The relationship between HIV testing, stigma, and health service usage

Intersectional stigma among Latino MSM and HIV prevention: barriers to HIV prevention and strategies to overcome the barriers

Latino men, especially Latino men who have sex with men (LMSM), experience disparities in HIV prevention. Lack of attention to key barriers to care, such as stigma, result in inequitable access to HIV prevention and care for LMSM. This paper describes how intersectional stigma and related factors act as barriers to HIV prevention among Latino men and proposes strategies to overcome these barriers. Qualitative data were collected via in-depth interviews (n = 15) with Latino men about HIV prevention services, mobile outreach, peer navigation and care coordination, and analyzed using rapid qualitative methods. Three key themes emerged: (1) HIV stigma as a barrier to HIV testing, (2) sexual minority stigma as a barrier to accessing HIV prevention services and (3) strategies for stigma reduction, such as confidentiality, comprehensive education about HIV and prevention, and empathy and warmth from staff/care providers. Identified stigmas were intersectional. Addressing and reducing stigma is critical to engaging Latino men in HIV prevention and care, and requires strategies sensitive to the Latino cultural context and community.

An innovation bootcamp model for developing youth-led HIV self-testing delivery strategies in Nigeria: post-designathon capacity building

Introduction

Many designathons, hackathons, and similar participatory events suffer from minimal training and support after the events. Responding to this need, we organized a health innovation bootcamp: an intensive, team-based apprenticeship training with research and entrepreneurial rigor among young people in Nigeria to develop HIV self-testing (HIVST) delivery strategies for Nigerian youth. The purpose of this paper was to describe an innovation bootcamp that aimed to develop HIVST delivery strategies for Nigerian youth.

Methods

The four-week, in-person innovation bootcamp, informed by youth participatory action research and comprised a series of workshops, took place in Lagos, Nigeria. The goal was to build research and entrepreneurial capacities among young people to develop and implement HIVST strategies. A qualitative content analysis informed by an adapted World Health Organization's HIVST delivery framework explored key elements of the proposed HIVST service delivery strategies developed at the bootcamp.

Results

Twenty participants, aged 18-24 years, from five teams completed the innovation bootcamp. The five teams developed HIV service delivery strategies that included an element of repacking HIVST kits to make them more appealing to young people. Other strategies that emerged included leveraging community engagement platforms (e.g., vocational skills training and youth community events) to promote HIVST, and the use of reward-referral system to encourage HIVST uptake among young people. All strategies included ways to ensure privacy protection for recipients of the HIVST delivery package.

Conclusion

This study demonstrated the feasibility and acceptability of the health innovation bootcamp model to create HIVST designed for and led by young people. This suggests a way to build capacity after participatory events to sustain youth-led research, which could have implications for post-designathon training.

Adverse Childhood Experiences and HIV-Related Stigma: A Quantitative Survey of Tanzanian Men, June 2019

Experiencing adverse childhood experiences (ACEs) may impact personal opinions, attitudes, and judgments, which can further result in HIV-related stigma. HIV-related stigma consequentially may impact HIV preventive measures such as HIV testing, pre-exposure prophylaxis uptake, and condom use. The extent to which ACEs influence HIV-related stigma perception has not been well studied. Therefore, the study aimed to examine the association between ACEs and perceived and interpersonal HIV-related stigma among Tanzanian HIV-negative men. Quantitative survey data were obtained from the Tanzania STEP (Self-Testing Education and Promotion) project established in four wards: Mabibo, Manzese, Tandale, and Mwanyanamala. A total of 507 men responded to the ACEs and HIV-related stigma questionnaires. ACEs were operationalized as types of ACEs (environmental, physical/psychological, sexual abuse) and ACE score (0 (reference) vs. 1, 2, 3, ≥ 4). Perceived HIV-related stigma was analyzed both as a binary (HIV stigma vs. no HIV stigma) and a continuous variable. Unadjusted and adjusted multinomial logistic and linear regression models were used to assess the associations between ACEs and HIV-related stigma. ACE types were associated with HIV stigma (b = 0.237, 95% CI [0.122-0.352], p =  < .0001). Findings of the adjusted multinomial logistic regression model show that experiencing one ACE (aOR = 1.9; p-value = 0.023), two ACEs (aOR = 1.8; p-value = 0.044), four or more ACEs (aOR = 4.1; p-value =  < 0.0001) were associated with greater perceived HIV-related stigma. Moreover, experiencing environmental (aOR = 8.6; p-value = 0.005), physical/psychological (aOR = 2.5; p-value = 0.004), and sexual abuse (aOR = 3.4; p-value =  < 0.0001) were associated with higher odds of HIV-related stigma. Our study findings suggest that those who experience childhood trauma are more likely to have a higher perception of HIV-related stigma. Intervention programs targeting HIV stigma should consider addressing ACEs entailing the behavioral and psychological impact of childhood trauma.

Willingness toward voluntary counseling and testing and associated factors among tuberculosis infected patients at public hospitals in Addis Ababa, Ethiopia

Background

Voluntary counseling and testing for HIV has proven to be a highly effective and cost-efficient approach in many locations, yielding excellent results. It serves as a gateway to a range of HIV-related services, including the provision of antiretroviral drugs. Therefore, this study was aimed to assess the willingness toward VCT and associated factors among TB infected patients at Public Hospitals in Addis Ababa, Ethiopia; 2023.

Methods

A facility-based cross-sectional study was undertaken at public hospitals in Addis Ababa from 1st to 30th of March 2023 with 235 participants using systematic random sampling. Trained data collectors employed a pretested data extraction tool for information gathering. Variables with p-value less than 0.05 in the multivariable logistic regression were considered statistically significant.

Results

The prevalence of willingness toward VCT among TB infected patients was (78.3, 95%CI: 72.8, 83.4). Individuals with a primary education level (AOR: 6.32; 95%CI: 1.65, 24.25), government employees (AOR: 5.85; 95%CI: 1.78, 19.22) and private employees (AOR: 3.35; 95%CI: 1.12, 10.01), good knowledge of VCT (AOR: 3.12; 95%CI: 1.36, 7.16), perceived a higher risk (AOR: 6.58; 95%CI: 2.44, 17.73) and perceived stigma (AOR: 14.95; 95%CI: 4.98, 44.91) were factors associated with willingness toward VCT.

Conclusion

The proportion of Tuberculosis infected patients expressing willingness toward Voluntary Counseling and Testing in this study was higher than in previous studies, it falls below the UNAIDS target of 90% of people knowing their HIV status. Notably, factors such as level of education, occupation, knowledge, perceived risk, and perceived stigma emerged as independent factors significantly associated with the willingness of TB-infected patients to undergo VCT. These findings underscore the importance of considering socio-demographic characteristics, knowledge levels, and psychosocial factors in designing strategies to enhance VCT acceptance among TB-infected individuals.

Mapping projects for expanding rapid HIV testing in key populations, Brazil, 2004-2021

The HIV/AIDS epidemic remains a persistent and real issue, especially in key populations such as men who have sex with men (MSM), travestis and transgender persons. Projects for expanding rapid HIV testing are strategic initiatives aimed at the earliest possible identification of individuals' serological status and thus early treatment, screening of sex partners, and upscaling of preventive actions to interrupt the transmission chain. This study thus maps, describes, and systematizes the projects for expanding rapid HIV testing implemented from 2004 to 2021 in Brazil, highlighting the on-going contribution of civil society organizations and discussing the interoperability and cooperation resulting from public governance processes. We selected 67 documents for analysis, including 30 scientific publications retrieved from electronic databases and 37 documents produced by government institutions and nongovernmental organizations (NGOs). Find Out (Fique Sabendo), I Want to Get Tested (Quero Fazer), The Time is Now (A Hora É Agora), Live Better Knowing (Viva Melhor Sabendo), and Live Better Knowing Young (Viva Melhor Sabendo Jovem) were the projects mapped. Results show that the projects have used strategies adapted to the key population, such as mobile testing units, peer education, and innovative community engagement approaches. Such actions were enabled by effective cooperation and interoperability between participating stakeholders, especially NGOs.

The Relative Influence of Perceived Immigration Laws and Consequences on HIV Testing Among US Latino Immigrants

The CDC recommends that persons aged 13-64 receive an HIV test at least once in their lifetime and that some groups test annually or more frequently. Nearly one-half of US Latino immigrants have never been tested for HIV. To the extent that immigration-related laws deter documented and undocumented immigrants from engaging in communicable disease control measures, these laws undermine public health efforts. 1750 noncitizen adult, sexually active, Spanish-speaking Latino immigrants across four cities in the US completed a cross-sectional survey assessing perceptions of immigration-related laws and immigration consequences related to HIV testing and diagnosis. Participants were recruited in-person by staff in community settings, through flyers posted in places frequented by Latino immigrants, and by word-of-mouth through snowball sampling. Outcomes were whether participants had ever received an HIV test and whether they tested in the previous 12 months. Multivariable analyses examined the relative contribution of perceived immigration laws and consequences on HIV testing behaviors when considering established predictors of HIV testing. Perceptions of HIV-related immigration laws and immigration consequences was a significant predictor of never having had an HIV test even when considered relative to common predictors of HIV testing. The influence of perceived immigration laws and consequences on testing in the previous 12 months was not significant in multivariable analysis. Perceived HIV-related immigration laws and consequences appear to be a substantial contributor to reluctance to be tested for HIV among Latino immigrants who have never been tested. Effective interventions should be developed to address these.

Socio-demographic and psycho-social determinants of HIV late presentation in Germany - results from the FindHIV study

Delayed HIV diagnosis at advanced stages of disease remains common (33%-64%). This analysis of the multi-center FindHIV study including newly diagnosed HIV-infected adults in Germany, focused on the potential role of socio-demographic and psychological factors on late diagnosis (formerly "late presentation", AIDS diagnosis or CD4 cells <350/µL). These data were collected from patient profiles, physician-patient interviews and questionnaires. Participating centers (n = 40) represented the diverse health care settings in HIV care and geographic regions. Of 706 newly diagnosed adults (92% male, median age 39 years) between 2019 and 2020, 55% (388/706) were diagnosed late with a median CD4 cell count of 147/µL; 20% (142/706) presented with AIDS. From the physicians' perspective, earlier diagnosis would have been possible in 45% of participants (late versus non-late presentation 58% versus 29%). The most common physician-perceived reason was an underestimated risk for HIV infection by the patient (37%). In multivariable logistic regression analysis, older age, sexual contacts with both sexes as possible route of HIV transmission, being married, and a poor level of knowledge about HIV treatment were found to be associated with a significantly elevated risk for late presentation. Education, employment status, sexual relations, migration background and personality traits were not.Trial registration: German Clinical Trials Register (DRKS00016351).

Psychometric Evaluation and Validation of the HIV Stigma Scale in Spanish among Men who have Sex with Men and Transgender Women

Stigma and discrimination toward the LGBTQ community is pervasive and negatively impacts health. Validated measures of stigma in Spanish, however, are limited and none have specifically validated HIV-related stigma in Spanish-speaking men who have sex with men (MSM) and transgender women (TGW) in resource-limited settings. The aim of this study is to evaluate the psychometric properties of a standardized HIV Stigma Scale, translated to Spanish, including its factor structure. Measures consisted of self-reported socio-demographic measures of age, sex, sexual orientation, education, employment status, income, living situation, HIV stigma, depressive symptoms, and social support. Using SPSS AMOS 24, a confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) of the 10-item Wright HIV Stigma Scale translated to Spanish was conducted in 359 MSM and TGW with HIV recruited from HIV clinics in Lima, Peru. The path model with three sub-scales: enacted, anticipated and internalized stigma, with eight items had an adequate fit to the data. The Spanish version (HIV Stigma Scale-ES) and its dimensions are similar to the ones validated in English for people with HIV (not MSM). Each construct was deemed to be reliable and showed good construct validity. Given the need to better understand and measure stigma in Spanish-speaking MSM, the HIV Stigma Scale-ES can be a useful tool to examine stigma.

Providers' Knowledge and Perceptions of Bariatric Surgery: a Systematic Review

Bariatric surgery remains underutilized despite its proven efficacy in the management of obesity. Provider perceptions of bariatric surgery are important to consider when discussing utilization rates. PubMed, SCOPUS, and OVID databases were searched in April 2023, and 40 published studies discussing providers' knowledge and perceptions of bariatric surgery were included. There were generally positive perceptions of the efficacy of bariatric surgery, although overestimations of surgical risks and postoperative complications were common. Providers' previous training was associated with knowledge and perceptions of bariatric surgery and familiarity with perioperative management across studies. These perceptions were also associated with referral rates, suggesting that inadequate provider knowledge may contribute to bariatric surgery underutilization. We advocate for increased bariatric surgery-related education throughout all stages of medical training and across specialties.

Person-centred language and HIV research: a cross-sectional examination of stigmatising terminology in medical literature

OBJECTIVE

We sought to quantify the use of person-centred language (PCL) in research journals that publish high volumes of HIV-related manuscripts.

DESIGN

In this cross-sectional study, we searched PubMed for HIV-related articles published between 1 January 2017 and 7 March 2021. After journal reduction and article randomisation, title and abstract screening was conducted among 500 studies in a masked, duplicate fashion.

METHODS

Studies that were included were systematically searched for prespecified, stigmatising terms, partial terms and phrases. Prevalence rates of non-person-centred terminology were totalled, and the total number of articles adherent to PCL guidelines were reported. Fisher's exact tests were used to determine associations between PCL adherence and article funding source, type of article, continent of origin and research, among others.

RESULTS

Among 237 studies included, 21.52% (51) of HIV-related publications in this cross-sectional analysis were found to be PCL adherent. Stigmatising labels such as 'HIV- or AIDS-infected' and 'HIV- or AIDS-person or patient' were used most frequently, with the former appearing in 57.38% of articles and the latter appearing in 30.80% of articles.

CONCLUSION

Despite numerous guidelines and requirements for the use of PCL in research, our findings suggest that an alarming number of HIV-related articles are not following these guidelines. This is concerning because this labelling likely contributes to the persistence of stigma in HIV-centred care. The intentional use of person-centred language in medical research has the potential to minimise the use of stigmatising language among medical professionals, in medical education, in medical records and patient encounters, and thus reduce stigma.

HIV testing and associated factors among men (15-64 years) in Eastern Africa: a multilevel analysis using the recent demographic and health survey

BACKGROUND

Despite significant efforts made to prevent human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) transmission, its testing coverage among men is still low and remains a major concern in low-income countries, particularly in East Africa. Therefore, this study aimed to determine the prevalence and associated factors of HIV testing among men in Eastern Africa.

METHODS

We analyzed secondary data using Demographic and Health Surveys (DHS) drawn from Eastern African countries. Besides, we merged DHS data from eleven Eastern African countries. In this study, we included secondary data from 113, 270 men aged 15-64 years. The outcome variable of this study was "ever been tested for HIV". Bivariable and multivariable multi-level logistic regression analyses were employed. In the bivariable analysis, variables having a P-value of less than 0.2 were selected for multivariable analysis. Lastly, variables with a P-value of < 0.05 in the multivariable analysis were declared as a significant factor associated with HIV testing and the adjusted odds ratio (AOR) with the 95% confidence interval (CI) were computed to determine the strength and direction of the association.

RESULTS

The overall prevalence of HIV testing among men in eastern Africa was 60.5% (95% CI: 60.2, 60.7%). In the multivariable multilevel analysis; participant's older age, being married, increased poverty, HIV knowledge, risky sexual behavior, and being covered by health insurance were positively associated with HIV testing coverage among men. However, men with higher community illiteracy levels, residing in rural settings, age at first sex ≥20 years, and higher stigmatized attitudes towards HIV/AIDS had lower odds of being tested for HIV.

CONCLUSION

The overall prevalence of HIV testing among men in eastern Africa was relatively higher than the previous studies. The study revealed that age, marital status, residence, age at first sex, community poverty level, community illiteracy level, HIV knowledge, HIV stigma indicator, risky sexual behavior, and health insurance were significantly associated with HIV testing coverage among men. Therefore, all the concerned stakeholders need to develop an integrated strategic plan through providing special attention to the factors that affect the uptake of HIV testing to raise awareness about the importance of HIV testing and to prevent HIV/AIDS transmission.

LGBTQ+ Affirming Care May Increase Awareness and Understanding of Undetectable = Untransmittable among Midlife and Older Gay and Bisexual Men in the US South

One of the most significant innovations in HIV prevention is the use of HIV treatment to prevent HIV transmission. This information has been disseminated as the "Undetectable = Untransmittable" (U = U) message. Despite evidence of effectiveness, U = U awareness, belief, and understanding remains limited in some communities. In this study, we examine whether having an LGBTQ affirming healthcare provider increases U = U awareness, belief, and understanding among midlife and older gay and bisexual men in the US south, an understudied and underserved population and region where new HIV infections are increasing. We used data from the Vanderbilt University Social Networks Aging and Policy Study (VUSNAPS) on sexual minority men aged 50 to 76 from four southern US states collected in 2020-2021. We found that only one in four men reported prior awareness of U = U, but awareness was higher among men who have an LGBTQ affirming provider. Among HIV negative men, those with an affirming provider were more likely to believe and understand U = U, have more accurate risk perception, and have ever tested for HIV. Improving access to LGBTQ affirming healthcare may improve U = U awareness, belief, and understanding, which could help to curb HIV transmission in the US south.

Using an Intersectional Framework to Understand the Challenges of Adopting Pre-exposure Prophylaxis (PrEP) Among Young Adult Black Women

Introduction

There is limited functional knowledge and utilization of pre-exposure prophylaxis (PrEP) among young adult Black cisgender women (YBW).

Methods

We conducted four focus groups with YBW using an intersectional framework to explore multiple levels of factors that impede YBW awareness, interest, and utilization of PrEP in conjunction with their sexual and reproductive healthcare needs.

Results

Influences at the cultural-environmental level included a lack of information and resources to access to PrEP and medical mistrust in the healthcare system. At the social normative level, influences included attitudes towards the long-term effects on sexual and reproductive health and self-efficacy to follow the PrEP regimen. At the proximal intrapersonal level, influences included anticipated HIV stigma from family and peers along with the fear of rejection from their main partners.

Conclusions

Translation of these results indicated that interventions to increase PrEP utilization and adherence among YBW will require multi-level strategies to address barriers to integrating HIV prevention into sexual and reproductive healthcare.

Digital Public Health Surveillance Tools for Alcohol Use and HIV Risk Behaviors

There is a need for real-time and predictive data on alcohol use both broadly and specific to HIV. However, substance use and HIV data often suffer from lag times in reporting as they are typically measured from surveys, clinical case visits and other methods requiring extensive time for collection and analysis. Social big data might help to address this problem and be used to provide near real-time assessments of people's alcohol use and/or alcohol. This manuscript describes three types of social data sources (i.e., social media data, internet search data, and wearable device data) that might be used in surveillance of alcohol and HIV, and then discusses the implications and potential of implementing them as additional tools for public health surveillance.

The PRO-TEST Program: HIV and Hepatitis C Services at the Parole Office

This article describes an on-site program for HIV and hepatitis C (hep-C) services at a parole office in an impoverished U.S. state. Both officers and their supervisees participated in the program. The officers attended workshops on the biology of HIV, and hep-C, and workplace safety, and collaborated in development and implementation of the services. The supervisees received HIV and hep-C education, voluntary testing, and referral for treatment after a positive diagnosis. Test results showed that few supervisees were positive for HIV and 16% of White individuals were diagnosed with hep-C. These findings support the need for on-site services for supervisees in community corrections.

Socio-demographic, clinical and service use determinants associated with HIV related stigma among people living with HIV/AIDS: a systematic review and meta-analysis

Background

Defining HIV-related stigma (HRS) can be problematic due to structural inequalities, cultural differences, discrimination by health care providers and the limitations of tools measuring stigma for people living with HIV (PLWH). This meta-analysis aimed to determine self-reported HRS and its association with socio-demographic and clinical determinants.

Methods

PubMed, Scopus, Web of Science, PsycInfo, SciELO and Cochrane electronic databases were searched and after reviewing for study duplicates, the full-text of selected articles were assessed for eligibility using Population, Intervention, Comparator, Outcomes criteria. We used fixed and random-effects meta-analysis models to estimate the pooled prevalence, pooled odds ratio (OR) and 95% confidence intervals.

Results

Thirty-one studies containing 10,475 participants met the eligibility criteria. Among the potential risk factors: age > 30 years (OR = 0.93, 95%CI = 0.86, 1), living with a spouse (OR = 0.07, 95%CI = 0.02, 0.17), CD4 count < 200 (OR = 0.5, 95% CI = 0.31, 0.68), medication adherence (OR = 0.96, 95%CI = 0.94, 0.99), poor access to care (OR = 0.79, 95%CI = 0.65, 0.93), time since diagnosis, and accessibility to care (OR = 0.37, 95%CI = 0.11, 0.86) were all significantly associated with self-reported HIV stigma among PWLH.

Conclusion

Stigma is correlated with numerous negative consequences in marginalised populations including PLWH. Considering the negative association that stigma has on HIV prevention and treatment targeted evidence-based stigma reduction interventions are recommended. Interventions that are focused on a particular group, such as healthcare professionals are warranted. Rigorously designed studies with specific and validated outcome measures associated with targeted interventions may help to improve the reduction of HRS for PLWH.

Various structural factors influenced early antiretroviral therapy initiation amongst HIV infected prisoners: a qualitative exploration in South Ethiopia

Background

Early initiation of antiretroviral therapy (ART) reduces the development of acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS), non-AIDS related comorbidities and mortality, and prevents transmission. However, the prevalence of delayed ART initiation amongst prisoners in sub-Saharan African countries is high and the contributing factors to this are relatively unknown.

Methods

Qualitative interviewing was employed to understand the prisoners’ lived world with regard to initiating ART and associated barriers and facilitators in the South Ethiopian prison system. We interviewed seven (five male and two female) inmates living with HIV (ILWH) and eleven stakeholders who had a role in human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) care provision for incarcerated people. A phenomenological approach was used to analyse the interview data in which meaning attributed to the lived experiences of the participants was abstracted.

Results

In this study, participants discussed both barriers to, and facilitators of, early ART initiation during incarceration. The barriers included a lack of access to voluntary counselling and testing (VCT) services, poor linkage to care due to insufficient health staff training, uncooperative prison security systems and loss of privacy regarding disclosure of HIV status. Insufficient health staff training and uncooperative prison security systems both contributed to a loss of patient privacy, ultimately resulting in treatment refusal. Although most participants described the importance of peer education and support for enhancing HIV testing and treatment programs amongst prisoners, there had been a decline in such interventions in the correctional facilities. Service providers suggested opportunities that a prison environment offers for identification and treatment of HIV infected individuals and implementation of peer education programs.

Conclusions

Our study identified crucial barriers to and facilitators of early ART initiation amongst prisoners, a key HIV priority population group. Interventions that address the barriers while strengthening the facilitators may enhance a greater utilisation of ART.

Supplementary Information

The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1186/s12889-021-11499-w.

Prevalence and associated factors of HIV testing among reproductive-age women in eastern Africa: multilevel analysis of demographic and health surveys

BACKGROUND

Despite efforts made to reduce the spread of the human immune-deficiency virus (HIV), its testing coverage remains low in low and middle-income countries (LMIC). Besides, information on factors associated with HIV counseling and testing among reproductive-age women is not sufficiently available. Therefore, this study was aimed to determine the pooled prevalence and factors associated with HIV testing among reproductive-age women in eastern Africa.

METHODS

Secondary data analysis was conducted based on the Demographic and Health Surveys (DHS) data conducted in East African countries. We pooled the most recent DHS surveys done in 11 East African countries. A total weighted sample of 183,411 reproductive-age women was included for this study. Both bivariable and multivariable multilevel logistic regression models were fitted. Variables with a p-value ≤0.2 in the bivariable analysis were selected for multivariable analysis. Finally, in the multivariable analysis, variables with a p-value ≤0.05 were considered as significant factors affecting HIV testing.

RESULTS

The pooled prevalence of HIV testing in eastern Africa was 66.92% (95%CI: 66.70, 67.13%). In the multivariable multilevel analysis factors such as the age of respondent, marital status, educational level, HIV knowledge, HIV stigma indicator, risky sexual behavior and women who visit a health facility were positively associated with HIV testing coverage among reproductive-age women. While women from rich and richest households, having multiple sexual partners, being from rural dwellers, late initiation of sex and higher community illiteracy level had a lower chance of being tested for HIV.

CONCLUSION

The pooled prevalence of HIV testing in eastern Africa was higher than most previous studies. Age of respondent, residence, wealth index, marital status, educational level, HIV knowledge, stigma indicator, risky sexual behavior, women who visit a health facility, multiple sexual partnerships, early initiation of sex and community illiteracy level were significantly associated with HIV testing. There should be an integrated strategic plan to give education about methods of HIV transmission and the implication of HIV testing and counseling. So all the stakeholders should have an integrated approach by giving special attention to the factors that hinder HIV testing to increase awareness regarding the benefit of HIV testing and counseling to control the spread of HIV/AIDS.

Addressing Barriers to HIV Point-of-Care Testing in Community Pharmacies

Significant numbers of human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) infections are transmitted unknowingly, making efforts to increase HIV testing accessibility crucial. As trusted healthcare providers, pharmacists can increase accessibility of HIV screening and referral services. However, challenges with lack of private counseling and testing space, need for training and education, lack of adequate staffing, heavy workload, and uncertainty supporting patients with reactive results have been previously reported by community pharmacists as barriers to offering HIV screening. The objective of this study was to investigate pharmacists' opinions of strategies for addressing these barriers. A survey was developed to gather information regarding steps that could be taken to increase pharmacist comfort and interest offering HIV point-of-care testing (POCT) services. Thirty pharmacies were contacted and representatives from twenty-six responded. Pharmacists reported that they were likely or very likely to offer HIV POCT if they were given the following: a 2 h training session on administering and interpreting HIV POCT (73%); a 4 h education session on a variety of HIV education topics (73%); training about couples testing, post-test counseling, and de-escalation techniques (58%); or a semi-annual CE training (58%). Pharmacist respondents were likely or very likely (81%) to implement HIV POCT if there was a protocol in place so that patients with a reactive screening would out be referred for diagnostic testing and if there was a script provided as a template for post-test counseling (81%). The majority of pharmacists (69%) also preferred the appointment-based model rather than a walk-in or combination option and preferred (77%) having 20-30 min of dedicated time with the patient to provide adequate testing, education, and counseling. By using these strategies to improve comfort and likelihood implementing HIV POCT, pharmacists can increase access to HIV testing and decrease the spread of HIV.

HIV Transmission Worry Predicts Discrimination Intentions Among Nursing Students and Ward Staff in India

Health facility stigma impedes HIV care and treatment. Worry of contracting HIV while caring for people living with HIV is a key driver of health facility stigma, however evidence for this relationship is largely cross-sectional. This study evaluates this relationship longitudinally amongst nursing students and ward staff in India. Worry of contracting HIV and other known predictors of intent to discriminate were collected at baseline and 6 months in 916 nursing students and 747 ward staff. Using fixed effects regression models, we assessed the effect of key predictors on intent to discriminate over a 6-month period. Worry of contracting HIV predicted intent to discriminate for nursing students and ward staff in care situations with low and high-risk for bodily fluid exposure, confirming prior cross-sectional study results and underscoring the importance of addressing worry of contracting HIV as part of health facility HIV stigma-reduction interventions.

Training student pharmacists to facilitate human immunodeficiency virus point-of-care testing

BACKGROUND AND PURPOSE

The advent of HIV point-of-care testing (POCT) has increased ease of access to HIV testing in the outpatient setting. As community pharmacy continues to expand, it is crucial that student pharmacists are exposed to POCT in the classroom so they are prepared for more intensive training as a pharmacist as they could be providing POCT in future practice. Our objective was to train student pharmacists to perform HIV POCT and educate patients on results and implications of testing. Educational activity and setting: Following a didactic HIV lecture, second-year student pharmacists learned to utilize the OraQuick ADVANCE Rapid HIV-½ Antibody Test in a one-hour workshop. Participants were then assessed using a 4-point Likert type scale during an individual, 10-min skills lab on their ability to provide POCT using sample kits and interpret simulated results. Data were analyzed using descriptive statistics.

FINDINGS

Forty-one students participated. Students showed competency when performing HIV POCT, as 92.7% of students were able to describe the test, and 97.6% of students were able to interpret the results correctly. Students scored a mean of 46.2 points overall (maximum of 50).

SUMMARY

Results suggest training student pharmacists to perform HIV POCT may better prepare them to administer the test and counsel patients on results in an outpatient setting. Future studies should examine the differences in the ability to perform POCT between pharmacists who received training as students and those who did not.

Integration and scale-up of efforts to measure and reduce HIV-related stigma: the experience of Thailand

OBJECTIVE(S)

To share Thailand's journey to develop and implement a national response to measure and tackle HIV-related stigma and discrimination and key implementation lessons learned.

DESIGN

A national response to stigma and discrimination including policy, measurement, and interventions. Intervention activities began in health facilities because of their key role in achieving health outcomes.

METHODS

Three building blocks were implemented: policy and its translation into a roadmap for action; measurement development and routinization to inform intervention design and track progress; and intervention development and implementation.

RESULTS

Thailand has successfully integrated a response to stigma and discrimination into its national HIV response. Stigma and discrimination-reduction was included as a key strategic goal for the first time in the 2014-2016 National AIDS Strategic Plan. A costed national stigma and discrimination-reduction roadmap incorporated into the operational plan provided clear strategic direction on how to move forward. The development of HIV-related stigma and discrimination measures and their incorporation into the national HIV monitoring and evaluation framework has led to routine data collection to monitor stigma and discrimination in health facilities, key populations, and the general population. Development and successful piloting of a health facility stigma-reduction package - the 3 × 4 approach - has led to national scale-up of the approach through a modified approach. Thailand continues to evolve and innovate the program, including developing new activities to tackle stigma and discrimination beyond the health system.

CONCLUSION

Thailand's experience demonstrates the key elements needed to make addressing stigma and discrimination a priority in the national HIV response.

Results from a difference-in-differences evaluation of health facility HIV and key population stigma-reduction interventions in Ghana

INTRODUCTION

Stigma undermines all aspects of a comprehensive HIV response, as reflected in recent global initiatives for stigma-reduction. Yet a commensurate response to systematically tackle stigma within country responses has not yet occurred, which may be due to the lack of sufficient evidence documenting evaluated stigma-reduction interventions. With stigma present in all life spheres, health facilities offer a logical starting point for developing and expanding stigma reduction interventions. This study evaluates the impact of a "total facility" stigma-reduction intervention on the drivers and manifestations of stigma and discrimination among health facility staff in Ghana.

METHODS

We evaluated the impact of a total facility stigma-reduction intervention by comparing five intervention to five comparable non-intervention health facilities in Ghana. Interventions began in September 2017. Data collection was in June 2017 and April 2018. The primary outcomes were composite indicators for three stigma drivers, self-reported stigmatizing avoidance behaviour, and observed discrimination. The principal intervention variable was whether the respondent worked at an intervention or comparison facility. We estimated intervention effects as differences-in-differences in each outcome, further adjusted using inverse probability of treatment weighting (IPTW).

RESULTS

We observed favourable intervention effects for all outcome domains except for stigmatizing attitudes. Preferring not to provide services to people living with HIV (PLHIV) or a key population member improved 11.1% more in intervention than comparison facility respondents (95% CI 3.2 to 19.0). Other significant improvements included knowledge of policies to protect against discrimination (difference-in-differences = 20.4%; 95% CI 12.7 to 28.0); belief that discrimination would be punished (11.2%; 95% CI 0.2 to 22.3); and knowledge of and belief in the adequacy of infection control policies (17.6%; 95% CI 8.3 to 26.9). Reported observation of stigma and discrimination incidents fell by 7.4 percentage points more among intervention than comparison facility respondents, though only marginally significant in the IPTW-adjusted model (p = 0.06). Respondents at intervention facilities were 19.0% (95% CI 12.2 to 25.8) more likely to report that staff behaviour towards PLHIV had improved over the last year than those at comparison facilities.

CONCLUSIONS

These results provide a foundation for scaling up health facility stigma-reduction within national HIV responses, though they should be accompanied by rigorous implementation science to ensure ongoing learning and adaptation for maximum effectiveness and long-term impact.

Social media as an emerging tool for reducing prescription opioid misuse risk factors

Interventions are urgently needed to reduce prescription opioid misuse risk factors, including anxiety and concomitant use of sedatives. However, only a limited number of randomized controlled opioid intervention trials have been conducted. We sought to determine whether an online behavior change/support community, compared to a control Facebook group, could reduce anxiety and opioid misuse among chronic pain patients. 51 high-risk non-cancer chronic pain patients were randomly assigned to either a Harnessing Online Peer Education (HOPE) peer-led online behavior change intervention or a control group (no peer leaders) on Facebook for 12 weeks. Inclusion criteria were: 18 years or older, a UCLA Health System patient, prescribed an opioid for non-cancer chronic pain between 3 and 12 months ago, and a score of ≥9 on the Current Opioid Misuse Measure (COMM) and/or concomitant use of benzodiazepines. Participation in the online community was voluntary. Patients completed baseline and follow-up assessments on Generalized Anxiety Disorder screener (GAD-7), COMM, and frequency of social media discussions about pain and opioid use. Compared to control group participants, intervention participants showed a baseline-to-follow-up decrease in anxiety, and more frequently used social media to discuss pain, prescription opioid use, coping strategies, places to seek help, and alternative therapies for pain. Both groups showed a baseline to follow-up decrease in COMM score. Preliminary results support the use an online community interventions as a low-cost tool to decrease risk for prescription opioid misuse and its complications.

HIV/AIDS and intersectional stigmas: Examining stigma related behaviours among medical students during service delivery

HIV/AIDS stigma remains a major global health issue with detrimental consequences for people with HIV/AIDS (PWHA), especially when manifested by health professionals. Research on HIV/AIDS stigma has documented negative attitudes towards PWHA among health professionals. However, fewer studies have examined how HIV/AIDS stigma is manifested behaviourally during clinical interactions and how it interacts with other stigmas (i.e. drug use, sexism, homophobia). This study aimed to: (1) examine behavioural manifestations of HIV/AIDS stigma among medical students during clinical interactions, and (2) explore HIV/AIDS stigma intersectionality with other stigmas. We implemented an experimental design using Standardised Patient (SP) simulations, observational techniques, and quantitative questionnaires. A total of 237 medical students engaged in SP encounters with three experimental scenarios: (1) PWHA infected via illegal drug use, (2) PWHA infected via unprotected heterosexual relations, (3) PWHA infected via unprotected homosexual relations. They also interacted with a person with common cold (control condition). Results evidenced statistically significant differences between the experimental and control simulation, with higher number of stigma behaviours manifested towards experimental conditions. Results also evidence higher HIV/AIDS stigma towards MSM when compared to the drug user and heterosexual woman SP's. We discuss the implications of these findings for training of medical students.

The influence of lotteries on employees' workplace HIV testing behaviour

The aim of the study was to understand how lottery incentives influenced the HIV counselling and testing (HCT) behaviour and behaviour intention of shop-floor workers who participated in a workplace HCT campaign initiative in two companies in the Nelson Mandela Bay municipality, South Africa. A post-test only quasi-experimental approach was used. The data were first collected, using a self-administered cross-sectional survey instrument, among the control group (n = 88) followed by the experimental group (n = 110) after the advent of HIV testing and lotteries was announced. HIV testing behaviour data were collected on the days of the HIV testing events. The theory of planned behaviour (TPB) was used as guiding theory. Principal component analysis (PCA), t- and chi-square tests, and logistic regression were conducted to analyse the data. A significant increase in the mean scores of the experimental as compared to the control condition for the subjective norm's construct (t = -3.55, p < 0.001) and HIV testing behaviour intention (χ² = 12.35, p < 0.001) was measured following the announcement of lottery incentives. The constructs of TPB explained 40% of the variance in HCT behaviour intention (R² = 0.40). The strongest predictor of behaviour intention was the subjective norm (B = 0.435 and p < 0.001), followed by the attitudinal component (B = 0.323 and p = 0.040). The announcement of lotteries made shop-floor workers develop a stronger intention to participate in workplace HIV testing through anticipation of stronger social support and encouragement. It was not possible to link behaviour intention to behaviour due to missing data. The findings point to the importance of providing workers with an opportunity to openly discuss HIV testing thus allowing mitigation of HIV stigma and discrimination and permitting HIV testing to become socially sanctioned and seen as part of a collective effort.

"They Treat you a Different Way:" Public Insurance, Stigma, and the Challenge to Quality Health Care

Under the Affordable Care Act, Medicaid Expansion programs are extending Medicaid eligibility and increasing access to care. However, stigma associated with public insurance coverage may importantly affect the nature and content of the health care beneficiaries receive. In this paper, we examine the health care stigma experiences described by a group of low-income public insurance beneficiaries. They perceive stigma as manifest in poor quality care and negative interpersonal interactions in the health care setting. Using an intersectional approach, we found that the stigma of public insurance was compounded with other sources of stigma including socioeconomic status, race, gender, and illness status. Experiences of stigma had important implications for how subjects evaluated the quality of care, their decisions impacting continuity of care, and their reported ability to access health care. We argue that stigma challenges the quality of care provided under public insurance and is thus a public health issue that should be addressed in Medicaid policy.

Availability, Accessibility, and Price of Rapid HIV Self-Tests, New York City Pharmacies, Summer 2013

We conducted an in-person survey of New York City (NYC) pharmacies to assess the availability, accessibility, and price of the over-the-counter, rapid HIV self-test kit. NYC pharmacies were stratified into high, moderate and low morbidity neighborhoods by the HIV diagnosis rate of the neighborhood in which the pharmacy was located. A random sample of 500 pharmacies was taken [250 from high morbidity neighborhoods (HighMN) and 250 from low morbidity neighborhoods (LowMN)]. Pharmacies were excluded if: closed during survey, non-retail, or >10 min walk from subway. Project staff visited pharmacies to determine kit availability (in pharmacy on day of survey), accessibility (not locked/behind counter), and price (marked on shelf/product). Of 361 pharmacies (161 LowMN; 200 HighMN), kits were available in 27 % and accessible in 10 %; there was no difference by neighborhood. Kits were most often kept behind the pharmacy counter; this was more common in HighMN than in LowMN. Kits were kept solely behind the pharmacy counter in 52 %. Median price was US $42.99 without variability across neighborhoods. The rapid HIV self-test had limited availability and access in retail pharmacies. The high median price measured suggests that cost remained a barrier.

Social-cultural factors of HIV-related stigma among the Chinese general population in Hong Kong

HIV-related stigma in the wider community compounds the suffering of people living with HIV (PLWH) and hampers effective HIV prevention and care. This study examines the level of public stigma toward PLWH in Hong Kong and associated social-cultural factors. A telephone survey was conducted in June-July 2016 with 1080 Chinese adults aged 18-94 randomly selected from the general population. The results indicate substantial degree of public stigma toward PLWH. Overall, 58.1% of the participants endorsed at least one statement indicating negative social judgment of PLWH. Over 40% attributed HIV infections to irresponsible behaviors and nearly 30% perceived most PLWH as promiscuous. About 20% considered HIV to be a punishment for bad behavior and believed that PLWH should feel ashamed of themselves. These statistics indicate that HIV-related stigma among the general Hong Kong population had no noticeable reduction in a decade but is lower than that among rural and urban populations in China. Our findings suggest that the lower stigma in Hong Kong may be linked to higher education levels rather than Hongkongers' more Westernized outlook. The results of a multiple regression analysis showed that education level (β = -.19), homophobia (β = .30), and conformity to norms (β = .14) were independent predictors of HIV-related stigma but not age, income, or cultural orientations. By differentiating between associated social-cultural factors, this study provides a more nuanced understanding of the layered nature of HIV-related stigma: not broadly grounded in religion or Chinese culture but stemming from more specific social-cultural beliefs - perceptions of norm violation and negative attitudes toward homosexuality, which were not mutually exclusive. These findings have implications for HIV-related stigma reduction by providing evidence for the importance of addressing homophobia. Existing HIV publicity activities should be re-examined for inadvertent contribution to the stigmatization process - particularly press conferences and prevention campaigns that reinforce negative stereotypes of gay/bisexual men and PLWH.

HIV Knowledge, Risk Behavior, Stigma, and Their Impact on HIV Testing among Asian American and Pacific Islanders: A Review of Literature

Asian American and Pacific Islanders (AAPIs) are the fastest growing population in the United States with documented increases in HIV rates. AAPIs are as likely as other racial/ethnic groups to engage in HIV-related risk behaviors, while being concomitantly less likely to have been HIV tested. Testing is a critical step in HIV prevention. Research points to various barriers to HIV-related testing including HIV knowledge and attitude and stigma. However, these factors and their impact among AAPIs are poorly understood. Myths about this population's "model minority" status compound AAPIs' sociocultural factors including English language proficiency, access to healthcare, and a culture of "silence" that negatively influences HIV-related research. In this article, the authors review the scientific literature on knowledge, risk behavior, and stigma to document the current state of research. Based on the review the authors offer a set of research, policy, and practice recommendations for social workers and other service providers working with AAPIs.

Vulnerability of wives of Nepalese labor migrants to HIV infection: Integrating quantitative and qualitative evidence

HIV risk is determined by the interaction between social and individual risk factors, but information about such factors among Nepalese women is not yet understood. Therefore, to assess the risk factors and vulnerability of the wives of Nepalese labor migrants to HIV infection, the authors conducted a mixed-methods study in which a descriptive qualitative study was embedded within a case-control study. Two hundred twenty-four wives of labor migrants were interviewed in the case-control study, and two focus group discussions (n = 8 and 9) were conducted in the qualitative study. The authors found that illiteracy, low socio-economic status, and gender inequality contributed to poor knowledge and poor sexual negotiation among the wives of labor migrants and increased their risk of HIV through unprotected sex. Among male labor migrants, illiteracy, low socio-economic status, migration to India before marriage, and alcohol consumption contributed to liaisons with female sex workers, increasing the risk of HIV to the men and their wives through unprotected sex. Both labor migrants and their wives feared disclosure of positive HIV status due to HIV stigma and thus were less likely to be tested for HIV. HIV prevention programs should consider the interaction among these risk factors when targeting labor migrants and their wives.

HIV Testing Among Spanish Youth: Analysis of the Mediating Role of the Big Five Personality and Other Psychological Factors

Early diagnosis of HIV improves the effectiveness of treatments and stops the progression of the disease. The influence of personality and other psychological variables in testing for HIV is analyzed. The first part of the study is composed of 4,929 young people (M age = 20.45, SD = 2.16). For the second part, young heterosexuals who participated in a broader project on HIV prevention were selected (n = 240, M age = 20.78, SD = 2.29). Only 23.3 % of the total sample have ever been tested for HIV antibodies. The main reason for not testing was fear of positive result (25.4 %). Statistically significant differences in Agreeableness (p = .027), Trust (p = .022) and Straightforwardness (p = .024) were found between HIV-tested and not HIV-tested youth. Trust explained 3.3 % of variance of HIV-test. Knowing barriers to testing and individual differences could be useful in developing preventive campaigns.

A Communicative Analysis of a Sexual Health Screening Intervention Conducted in a Low-income Housing Complex

Providing free HIV screening within public housing sites offers the potential for increased participation of at-risk populations. Residential-based screening, however, raises concerns about privacy because of the stigma attached to HIV/AIDS and even to the testing for HIV. This study examined the effectiveness of offering HIV screening within a public housing high-rise in upstate New York. Through interviews with both women who obtained testing and those who did not, this study explored the tension between convenience and privacy concerns. The findings suggest that offering HIV screening where people live could encourage participation in the screenings, as well as lead to a destigmatization of HIV testing over time. Some women chose to eschew the convenience of on-site testing in favor of a more private venue for screening, whereas some women responded positively to the accessibility of on-site testing, using communicative strategies to manage privacy concerns.

Perceived HIV-Associated Stigma among HIV-Seropositive Men: Psychometric Study of HIV Stigma Scale

Objectives

To assess the internal consistency and factor structure of the abridged Spanish version of the Berger HIV Stigma Scale (HSS-21), to provide evidence for its convergent and discriminant validity, and to describe perceived stigma in an urban population from northeast Mexico.

Methods

Seventy-five HIV-positive men who have sex with men (MSM) were recruited. Participants answered the Spanish versions of three Likert-type scales: HSS-21, Robsenberg’s self-esteem scale, and the abbreviated version of the Zung’s Depression Scale.

Results

HSS-21 showed high reliability and validity; its factor structure included four components: concern with public attitudes; negative self-image; disclosure concerns; and enacted stigma. The level of stigma was high in 27 out of 75 (36%) participants; nevertheless, the score found in the component related to disclosure concerns indicated high level of stigma in 68% of participants. The score of HSS-21 was positively correlated with the score of depression and negatively correlated with the score of self-esteem.

Conclusion

Results demonstrated high reliability for the HSS-21; correlations with other scales supported its validity. This scale demonstrated to be a practical tool for assessing stigma among Mexican HIV-positive MSM. High level of stigma was found only in the factor related to disclosure concerns.

Policy implications

Identifying HIV-associated stigma through a short, reliable, and validated instrument will allow the development of interventions that cope and manage stigma in HIV-positive MSM. HSS-21 distinguishes between different dimensions of stigma and will contribute to a better understanding of this phenomenon.

The rise of targeted HIV oral rapid testing in Australia

OBJECTIVE

To assess the performance and acceptability of the OraQuick Advance Rapid HIV-1/2 Antibody Test (ORT) in Australia.

DESIGN, PARTICIPANTS AND SETTING

Cross-sectional study of 1074 men who have sex with men (MSM) and individuals aged 18 years or older at high risk of acquiring HIV infection who attended five public HIV or sexual health services, two general practices and one community clinic in Sydney from 1 January to 31 December 2013.

INTERVENTION

One ORT confirmed by fourth-generation HIV enzyme immunoassay (EIA).

MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES

ORT sensitivity and specificity compared with EIA; acceptabiity of the ORT to participants.

RESULTS

83.5% of participants were MSM, 90.3% were aged under 50 years, and 9% had never been tested for HIV. There were 11 true-positive ORT results, two false-negative (non-reactive) results (both were early infections), and one false-positive (reactive) result (due to reader error). Sensitivity and specificity were 84.6% and 99.8%, respectively (compared with a sensitivity of 99.3% and specificity of 99.8% listed by the manufacturer). Three quarters of participants (74.0%; 730/987) found the ORT less stressful than venous sampling. Those who usually had tests at intervals of greater than 3 months deemed the ORT less stressful than those who had quarterly tests (77.5% v 64.8%; P<0.001). Nearly all participants (99.2%; 998/1006) would have an ORT again and 99.4% (994/1000) would recommend it to peers. Most participants (69.1%; 720/1042) felt ORT approval by Australia's Therapeutic Goods Administration (TGA) would encourage testing.

CONCLUSION

ORT sensitivity is reduced in early HIV infection. The test is highly acceptable and less stressful than venous sampling. Participants are keen to be tested with the ORT in future, would recommend it to peers and would have tests more frequently if the ORT were licensed. TGA approval of this test might slow increasing HIV infection rates among MSM and others by facilitating diagnosis and treatment.

Factors associated with access to antiretroviral therapy among people living with hiv in vientiane capital, lao pdr

Since 2001, antiretroviral therapy (ART) has been available for people living with HIV (PLHIV) in Lao People's Democratic Republic (PDR). Over 10 years of the ART program many HIV patients were found with advanced-stage AIDS in health care service facilities. This study aimed to examine factors associated with delayed access to ART among PLHIV in the capital of Vientiane. A cross-sectional study was conducted with 283 respondents (131 males and 152 females) aged 15 years or over. In this study, delayed access to ART was defined by a CD4 cell count of less than 350 cells/mm(3) at the first screening, or those who presented with advanced AIDS-related symptoms. The odds ratios (ORs) and 95% confidence intervals (CIs) were estimated by a logistic model. After adjustment, young people (OR=2.17; 95% CI: 1.00-4.68; p=0.049), low education (OR=0.23; 95% CI: 0.10-0.55; p=0.001) and duration between risk behavior and HIV test (OR=3.83; 95% CI: 1.22-12.00; p=0.021) were significantly associated with delayed access to ART. Low perception of high risk behaviors was one of the obstacles leading to delayed testing and inability to access ART. Almost all reported feeling self-stigma, and only 30.5% of men and 23.7% of women disclosed the HIV status to his/her partner/spouse. In conclusion, delayed access to ART was associated with individual factors and exposure to health care facility. In order to improve early detection HIV infection following access to ART, an improvement in perceptional knowledge of HIV, as well as reduction of HIV/AIDS-related stigma, might be needed.

Stigmatizing attitudes towards people living with HIV/AIDS: validation of a measurement scale

BACKGROUND

Although stigmatization has long been recognized as a major obstacle to HIV prevention. The lack of a valid and reliable measurement tool for stigmatization is a major gap in the research. This study aimed to: 1) develop a scale of stigmatizing attitudes towards people living with HIV (SAT-PLWHA-S) and 2) demonstrate its reliability and validity.

METHODS

French and English-speaking experts (n = 21) from different professional communities (academics, practitioners) assessed the clarity and relevance of the proposed items. The psychometric properties of the SAT-PLWHA-S were assessed with a random digit dial population based telephone survey (n = 1,500) of respondents in Quebec, Canada. Analyses included exploratory and confirmatory factor analyses, correlations, multiple linear regressions, t-tests, hypothesis testing of factorial structure invariance, and Cronbach's alpha.

RESULTS

Confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) supported a 27-item structure with seven factors: 1) concerns about occasional encounters; 2) avoidance of personal contact; 3) responsibility and blame, 4) liberalism, 5) non-discrimination, 6) confidentiality of seropositive status, and 7) criminalization of HIV transmission. Cronbach's alphas indicate satisfactory internal consistency. An assessment of concurrent validity using Pearson's correlation and multiple linear regression shows that homophobia and HIV transmission knowledge are significant determinants of stigmatizing attitudes toward PLHIV. Discriminant validity (t-test) results suggest that the SAT-PLWHA-S can differentiate attitudes between different groups and indicates invariant factor structure across language.

CONCLUSIONS

The results of this study suggest that the SAT-PLWHA-S is a reliable and valid tool for measuring stigmatizing attitudes toward PLHIV and that it can contribute to a deeper understanding of HIV stigma.

Acceptability of using electronic vending machines to deliver oral rapid HIV self-testing kits: a qualitative study

Introduction

Rates of unrecognized HIV infection are significantly higher among Latino and Black men who have sex with men (MSM). Policy makers have proposed that HIV self-testing kits and new methods for delivering self-testing could improve testing uptake among minority MSM. This study sought to conduct qualitative assessments with MSM of color to determine the acceptability of using electronic vending machines to dispense HIV self-testing kits.

Materials and Methods

African American and Latino MSM were recruited using a participant pool from an existing HIV prevention trial on Facebook. If participants expressed interest in using a vending machine to receive an HIV self-testing kit, they were emailed a 4-digit personal identification number (PIN) code to retrieve the test from the machine. We followed up with those who had tested to assess their willingness to participate in an interview about their experience.

Results

Twelve kits were dispensed and 8 interviews were conducted. In general, participants expressed that the vending machine was an acceptable HIV test delivery method due to its novelty and convenience.

Discussion

Acceptability of this delivery model for HIV testing kits was closely associated with three main factors: credibility, confidentiality, and convenience. Future research is needed to address issues, such as user-induced errors and costs, before scaling up the dispensing method.

A lottery incentive system to facilitate dialogue and social support for workplace HIV counselling and testing: a qualitative inquiry

Despite South African mid-sized companies' efforts to offer HIV counselling and testing (HCT) in the workplace, companies report relatively poor uptake rates. An urgent need for a range of different interventions aimed at increasing participation in workplace HCT has been identified. The aim of this study was to explore qualitatively the influence of a lottery incentive system (LIS) as an intervention to influence shop-floor workers' workplace HIV testing behaviour. A qualitative study was conducted among 17 shop-floor workers via convenience sampling in two mid-sized South African automotive manufacturing companies in which an LIS for HCT was implemented. The in-depth interviews employed a semi-structured interview schedule and thematic analysis was used to analyse the data. The interviews revealed that the LIS created excitement in the companies and renewed employees' personal interest in HCT. The excitement facilitated social interactions that resulted in a strong group cohesion pertaining to HCT that mitigated the burden of HIV stigma in the workplace. Open discussions allowed for the development of supportive social group pressure to seek HCT as a collective in anticipation of a reward. Lotteries were perceived as a supportive and innovative company approach to workplace HCT. The study identified important aspects for consideration by companies when using an LIS to enhance workplace HIV testing. The significance of inter- and intra-player dialogue in activating supportive social norms for HIV testing in collectivist African contexts was highlighted.

Evolution of HIV-related stigma in Spain between 2008 and 2012

To analyze the temporal evolution of HIV-related stigma in Spain between 2008 and 2012. We interviewed a representative sample of the Spanish population (N = 1619) through computer-assisted telephone interviews. The survey measures diverse facets of stigma and other-related variables. We compared the data of the 2012 survey with the result of the survey carried out in 2008. The degree of discomfort concerning people with HIV decreased significantly in 2012. Avoidance intention, negative feelings, the number of people who agreed with the implementation of harsh discriminatory policies, and the number of people who blame people with HIV were also lower in 2012. However, there are still misconceptions about HIV transmission. Attitudes of the Spanish population toward people with HIV have improved in the last four years. However, some attitudes and beliefs still need to be changed.

Electronic vending machines for dispensing rapid HIV self-testing kits: a case study

This short report evaluates the feasibility of using electronic vending machines for dispensing oral, fluid, rapid HIV self-testing kits in Los Angeles County. Feasibility criteria that needed to be addressed were defined as: (1) ability to find a manufacturer who would allow dispensing of HIV testing kits and could fit them to the dimensions of a vending machine, (2) ability to identify and address potential initial obstacles, trade-offs in choosing a machine location, and (3) ability to gain community approval for implementing this approach in a community setting. To address these issues, we contracted a vending machine company who could supply a customized, Internet-enabled machine that could dispense HIV kits and partnered with a local health center available to host the machine onsite and provide counseling to participants, if needed. Vending machines appear to be feasible technologies that can be used to distribute HIV testing kits.

Development of a personalized bidirectional text messaging tool for HIV adherence assessment and intervention among substance abusers

We describe the development of a two-way text messaging intervention tool for substance users who are non-adherent with HIV medications, and examine message flow data for feasibility and acceptability. The assessment and intervention tool, TxText, is fully automated, sending participants mood, substance use, and medication adherence queries by text message. Participants respond, the tool recognizes the category of response, and sends the personalized intervention message that participants designed in return. In 10months, the tool sent 16,547 messages (half initial, half follow-up) to 31 participants assigned to the TxText condition, who sent 6711 messages in response to the initial messages. Response rates to substance use (n=2370), medication (n=2918) and mood (n=4639) queries were 67, 69, and 64%, respectively. Responses indicating medication adherence, abstinence from substances, and good moods were more common than negative responses. The TxText tool can send messages daily over a 3month period, receive responses, and decode them to deliver personalized affirming or intervention messages. While we await the outcomes of a pilot randomized trial, the process analysis shows that TxText is acceptable and feasible for substance abusers with HIV, and may serve as a complement to HIV medical care.

HIV- and AIDS-Related Stigma: Psychosocial Aspects in a Representative Spanish Sample

This study evaluates the prevalence of HIV stigma in Spain and analyzes some variables that may affect its existence. In 2008, we conducted a computer-assisted telephone survey of 1607 people, representative of the Spanish population. Two-wave random stratified sampling was performed, first selecting the home and then the person, depending on the rates of age and sex. About 50% of the population feels discomfort about potential contact with people with HIV and tries to avoid it and 20% advocate discriminatory policies involving physical or social segregation of people with HIV. The belief that HIV is easily transmitted through social contact (15%) and blaming people with HIV for their disease (19.3%) are associated with stigmatization. Degree of proximity to people with HIV, political ideology, educational level, and age are also associated with the degree of stigmatization. According to these results, we suggest that, in order to reduce stigma, we need to modify the erroneous beliefs about the transmission pathways, decrease attributions of blame to people with HIV, and increase contact with them. These interventions should particularly target older people, people with a low educational level, and people with a more conservative political ideology.

Evidence for the reliability and validity of the internalized AIDS-related stigma scale in rural Uganda

HIV infection remains highly stigmatized throughout sub-Saharan Africa despite the increasing availability of treatment. HIV-related stigma is commonly described to be highly prevalent in East Africa, but none of these studies have employed validated scales for measurement. We used data from 456 people living with HIV/AIDS in rural Uganda to validate the six-item Internalized AIDS-Related Stigma Scale. The scale demonstrated acceptable internal consistency (Cronbach's alpha = 0.73) and time stability. Exploratory factor analysis indicated the presence of a single factor. Construct validity was supported by observations that the scale was correlated with related constructs such as depression and mental health-related quality of life. The scale was able to discriminate between groups of persons who were different in terms of treatment status and their experience of HIV-related self-blame. Taken together, these findings suggest that the Internalized AIDS-Related Stigma Scale may be a useful tool for socio-behavioral HIV research.

Behavioral evidence of HIV testing stigma

To avoid HIV testing stigma, people may engage in non-stigmatized behaviors to conceal their interest in HIV testing. We examined 165,828 outpatient visits in a 2002-2007 national survey to explore whether people receiving an HIV diagnostic test, compared to people receiving non-stigmatized, diagnostics tests (mammography and blood pressure testing), listed their interest in testing more frequently as a non-primary reason for visit, listed a greater number of reasons for visiting the clinic, and listed more reasons for visit unrelated to the testing performed. Among people who reported HIV testing as a reason for visit, 42.39% requested HIV testing as a non-primary reason for visit (mammography: 13.77%; blood pressure: 18.01%), and on average listed more reasons for visiting the clinic. The odds of requesting additional unrelated services for HIV testing patients was almost 5 times that of patients requesting blood pressure tests and over 20 times the odds of mammography patients. Together, we interpret these results as initial behavioral evidence of people's avoidance of HIV stigma in health care settings. We hope that this manuscript serves as a call to action for future research exploring causal relationships between health service usage and HIV stigma.