Effect of thermal treatment on meat proteins with special reference to heterocyclic aromatic amines (HAAs)

Effects of different thermal methods and degrees on the flavor of channel catfish (Ictalurus punctatus) fillets: Fatty acids, volatile flavor and taste compounds

The effects of different thermal processing conditions on the flavor profiles of channel catfish were evaluated in terms of fatty acids, volatile flavor and taste compounds using steaming, boiling, roasting, and microwaving with different degrees. After thermal processing, 72 volatile organic compounds were detected, including 20 hydrocarbons, 5 ketones, 20 aldehydes, 7 heterocyclic compounds, 12 alcohols and others. Meanwhile, the contents of unsaturated fatty acids like oleic acid and linoleic showed a significant decline due to their heat-sensitive properties. With regard to taste compounds, thermal processing contributed to umami amino acids and free nucleotides conversion, with the initial glutamate and IMP contents of 15.87 and 164.91 mg/100 g in raw samples mainly increasing by 2.8-10.3 and 14.4-105.5 mg/100 g in processed ones. Compared to other methods, microwaving had limited effects on flavor compounds, and steaming and roasting had better performance to improve the flavor complexity of channel catfish.

Food process contaminants: formation, occurrence, risk assessment and mitigation strategies - a review

Thermal treatment of food can lead to the formation of potentially harmful chemicals, known as process contaminants. These are adventitious contaminants that are formed in food during processing and preparation. Various food processing techniques, such as heating, drying, grilling, and fermentation, can generate hazardous chemicals such as acrylamide (AA), advanced glycation end products (AGEs), heterocyclic aromatic amines (HAAs), furan, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), N-nitroso compounds (NOCs), monochloropropane diols (MCPD) and their esters (MCPDE) which can be detrimental to human health. Despite efforts to prevent the formation of these compounds during processing, eliminating them is often challenging due to their unknown formation mechanisms. It is critical to identify the potential harm to human health in processed food and understand the mechanisms by which harmful compounds form during processing, as prolonged exposure to these toxic compounds can lead to health problems. Various mitigation strategies, such as the use of diverse pre- and post-processing treatments, product reformulation, additives, variable process conditions, and novel integrated processing techniques, have been proposed to control these food hazards. In this review, we summarize the formation and occurrence, the potential for harm to human health produced by process contaminants in food, and potential mitigation strategies to minimize their impact.

Effect of Chinese quince proanthocyanidins on the inhibition of heterocyclic amines and quality of fried chicken meatballs and tofu

Heterocyclic amines (HCAs) have potential carcinogenic and mutagenic activity and are generated in cooked protein-rich foods. Adding proanthocyanidins (PAs) to these foods before frying is an effective way to reduce HCAs. In this study, polymeric PAs (PPA) and ultrasound-assisted acid-catalyzed/catechin nucleophilic depolymerized PAs (UAPA, a type of oligomeric PA) were prepared from Chinese quince fruits (CQF). Different levels of PPA and UAPA (0.05%, 0.1%, and 0.15%) were added to chicken meatballs and tofu; then these foods were fried, and the content of HCAs in them after frying was investigated. The results showed that PPA and, particularly, UAPA significantly inhibited the formation of HCAs in fried meatballs and tofu, and this inhibition was dose-dependent. The inhibition of HCAs by both PPA and UAPA was stronger in the chicken meatballs than in fried tofu. The level of total HCAs was significantly reduced by 57.84% (from 11.93 to 5.03 ng/g) after treatment of meatballs with 0.15% UAPA, with inhibition rates of 78.94%, 50.37%, and 17.81% for norharman, harman, and 2-amino-1-methyl-6-phenylimidazo[4,5-b]pyridine (PhIP), respectively. Of note, there was a negative correlation between water, lipid, protein, creatine, and glucose content and HCA content in the crust, interior, and whole (crust-plus-interior) measurements of all fried samples. Interestingly, PPA and UAPA were found more effective in inhibiting HCAs in the exterior crust than in the interior of the fried chicken meatballs. These results provide evidence that further studies on the reduction of the formation of harmful HCAs in fried foods by adding CQF PAs could be valuable to the fried food industry. PRACTICAL APPLICATION: Chinese quince proanthocyanidins treatments significantly inhibited the generation of heterocyclic amines (HCAs) in chicken meatballs and tofu when deep-fried. These results suggest that Chinese quince proanthocyanidins can be used as natural food additive for reducing HCAs in fried foods, laying the foundation for using Chinese quince fruit proanthocyanidins for HCA inhibition in the food industry.

Effects of Heating Treatment on the Physicochemical and Volatile Flavor Properties of Argentinian Shortfin Squid (Illex argentinus)

In this study, the effect of different heating temperatures (80, 90, 100, and 121 °C) on the physicochemical and volatile flavor properties of fried mantles (Argentinian shortfin) was investigated. The squid mantles were soaked in a maltose syrup solution (20% w/v) for 10 s and fried in soybean oil for 10 s (160 °C), vacuum-packed, and processed at different temperatures for 10 min. Then, the squid mantles were subjected to colorimetric analysis, sensory evaluation, free amino acid analysis, and texture profile analysis. In addition, the volatile organic compounds (VOCs) in the squid mantles were analyzed. The results revealed that lower treating temperatures (80 and 90 °C) improved the chromatic and textural properties, along with organoleptic perception. Additionally, the content of amino acid in the squid mantles treated at 121 °C was significantly lower than that of the samples treated at other temperatures (p < 0.05). Headspace-gas chromatography-ion mobility spectrometry (HS-GC-IMS) was used to detect 41 VOCs, including their monomers and dimers. Among these detected VOCs, the contents of alcohols, ketones, and pyrazines were positively correlated with temperature. However, the content of aldehydes in the squid mantles gradually decreased as the heating temperature increased (p < 0.05). The combined HS-GC-IMS and E-nose results revealed that the lower temperatures (80 and 90 °C) were more suitable for flavor development and practical processing. This study provides valuable information for properly controlling the heating process of squid products, as well as flavor and practical applications for the aquatic industry.

Paprika extract as a natural antioxidant in cold-stored pork patties: Effect on oxidative stability and heterocyclic amines inhibition

In this study, we compared the degree of oxidation of pork patties refrigerated at 7 °C for 0, 7, and 14 days and the content of 10 types of heterocyclic amines (HCAs) after heating. The pork patties used in the study were added with 0.7 mg sodium nitrite (SN) and 5 mg paprika extract (PE), respectively. IQx (2-Amino-3-methyl-imidazo[4,5-f]-quinoxaline), MeIQx (2-Amino-3, 8-dimethyl-imidazo[4,5-f]-quinoxaline), PhIP (2-Amino-1-methyl-6-phenyl-imidazo[4,5-b]-pyridine), and Harman (1-Methyl-9H-pyrido[4,3-b]-indole) contents increased with increasing storage periods of treatment. On the other hand, HCAs production in SN and PE treatments were suppressed over the storage period, with IQ (2-Amino-3-methyl-imidazo[4,5-f]-quinoline) and Aαc (2-Amino-9H-dipyrido[2,3-b]-indole) being suppressed significantly (P < 0.05). The control's pH, cooking loss, lipid, and protein oxidation were higher than SN and PE-treated patties at 14 d (P < 0.05). These differences affect the formation of HCAs. PLS-DA showed a strong correlation between protein oxidation and IQx, Harman, 4,8-DiMelQx (2-Amino-3, 4, 8-trimethyl-imidazo[4,5-f]-quinoxaline), PhIP, and MeIQx, while lipid oxidation correlated with IQx, Harman, and PhIP. Both SN and PE showed HCAs inhibitory activity and exhibited oxidative stability during storage.

The effect of thermal times of circulating non-fried roast technique on the formation of (non)volatile compounds in roasted mutton by multi-chromatography techniques and heat transfer analysis

The circulating non-fried roast (CNR) technology was firstly applied to roast mutton. The formation of (non)volatile compounds in the mutton roasted for 0-15 min was investigated. The samples roasted at varying times were discriminated using GC-O-MS and multivariate data analysis. A total of 40 volatile compounds were observed, in which 17 compounds were considered as key odorants with odor activity values (OAVs) higher than 1, such as dimethyl trisulfide and 2-ethyl-3,5-dimethylpyrazine. Composition and concentrations of volatile compounds were significantly changed during the process. The key nonvolatile compounds that contributed to flavor were 5'-inosine monophosphate (5'-IMP) and glutamic acid based on taste active values (TAVs) greater than 1. The reduced concentrations of most free amino acids and 5'-nucleotides decreased the equivalent umami concentrations (EUC). The higher thermal conductivity, lower thermal diffusivity and water activity were responsible for the formation of volatile compounds with increased roasting times. The CNR technology was an efficient tool to roast meat products.

The potentials and challenges of using fermentation to improve the sensory quality of plant-based meat analogs

Despite the advancements made in improving the quality of plant-based meat substitutes, more work needs to be done to match the texture, appearance, and flavor of real meat. This review aims to cover the sensory quality constraints of plant-based meat analogs and provides fermentation as a sustainable approach to push these boundaries. Plant-based meat analogs have been observed to have weak and soft textural quality, poor mouth feel, an unstable color, and unpleasant and beany flavors in some cases, necessitating the search for efficient novel technologies. A wide range of microorganisms, including bacteria such as Lactobacillus acidophilus and Lactiplantibacillus plantarum, as well as fungi like Fusarium venenatum and Neurospora intermedia, have improved the product texture to mimic fibrous meat structures. Additionally, the chewiness and hardness of the resulting meat analogs have been further improved through the use of Bacillus subtilis. However, excessive fermentation may result in a decrease in the final product's firmness and produce a slimy texture. Similarly, several microbial metabolites can mimic the color and flavor of meat, with some concerns. It appears that fermentation is a promising approach to modulating the sensory profiles of plant-derived meat ingredients without adverse consequences. In addition, the technology of starter cultures can be optimized and introduced as a new strategy to enhance the organoleptic properties of plant-based meat while still meeting the needs of an expanding and sustainable economy.

The inhibitory mechanism of 2-amino-3,8-dimethylimidazo [4,5-f] quinoxaline (MeIQx) formation by ultraviolet-gallic acid (UV-GA) during the oil-frying process of squid

The inhibitory effect of ultraviolet-gallic acid (UV-GA) on carbonyl valence and intermediates and precursors of 2-amino-3,8-dimethylimidazo [4,5-f] quinoxaline (MeIQx) was investigated to futher clarify the inhibitory mechanism for safety control the quality of oil-fried squid. Ultraviolet C-treated gallic acid (UVC-GA) and ultraviolet B-treated gallic acid (UVB-GA) were produced by ultraviolet 225 nm of band C and 300 nm of band B, respectively. The MeIQx contents in oil-fried squid were significantly higher, and UVC-GA and UVB-GA could significantly inhibit the MeIQx formation and the formation rates of carbonyl valence and precursors (threonine (Thr), creatinine, and glucose). The UVB-GA inhibited formaldehyde formation, while UVC-GA significantly reduced the formaldehyde, acetaldehyde, and 2,5-dimethyl pyrazine contents. In conculsion, UV-GA reduced carbonyl produced from the lipid oxidation to further weaken the catalysis of carbonyl, rendering the MeIQx precursor degrading into the intermediates during Strecker degradation. Thus, the MeIQx formation was inhibited.

Carbonyl-trapping by phenolics and the inhibition of the formation of carcinogenic heterocyclic aromatic amines with the structure of aminoimidazoazaarene in beef patties

Carcinogenic heterocyclic aromatic amines (HAAs) with the structure of aminoimidazoazaarene (PhIP, MeIQx, IQ, and MeIQ) are produced by reaction of creatin(in)e, ammonia, and reactive carbonyls (phenylacetaldehyde, acrolein, and crotonaldehyde). In an attempt to provide efficient methodologies for HAA reduction in beef patties, this study: identified phloroglucinol as the most efficient phenolic to reduce HAA formation (76-96% inhibition); isolated and characterized by NMR and MS phloroglucinol/phenylcetaldehyde and phloroglucinol/acrolein adducts; and determined by LC-MS/MS adduct formation in beef patties treated with phloroglucinol. Obtained results suggested that addition of trihydroxyphenols (including phloroglucinol) to beef patties should decrease HAA formation. This was confirmed by both immersing beef patties in apple (or pear) juice before cooking (>90% inhibition) and including wheat bran in patty recipe. All these results confirm the key role of reactive carbonyls in the formation of carcinogenic HAAs and propose carbonyl-trapping as a way for controlling HAA formation in food products.

A qualitative study among youth in Malaysia: What drives the purchase of roasted chicken products by young people seeking a better quality of life?

This study was aimed to assess internal and external factors related to youths' consumption behavior towards roasted chicken products. Qualitative interview was conducted with 30 selected respondents aged 15-20, 21-25 and 26 to 30 from a university and two high schools at Serdang, Selangor. An audio recorder was used to gather qualitative data over two months. A thematic content analysis was applied to identify the needed information, comprising of transcription, coding and theme development. Results disclosed that respondents in this study implied physiological attributes (delicious, tastiness, crispy texture, good flavour, brown colour, smoky aroma, own eating preference), personality attributes (availability, good hygiene, health concern), reference groups (friends, family members) and culture (family lifestyle, early life feeding behaviour) as significant factors that drive their purchase of roasted chicken products. This study's results also disclosed that the most prioritized factors were brown colour, health concern, friends and family lifestyle. The results of this study further identify physiological and personality attributes as internal factors, and reference groups and culture as external factors. Hence, this study concluded that internal factors (physiological, personality) and external factors (reference groups, culture) as essential factors in influencing youths' purchase of roasted chicken products. Thus, this study's outcome is beneficial for the vendors to boost their sales as well as promoting better ways of selecting foods to reduce the risk of non-communicable diseases amongst the youth in Malaysia.

Mutagens in commercial food processing and its microbial transformation

Mutagens are chemical molecules that have the ability to damage DNA. Mutagens can enter into our body upon consumption of improperly cooked or processed food products such as high temperature or prolonged cooking duration. Mutagens are found in the food products can be classified into N-nitroso derivatives, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, and heterocyclic aromatic amines. Food products with high fat and protein content are more prone to mutagenic formation. Microorganisms were found to be a potent weapon in the fight against various mutagens through biotransformation. Therefore, searching for the microorganisms which have the ability to transform mutagens and the development of techniques for the identification as well as detection of mutagens in food products is much needed. In the future, methods for the identification and detection of these mutagens as well as the identification of new and more potent microorganisms which can transform mutagens into non-mutagens are much needed.

Novel insights from protein degradation: deciphering the dynamic evolution of biogenic amines as a quality indicator in pork during storage

Biogenic amines (BAs) have drawn great attention as important markers for monitoring food quality. However, the BAs content in protein degradation profiles during pork storage was inadequately investigated. In this work, the Longissimus lumborum and Breast and flank of pork were collected, and their peptides contents, free amino acids (FAAs) contents, BAs contents, and several characteristic physicochemical indexes were monitored during storage at 4 °C. As a result, the differences of nutritional components in the Longissimus lumborum and Breast and flank could not affect the shelf life of refrigerated pork. There are 161 small peptides in the Longissimus lumborum of pork identified by LC-MS. As verified, arginine, glutamic acid, valine, and alanine could serve as four indicative amino acids during protein degradation in pork, and the arginine degradation pathway is more complex. Redundancy analysis confirmed that putrescine and cadaverine were significantly related to the precursor FAAs content, and their sum value could be used as a novel quality indicator instead of the biogenic amine index (BAI). Finally, the above prediction was also verified by the other species (beef, mutton and chicken) to improve the index system of meat quality evaluation in cold chain logistics.

Propolis extract reduces heterocyclic aromatic amine formation in chicken thigh meat

1. The objective of the present study was to examine the effect of propolis extract on reducing the formation of carcinogenic/mutagenic heterocyclic aromatic amines (HAAs), thereby minimising dietary exposure in human consumers.2. Chicken thigh meat samples were marinated with various concentrations (0%, 0.25%, 0.5% and 1%) of propolis extract, and cooked in a pan at 150°C or 200°C. Proximate composition, pH, lipid oxidation, creatine, creatinine content and twelve HAA levels of samples were analysed.3. Varying levels of IQx (≤35.44 ng/g), MeIQx (≤0.58 ng/g), MeIQ (≤1.60 ng/g), 7,8-DiMeIQx (≤0.83 ng/g), 4,8-DiMeIQx (≤0.75 ng/g), Harman (≤5.54 ng/g), Trp-P-2 (≤1.77 ng/g), PhIP (≤1.61 ng/g) and AαC (≤0.93 ng/g) were quantified in control samples. Total HAA levels ranged between 2.83 and 47.26 ng/g across all samples. Propolis extract decreased the levels of total HAAs by 41.2-89.4% and 49.4-91.4% at 150°C and 200°C, respectively.4. The results demonstrated that propolis extract marination might be an effective strategy to reduce the dietary exposure of HAAs via mitigating their formation in chicken thigh meat.

Dynamic alterations in protein, sensory, chemical, and oxidative properties occurring in meat during thermal and non-thermal processing techniques: A comprehensive review

Meat processing represents an inevitable part of meat and meat products preparation for human consumption. Both thermal and non-thermal processing techniques, both commercial and domestic, are able to induce chemical and muscle's proteins modification which can have implication on oxidative and sensory meat characteristics. Consumers' necessity for minimally processed foods has paved a successful way to unprecedented exploration into various novel non-thermal food processing techniques. Processing of meat can have serious implications on its nutritional profile and digestibility of meat proteins in the digestive system. A plethora of food processing techniques can potentially induce alterations in the protein structure, palatability, bioavailability and digestibility via various phenomena predominantly denaturation and Maillard reaction. Apart from these, sensory attributes such as color, crispness, hardness, and total acceptance get adversely affected during various thermal treatments in meat. A major incentive in the adoption of non-thermal food processing is its energy efficiency. Considering this, several non-thermal processing techniques have been developed for evading the effects of conventional thermal treatments on food materials with respect to Maillard reactions, color changes, and off-flavor development. Few significant non-thermal processing techniques, such as microwave heating, comminution, and enzyme addition can positively affect protein digestibility as well as enhance the value of the final product. Furthermore, ultrasound, irradiation, high-pressure processing, and pulsed electric fields are other pivotal non-thermal food processing technologies in meat and meat-related products. The present review examines how different thermal and non-thermal processing techniques, such as sous-vide, microwave, stewing, roasting, boiling, frying, grilling, and steam cooking, affect meat proteins, chemical composition, oxidation, and sensory profile.

Visualized detection of quality change of cooked beef with condiments by hyperspectral imaging technique

The heat treatment and seasoning of meat are indispensable before its consumption. In this work, the spectral characteristics of cooked meat and condiments were analysed by hyperspectral imaging (HSI) technology. The spectral reflectance of spices was significantly lower than that of meat protein, and that the spectral reflectance of protein regularly increased upon heating at 800-956 nm range. PCA pre-process and SVM models were used to predict beef moisture (R 2 = 0.912) and tenderness (R 2 = 0.771) based on 100 beef data. Mapping technology clearly showed the dynamic change of meat tenderness during heating, and the performance of 3D mapping was better than that of 2D mapping. Based on 750 nm/900 nm ratio image and machine-vision method, spice uniformity was accurately calculated. Thus, the quality of cooked meat and condiments distribution can be simultaneously evaluated by HSI. This technology can be used in the intelligent production of complex meat products in the future.

Differences in flavor characteristics of frozen surimi products reheated by microwave, water boiling, steaming, and frying

This study investigated the effects of different reheating methods (microwave, water boiling, steaming, and frying) on the flavor of surimi gels with untreated sample as control. Electronic nose and electronic tongue results showed that microwave could better maintain the original odor and taste characteristics of surimi gels. Additionally, 43 kinds of volatile aroma compounds were detected in surimi gels, including aldehydes, alcohols, ketones, heterocycles, and esters. The aroma fingerprints of surimi gels were similar between water boiling and steaming and between microwave and the control, whereas frying showed the most unique aroma profile possibly related to the highest TBARS values. The total contents of nucleotides, carnosine and lactic acid were significantly higher in fried samples relative to other samples. In conclusion, all the reheating treatments can alter the flavor of samples, but microwave showed better performance in sensory evaluation and maintaining the original flavor of surimi gels.

Dissecting grilled red and white meat flavor: Its characteristics, production mechanisms, influencing factors and chemical hazards

Meat flavor is composed of a complex mixture of volatile compounds developed as a result of heat driven multi-directional reactions. Typical reactions include Maillard reaction, lipid oxidation, as well as nitrogenous compounds degradation. Such complex flavor is characterized by a rich variety of volatile species, and to strongly influence consumer's preference. The objective of this review is to holistically dissect the flavor characteristic for cooked meat products with special emphasis on grilling and the factors that affect their production to ensure best quality and or safety levels. The review also highlights different analytical techniques used for the detection of flavor compounds in grilled meat. This comprehensive literature research critically analyze grilled flavor derived from heat mediated reactions, with a special emphasis on key flavors or hazard chemicals and their production mechanism. The various influencing factors i.e., grilling temperature, meat, food components, animal ante-mortem factors and food additives are summarized.

Spices, Condiments, Extra Virgin Olive Oil and Aromas as Not Only Flavorings, but Precious Allies for Our Wellbeing

Spices, condiments and extra virgin olive oil (EVOO) are crucial components of human history and nutrition. They are substances added to foods to improve flavor and taste. Many of them are used not only to flavor foods, but also in traditional medicine and cosmetics. They have antioxidant, antiviral, antibiotic, anticoagulant and antiinflammatory properties and exciting potential for preventing chronic degenerative diseases such as cardiomyopathy and cancer when used in the daily diet. Research and development in this particular field are deeply rooted as the consumer inclination towards natural products is significant. It is essential to let consumers know the beneficial effects of the daily consumption of spices, condiments and extra virgin olive oil so that they can choose them based on effects proven by scientific works and not by the mere illusion that plant products are suitable only because they are natural and not chemicals. The study begins with the definition of spices, condiments and extra virgin olive oil. It continues by describing the pathologies that can be prevented with a spicy diet and it concludes by considering the molecules responsible for the beneficial effects on human health (phytochemical) and their eventual transformation when cooked.

I. A, Elbehi AM, Cash E, Adeyeye A. The Impact of Diet on the Involvement of Non-Coding RNAs, Extracellular Vesicles, and Gut Microbiome-Virome in Colorectal Cancer Initiation and Progression

Cancer is the major cause of morbidity and mortality in the world today. The third most common cancer and which is most diet related is colorectal cancer (CRC). Although there is complexity and limited understanding in the link between diet and CRC, the advancement in research methods have demonstrated the involvement of non-coding RNAs (ncRNAs) as key regulators of gene expression. MicroRNAs (miRNAs) which are a class of ncRNAs are key players in cancer related pathways in the context of dietary modulation. The involvement of ncRNA in cancer progression has recently been clarified throughout the last decade. ncRNAs are involved in biological processes relating to tumor onset and progression. The advances in research have given insights into cell to cell communication, by highlighting the pivotal involvement of extracellular vesicle (EV) associated-ncRNAs in tumorigenesis. The abundance and stability of EV associated ncRNAs act as a new diagnostic and therapeutic target for cancer. The understanding of the deranging of these molecules in cancer can give access to modulating the expression of the ncRNAs, thereby influencing the cancer phenotype. Food derived exosomes/vesicles (FDE) are gaining interest in the implication of exosomes in cell-cell communication with little or no understanding to date on the role FDE plays. There are resident microbiota in the colon; to which the imbalance in the normal intestinal occurrence leads to chronic inflammation and the production of carcinogenic metabolites that lead to neoplasm. Limited studies have shown the implication of various types of microbiome in CRC incidence, without particular emphasis on fungi and protozoa. This review discusses important dietary factors in relation to the expression of EV-associated ncRNAs in CRC, the impact of diet on the colon ecosystem with particular emphasis on molecular mechanisms of interactions in the ecosystem, the influence of homeostasis regulators such as glutathione, and its conjugating enzyme-glutathione S-transferase (GST) polymorphism on intestinal ecosystem, oxidative stress response, and its relationship to DNA adduct fighting enzyme-0-6-methylguanine-DNA methyltransferase. The understanding of the molecular mechanisms and interaction in the intestinal ecosystem will inform on the diagnostic, preventive and prognosis as well as treatment of CRC.

Effects of seasoning on the formation of heterocyclic amines and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in meats: A meta-analysis

Cooking improves digestibility, palatability, and microbiological profile of meats, but can produce compounds with carcinogenic potential, such as heterocyclic amines (HAs) and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs). It has been shown that the formation of these compounds in meats can be inhibited by spiced marinades, but there is a complexity to check and compare the results of isolated studies with so many variables involved. Thus, this work aimed to review studies that evaluated the effects of spices on the formation of HAs and PAHs in meats according to cooking techniques and spice type. A meta-analysis with a random effect model was conducted using response ratios (R) to identify and summarize previous results and answer the research question. The use of spices before frying (R* = 0.52), grilling (R* = 0.63), or roasting (R* = 0.74) meat, and spicing with garlic and onion (R* = 0.57), pepper (R* = 0.63), and other spices with phenolic compounds (R* = 0.63), decrease the formation of HAs and PAHs, due to the antioxidant and electron transfer capacity. In this article, we discuss how the improvement of culinary techniques with the dissemination of knowledge about meat preparation conditions is an effective strategy for reducing the formation and ingestion of HAs and PAHs; this is important due to the growing evidence about the association between meat consumption and chronic diseases. This is the first systematic review with meta-analysis about this topic and can guide industry, food services, and population to improve the safety associated with meat consumption.

Effect of pre- and post-rigor on texture, flavor, heterocyclic aromatic amines and sensory evaluation of roasted lamb

This study investigated the variation in texture, flavor, heterocyclic aromatic amines (HAAs) and sensory evaluation of pre- and post-rigor roasted lamb. Topside muscles were collected from twenty-eight lamb carcasses at 1 h, 6 h, 12 h, 1 d, 3 d, 5 d and 7 d postmortem and then roasted at 180 °C for 8 min. According to the pH and shear force (SF) values, the lamb muscles at 1-12 h, 1 d and 3-7 days postmortem were considered to be in the phases of pre-rigor, rigor and post-rigor, respectively. Pre-rigor roasted lamb showed a lower roasting loss, while the post-rigor roasted lamb showed a lower SF value. Higher concentrations of total volatile compounds were found at 3 days postmortem. The total contents of HAAs were significantly lower in pre-rigor roasted lamb compared to the post-rigor roasted lamb (P < .05). Overall, it was concluded that both pre- and post-rigor "roasted lamb" have their own special properties.

THE PROBLEMS OF MEAT PRODUCTS THERMAL TREATMENT

The main problems of meat products thermal treatment have been considered and analysed in the paper. Analysis of the existing research papers suggests that the main attention is devoted to the influence of temperature value and time of processing on the physical, chemical, microbiological and organoleptic indicators of the product. The influence on the protein and fat components of raw meat has been described as well as the changes in the meat product structure under the influence of temperature have been pointed out. The important impact of thermal treatment on the changes in proteins at heating, including solubility and hydration of the proteins, has been examined. The paper analyses the microbiota screening before and after thermal treatment. Special attention was paid to the impact of temperature on microbiota as it is an important indicator of a meat product safety. Methods and purpose of thermal treatments as well as the advantages and drawbacks of each method were considered. Formation of tastiness properties of the product depending on the methods and thermal cycling was emphasized. Submitted is the analysis of the factors that influence the product mass losses under the impact of high temperature. The dependence conditions of a meat product quality on the thermal cycle were also analysed. Attention is paid to alternative methods of thermal heating as well as their influence on ready product quality and safety. Substantial contribution of Odesa National Academy of Food Technologies to solving problems of the conventional thermal treatment of meat products was shown, same as a possibility of bringing a product to cooking readiness without application of high temperature. The main content of the paper includes analysis of the methods and thermal treatment cycles existing in the world and proves importance of the temperature control and cooking time which influence safety, quality and yield of the product.

Effect of Fermentation with Different Lactic Acid Bacteria Starter Cultures on Biogenic Amine Content and Ripening Patterns in Dry Fermented Sausages

In the present study, two different diameter (small and large) Milano-type dry fermented sausages were industrially produced to evaluate the effect of two different LAB starter cultures (Lactobacillus sakei and Pediococcus pentosaceus) on biogenic amines (BAs) content, proteolysis, and lipolysis taking place during both fermentation and ripening. With regard to BAs, putrescine and tyramine were mostly found in fermented sausages having large diameter and those inoculated with P. pentosaceus/S. xylosus exhibited significantly higher accumulation of these compounds. Overall, the small size sausages showed a more pronounced proteolysis taking place during processing. In addition, aside from the distinctive electrophoretic bands detected with both starter cultures, a more pronounced proteolysis and a faster protein hydrolysis was observed in salami inoculated with P. pentosaceus/S. xylosus. As for lipolysis, a significantly higher amount of diacylglycerols was observed at the end of ripening in the sausages inoculated with L. sakei/S. xylosus, which concurrently exhibited an increased D32, D34, and D36 series. The results of the present study confirms profound differences in BAs concentration, proteolysis, and lipolysis. These findings are strictly dependent on the starter cultures, which demonstrates that the choice of an appropriate starter optimized for peculiar products and processes should be the key factor to improve safety and quality features of traditional fermented sausages.

Quality Assessment of Fresh Meat from Several Species Based on Free Amino Acid and Biogenic Amine Contents during Chilled Storage

This paper studies the changes that occur in free amino acid and biogenic amine contents of raw meats (beef, pork, lamb, chicken and turkey) during storage (2 °C, 10 days). The meat cuts samples were harvested from a retail outlet (without getting information on the animals involved) as the following: Beef leg (four muscles), pork leg (five muscles), lamb leg (seven muscles), turkey leg (four muscles), and chicken breast (one muscle). Meat composition varied according to meat types. In general, pH, microbiology counts, biogenic amine (BA), and free amino acid (FAA) contents were also affected by meat types and storage time (p < 0.05). Chicken and turkey presented the highest levels (p < 0.05) of FAAs. Total free amino acids (TFAA) were higher (p < 0.05) in white meats than in red ones. The behavior pattern, of the total free amino acids precursors (TFAAP) of Bas, was saw-toothed, mainly in chicken and turkey meat during storage, which limits their use as quality indexes. Spermidine and spermine contents were initially different among the meats. Putrescine was the most prevalent BA (p < 0.05) irrespective of species. In general, chicken and turkey contained the highest (p < 0.05) levels of BAs, and TFAAP of BAs. In terms of the biogenic amine index (BAI), the quality of chicken was the worst while beef meat was the only sample whose quality remained acceptable through the study. This BAI seems to be more suitable as a quality index for white meat freshness than for red meat, especially for beef.

Inhibition effects of flavonoids on 2-amino-3,8-dimethylimidazo[4,5-f]quinoxaline and 2-amino-3,7,8-trimethylimidazo[4,5-f]quinoxaline formation and alkoxy radical scavenging capabilities of flavonoids in a model system

BACKGROUND

Heterocyclic aromatic amines (HAAs) have been considered as carcinogenic and mutagenic chemicals generated during thermal processing of protein-rich foods that can be inhibited by some flavonoids. Free radical scavenging is a major characteristic of flavonoids.

RESULTS

The half-maximal inhibitory concentration (IC₅₀ ) values of nine flavonoids were determined by evaluating their capacity to inhibit 2-amino-3,8-dimethylimidazo[4,5-f]quinoxaline (MeIQx) and 2-amino-3,7,8-trimethylimidazo[4,5-f]quinoxaline (7,8-DiMeIQx) formation in a model system. The results of the 2,2,6,6-tetramethylpiperidine-1-oxyl (TEMPO) test validated that MeIQx and 7,8-DiMeIQx formed via a free radical pathway. Electron spin resonance (ESR) spectroscopic analysis with spin trapping (α-(4-pyridyl N-oxide)-N-tert-butylnitrone (POBN) spin adduct, a_N  = 15.2 G and a_H  = 2.7 G) revealed that an alkoxy radical was the generated intermediate. The scavenging capacities of the nine flavonoids on alkoxy radicals were then evaluated based on the ESR spectra of the POBN spin adducts.

CONCLUSION

The weak correlation between the alkoxy radical scavenging capacities and IC₅₀ of the flavonoids suggested that their inhibitory activity against MeIQx and 7,8-DiMeIQx formation operates by a more complex mechanism than simply scavenging alkoxy radicals. © 2017 Society of Chemical Industry.

The Change in Quality Characteristics of Hanwoo in Home Meal Replacement Products under Different Cooking and Freezing Methods

The market size of home meal replacement (HMR) products has been gradually growing worldwide, even in Korea. In Korean HMR products, meat is the most important food ingredient compared with rice and vegetables. Therefore, this study aimed to evaluate changes in physiochemical and sensory aspects of beef under different preparation processes. For preparing four treatments, beef eye of round (ER) added with salt and sugar (treatment 1) and that without salt and sugar (treatment 2) were mixed with rice and frozen at −50°C. Beef ER without salt and sugar was also topped onto the rice and frozen (treatment 3), and that was topped onto the rice and precooled before freezing (treatment 4). Physiochemical analyses included cooking and drip losses, shear force, color, salt soluble protein, and sensory attributes were tested. The results showed significantly higher drip loss and total loss in beef ER samples 1 and 2, which were mixed with rice, compared to beef ER samples 3 and 4, which were not mixed with rice. A significantly higher discoloration was also observed in beef ER samples 1 and 2, compared to that in samples 3 and 4. In the partial least squares regression (PLSR) analysis, beef ER sample 4 (precooled before freezing) was highly related to sensory attributes, such as flavor, overall acceptability, and juiciness, and far from non-preferred shear force. As a result, beef ER in HMR sample 4 was the most preferable to the sensory panel, and it had the most desirable physicochemical analysis outcomes.

Unraveling the inhibitory effect of dihydromyricetin on heterocyclic aromatic amines formation

BACKGROUND

Heterocyclic aromatic amines (HAAs) are mutagens and rodent carcinogens. Flavonoids have attracted considerable attention for development into effective inhibitors against the formation of genotoxic HAAs in thermally processed foods.

RESULTS

The inhibitory effect of dihydromyricetin (DMY) on the formation of key HAAs, including 2-amino-1-methyl-6-phenylimidazo[4,5-b]pyridine (PhIP), 2-amino-3,8-dimethylimidazo[4,5-f]-quinoxaline (MeIQx), and 2-amino-3,4,8-trimethylimidazo[4,5-f]quinoxaline (4,8-DiMeIQx), was significant. In chemical models, DMY (0.05 mmol, 0.1 mmol, and 0.2 mmol) significantly decreased the amount of PhIP formed (43.0%, 54.7%, and 75.7% respectively). A significant inhibitory effect on the formation of MeIQx and 4,8-DiMeIQx was also observed. Moreover, DMY (0.05%, 0.1%, and 0.2%) reduced the generation of PhIP (by 48.0%, 59.0%, and 80.1% respectively) and that of MeIQx (by 45.8%, 62.0%, and 76.7% respectively) in fried beef patties.

CONCLUSION

The results indicate that DMY could be converted into myricetin during thermal processing, and both DMY and myricetin could trap phenylacetaldehyde, a major Strecker aldehyde of phenylalanine, in a similar manner to thus inhibit the generation of PhIP. This study provides valuable information for the development of effective strategies to minimize HAA content in thermally processed foods and also sheds light on the mechanism that accounts for the inhibitory effect. © 2017 Society of Chemical Industry.

Dual Effects of Creatinine on the Formation of 2-Amino-1-Methyl-6-Phenylimidazo [4,5-b]pyridine (PhIP)

Creatinine was found to not only act as a precursor of 2-amino-1-methyl-6-phenylimidazo [4,5-b]pyridine (PhIP) formation but also inhibit PhIP formation in a creatinine/phenylalanine model system. The dual mechanistic effects of creatinine on PhIP formation were then investigated in a model system. Adducts of creatinine-PhIP were detected by quadrupole-time-of-flight mass spectrometry and were found to be a likely explanation for the substantial decrease in the yield of PhIP when excess creatinine was supplied. Structures of probable adducts were predicted in molecular docking studies, which showed that hydrogen bonds were formed between creatinine and PhIP in 1:1 and 2:1 ratios. Furthermore, the active sites during creatinine-PhIP adduct formation (the primary amino groups [N² -] and sp² nitrogen atoms [N³ ] of creatinine and PhIP) match the active sites of PhIP metabolism and adducts of PhIP/lipid-derived reactive carbonyls. This verifies that creatinine inhibits PhIP production via the formation of adducts with hydrogen bonds at the N² and N³ sites.

PRACTICAL APPLICATION

This study enhances the understanding of how creatinine affects PhIP formation, reveals a new PhIP inhibition mechanism, and will be useful for developing technology to control PhIP formation during food processing.

Polysaccharides Reduce Absorption and Mutagenicity of 3-Amino-1,4-Dimethyl-5H-Pyrido[4,3-b]Indole In Vitro and In Vivo

3-Amino-1,4-dimethyl-5H-pyrido[4,3-b]indole (Trp-P-1) is a group 2B carcinogen characterized by the International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC) and great efforts have been taken to reduce Trp-P-1 mutagenicity to humans. In this study, the effect of a reduction of Trp-P-1 on intestinal absorption as a promising strategy was investigated. The data showed that when 20 mM Trp-P-1 cotransported with 10 mM of sodium carboxymethyl cellulose (CMC), xanthan gum, or carrageenan, the absorption rate of Trp-P-1 was reduced by 31.5%, 49.5%, or 72.9% in MDCK-MDR1 cell monolayer, respectively; and 64.6%, 83.4%, or 64.1% in rat intestinal tissues, correspondingly. These 3 polysaccharides also reduced pharmacokinetic parameters, that is, C_max , AUC_0-t , and AUC_0-∞ , after Trp-P-1 was given to rats intragastrically. However, gum arabic did not exhibit similar effects on Trp-P-1 absorption in vitro or in vivo. The Ames test showed that these 3 polysaccharides reduced Trp-P-1 mutagenicity to Salmonella typhimurium TA98, but gum arabic did not. Isothermal titration calorimetry assay indicated that Trp-P-1 interacted with these 3 polysaccharides. Thermodynamic study showed that the actual value of △H <0, but its absolute value greater than the corresponding value of T∆S, suggest a specific interaction between Trp-P-1 and these 3 polysaccharides, probably through the hydrogen bond and/or ion interaction. Reduction of Trp-P-1 intestinal absorption using food additives could be one of the strategies to suppress Trp-P-1-induced carcinogenesis in human.

PRACTICAL APPLICATION

1.This study provides insightful information for the food industry how gum arabic, xanthan gum, kappa carrageenan, and sodium carboxymethyl cellulose affect the absorption of Trp-P-1. 2.This study also provides novel information regarding a better formulation for meat products to reduce Trp-P-1 absorption.

Domestic Cooking of Muscle Foods: Impact on Composition of Nutrients and Contaminants

Meat and fish are muscle foods rich in valuable nutrients, such as high-quality proteins, vitamins, and minerals, and, in the case of fish, also unsaturated fatty acids. The escalation of meat and fish production has increased the occurrence of pesticide and antibiotic residues, as result of pest control on feed crops, and antibiotics used to fight infections in animals. Meat and fish are usually cooked to enrich taste, soften texture, increase safety, and improve nutrient digestibility. However, the impact of cooking on nutritional properties and formation of deleterious compounds must be understood. This review summarizes studies, published in the last decade, that have focused on how domestic cooking affects: (i) composition of nutrients (protein, fatty acids, vitamins, and minerals); (ii) antibiotic and pesticide residue contents; and (iii) the formation of cooking-induced contaminants (heterocyclic aromatic amines, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, and thermal degradation products of antibiotics and pesticides). Cooking affects the nutritional composition of meat and fish; frying is the cooking method that causes the greatest impact. Cooking may reduce the pesticide and antibiotic residues present in contaminated raw meat and fish; however, it may result in the formation of degradation products of unknown identity and toxicity. Control of cooking time and temperature, use of antioxidant-rich marinades, and avoiding the dripping of fat during charcoal grilling can reduce the formation of cooking-induced contaminants.

Poultry and Fish Consumption in Relation to Total Cancer Mortality: A Meta-Analysis of Prospective Studies

Observational studies on the association between fish and poultry intake and the risk of total cancer mortality have been reported with mixed results. Thus, we aimed to assess this association by conducting a meta-analysis of prospective studies. We performed a literature search on PubMed database through February 1, 2017 to identify relative prospective studies. A random-effects model was used to calculate the summary estimates. We identified fourteen prospective studies involving 2,378,204 participants and 96,712 cancer mortality events. Comparing the highest category of consumption with lowest category, pooled relative risk (RR) of total cancer mortality was 0.99 (95% confidence interval [CI], 0.94-1.05) for fish (10 studies) and 0.96 (95% CI, 0.93-1.00) for poultry (8 studies), respectively. However, we failed to identify any dose-response association based on a limited number of eligible studies, with a pooled RR of 0.98 (95% CI, 0.92-1.05) and 0.97 (95% CI, 0.88-1.07) for each 100 g per day increment in fish and poultry consumption, respectively. In summary, this meta-analysis indicates that consumption of either fish or poultry is not substantially associated with lower risk of total cancer mortality. The observed weak inverse association for high poultry consumption needs to be verified in additional large prospective studies.

The Role of Bioactive Dietary Components in Modulating miRNA Expression in Colorectal Cancer

Colorectal cancer is the third most common cancer in the world and considered to be one of the most diet-related types of cancer. Extensive research has been conducted but still the link between diet and colorectal cancer is complex. Recent studies have highlight microRNAs (miRNAs) as key players in cancer-related pathways in the context of dietary modulation. MicroRNAs are involved in most biological processes related to tumor development and progression; therefore, it is of great interest to understand the underlying mechanisms by which dietary patterns and components influence the expression of these powerful molecules in colorectal cancer. In this review, we discuss relevant dietary patterns in terms of miRNAs modulation in colorectal cancer, as well as bioactive dietary components able to modify gene expression through changes in miRNA expression. Furthermore, we emphasize on protective components such as resveratrol, curcumin, quercetin, α-mangostin, omega-3 fatty acids, vitamin D and dietary fiber, with a focus on the molecular mechanisms in the context of prevention and even treatment. In addition, several bioactive dietary components that have the ability to re-sensitize treatment resistant cells are described.