ability (at Age 3), attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder symptoms (at Ages 3 to 5 years), and academic achievement (at kindergarten). Results consistently indicated that EF tasks were better represented as formative indicators of the latent construct of EF. Next, individual tasks were combined to form an overall measure of EF ability in ways generally consistent with formative (i.e., creating a composite mean score) and reflective (i.e., creating an EF factor score) measurement. The test-retest reliability and developmental trajectories of EF differed substantially, depending on which overall measure of EF ability was used. In general, the across-time stability of EF was markedly higher when represented as a factor score versus composite score. Results are discussed with respect to the ways in which the statistical representation of EF tasks can exert a large impact on inferences regarding the developmental causes, course, and consequences of EF.

Language Impairment in the Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder Context

PURPOSE

Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) is a ubiquitous designation that affects the identification, assessment, treatment, and study of pediatric language impairments (LIs).

METHOD

Current literature is reviewed in 4 areas: (a) the capacity of psycholinguistic, neuropsychological, and socioemotional behavioral indices to differentiate cases of LI from ADHD; (b) the impact of co-occurring ADHD on children's LI; (c) cross-etiology comparisons of the nonlinguistic abilities of children with ADHD and specific LI (SLI); and (d) the extent to which ADHD contributes to educational and health disparities among individuals with LI.

RESULTS

Evidence is presented demonstrating the value of using adjusted parent ratings of ADHD symptoms and targeted assessments of children's tense marking, nonword repetition, and sentence recall for differential diagnosis and the identification of comorbidity. Reports suggest that the presence of ADHD does not aggravate children's LI. The potential value of cross-etiology comparisons testing the necessity and sufficiency of proposed nonlinguistic contributors to the etiology of SLI is demonstrated through key studies. Reports suggest that children with comorbid ADHD+LI receive speech-language services at a higher rate than children with SLI.

CONCLUSION

The ADHD context is multifaceted and provides the management and study of LI with both opportunities and obstacles.

Markers, Models, and Measurement Error: Exploring the Links Between Attention Deficits and Language Impairments

PURPOSE

The empirical record regarding the expected co-occurrence of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) and specific language impairment is confusing and contradictory. A research plan is presented that has the potential to untangle links between these 2 common neurodevelopmental disorders.

METHOD

Data from completed and ongoing research projects examining the relative value of different clinical markers for separating cases of specific language impairment from ADHD are presented.

RESULTS

The best option for measuring core language impairments in a manner that does not potentially penalize individuals with ADHD is to focus assessment on key grammatical and verbal memory skills. Likewise, assessment of ADHD symptoms through standardized informant rating scales is optimized when they are adjusted for overlapping language and academic symptoms.

CONCLUSION

As a collection, these clinical metrics set the stage for further examination of potential linkages between attention deficits and language impairments.