The relationship between social support and posttraumatic stress symptoms among youth exposed to a natural disaster

Parental Influence on Child Mental Health Post-Hurricane Harvey

Purpose

Many children who face natural disasters experience significant mental health consequences. Parents play a prominent role in the likelihood of child mental health outcomes after a weather-related disaster. This study aimed to examine the relationship between parent risk factors and children's psychological well-being post Hurricane Harvey.

Methods

Parents (n = 140) completed a survey that measured hurricane exposure, parental depression and anxiety, parenting behaviors, and assistance given and received during or after Hurricane Harvey. Additionally, parents were asked to complete questionnaires assessing one of their children's post-disaster psychosocial functioning and distress.

Results

Results indicated that heightened parent anxiety was significantly associated with an increased risk for emotional symptoms, conduct problems, and hyperactivity-inattention symptoms in children. Additionally, inconsistency in parental discipline was significantly associated with an increased risk of child conduct problems. Further, higher numbers of assistance types received by parents-a proxy indicator of resource loss-was associated with higher child emotional distress scores.

Conclusions

Broader systems-level interventions that address parents' physical and emotional needs may help mitigate maladaptive reactions in children and facilitate greater post-disaster psychosocial adjustment.

Prevention of suicides associated with global warming: perspectives from early career psychiatrists

Climate change poses significant challenges to global mental health, with potential consequences including increased rates of suicide and mental health disorders. Early Career Psychiatrists (ECPs) play a crucial role in addressing these challenges. The Climate Psychiatry Alliance, a group of psychiatrists dedicated to improving mental health amidst climate change, recognizes the importance of cultivating climate-aware ECPs. Training ECPs to become confident climate-aware clinicians enables them to effectively treat patients experiencing anxiety, depression, and PTSD in the context of climate-related distress. Together with other mental health professionals, ECPs can contribute to efforts by implementing strategies for monitoring and treating mental health problems arising from climate events. Additionally, they can raise awareness about the psychological consequences and risks of suicide associated with climate change. Collaboration among ECPs from various regions is essential in developing community-based approaches and reducing vulnerabilities. ECPs must prioritize supporting vulnerable populations by advocating for increased funding for mental health support and research in affected areas. Long-term solutions to address the mental health impacts of climate change and global warming should be pursued to mitigate future suicidality. Integrating climate considerations into local mental health programs and expanding psychological support services is crucial. By promoting emotional resilience and self-awareness, ECPs can contribute to building a more climate-resilient and mentally healthy society.

Looking for your cross-group friends after the breakout? Children's intergroup contact behaviours before and after the onset of COVID-19

While COVID-19 implications for prejudice have been investigated among adults in previous research, children's intergroup reactions to the pandemic and specifically how native children's contact behaviours with refugees might have changed after the pandemic has not been examined yet. Drawing on a unique longitudinal school dataset (N = 861, 5th graders, M _age reported at T1 = 10.38, SD = 0.68) collected before the onset of the pandemic (T1, pre-lockdown), after the onset of the pandemic (T2, post-lockdown), and 6 months after the post-lockdown (T3, follow-up) in Turkey, we examined how children's contact behaviour (positive and negative contact), contact motivation (self-efficacy and volition), as well as behavioural tendencies (approach and avoidance) have shifted during this period (2.5 years). We observed a consistent pattern of improvement in contact behaviours demonstrated by increases in positive contact variables and decreases in negative contact variables particularly from T1 to T2. The change in some positive contact variables was stable for 6 months, while negative contact and avoidance rapidly regressed to the baseline during the normalization period (T3). The boosting effect of the pandemic was particularly pronounced among children who displayed greater prejudice towards refugees before the pandemic. Findings contribute to the growing research literature delineating the potential benefits of COVID-19 at the collective level.

The Effects of Maternal Disaster Exposure on Adolescent Mental Health 12 Years Later

Natural disasters adversely impact children's mental health, with increased parent or child exposure and subsequent parental distress predicting poorer outcomes. It remains unknown, however, whether the psychological consequences of disasters for children persist long-term, and if so, why and for whom. We therefore examined the effects of mothers' exposure to Hurricane Katrina on adolescent children's mental health 12 years later, distinguishing between direct effects of disaster exposure and effects mediated by maternal distress, and evaluating moderation by child age and gender. Data were from a 2003-2018 study of young, low-income, primarily African American mothers living in New Orleans when Hurricane Katrina occurred in 2005 (n = 328). Mothers rated their mental health about one year pre-Katrina and one, four, and 12 years afterwards. They reported on an adolescent child's (ages 10-17, mean = 14.46) internalizing and externalizing symptoms 12 years post-Katrina using the Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire. Path analytic models adjusting for mothers' pre-disaster distress showed that, whereas the direct effects of maternal hurricane exposures on child mental health were not significant, the indirect effects were. Specifically, mothers who experienced more Katrina-related stressors had higher distress thereafter, which predicted poorer child outcomes. Results did not differ significantly by child age. Gender differences are discussed. Findings suggest that disasters can affect child mental health for many years, even for those who were very young or not yet born at the time, due to parents' disaster-related distress. Addressing parents' mental health needs in the aftermath of disasters may improve child well-being long-term.

Internalizing symptoms and family functioning predict adolescent depressive symptoms during COVID-19: A longitudinal study in a community sample

BACKGROUND

The COVID-19 pandemic and lockdown pose a threat for adolescents' mental health, especially for those with an earlier vulnerability. Accordingly, these adolescents may need increased support from family and friends. This study investigated whether family functioning and peer connectedness protects adolescents with earlier internalizing or externalizing symptoms from increased depressive symptoms during the first Dutch COVID-19 lockdown in a low-risk community sample.

METHODS

This sample comprised 115 adolescents (Mage = 13.06; 44% girls) and their parents (N = 111) and is part of an ongoing prospective study on child development. Internalizing and externalizing symptoms were self-reported a year before the COVID-19 lockdown. In an online survey during the first Dutch lockdown (April-May 2020), adolescents reported depressive symptoms and perceived peer connectedness, and parents reported family functioning.

RESULTS

Twenty-four percent of adolescents reported clinically relevant symptoms of depression during the first COVID-19 lockdown. Depressive symptoms were significantly predicted by earlier internalizing, but not externalizing symptoms. Furthermore, higher quality of family functioning, but not peer connectedness, predicted fewer adolescent depressive symptoms. Family functioning and peer connectedness did not moderate the link between pre-existing internalizing symptoms and later depressive symptoms.

CONCLUSIONS

In a low-risk community sample, one-in-four adolescents reported clinically relevant depressive symptoms at the first COVID-19 lockdown. Higher earlier internalizing symptoms and lower quality of family functioning increased risks. These results indicate that even in low-risk samples, a substantial group of adolescents and their families are vulnerable during times of crisis.

A Literature Review on the Role of Social Determinants in Post-Disaster Public Health

Introduction: Social determinants are closely related to public health disparities, and they affect health both directly and indirectly. Furthermore, social and economic conditions are often associated with a natural disaster that impacts people’s health. Methods: This study used the Pubmed database, Science direct, and Proquest through the keywords “Determinan Sosial; Kesehatan Masyarakat; Pascabencana (Social Determinants; Public Health; Post-Disaster)”. Furthermore, the studies found are open access, not a type of review and were filtered over the last five years. The Pubmed databases found 1308 studies, which were screened based on inclusion and exclusion criteria to obtain a total of 7 studies for review. Result: The role of social support shows a significant effect on a person’s stress symptoms. Moreover, environmental factors play an important role in post-disaster public health. Therefore, policies and countermeasures in disaster recovery need to continuously focus on health issues and social relations in the long term. Conclusion: Social determinants have an important role in post-disaster public health.

Post-traumatic Stress and Depressive Symptoms Among Adolescents After the 2015 Earthquake in Nepal: A Longitudinal Study

Few longitudinal studies have focused on mental health problems among adolescents after earthquakes. We investigated changes in post-traumatic stress symptoms (PTSS) and depressive symptoms from 18 to 31 months after the 2015 earthquake in Nepal and explored potential risk factors associated with the change in psychiatric symptoms. This study comprised of 515 adolescents, aged 11-17 years from two earthquake-affected areas, one severely affected than the other. The psychiatric symptoms were assessed using the standardized Child Post-traumatic Stress Disorder Scale and the Depression Self-Rating Scale. No significant change was observed in the prevalence of PTSS and depressive symptoms from 18 to 31 months after the earthquake. Living in severely affected area and exposure to trauma after the earthquake were associated with adolescents who developed chronic or delayed PTSS and depressive symptoms. The study findings highlight the need for disaster preparedness and early interventions that strengthen support at various levels.

The influence of social support on posttraumatic stress symptoms among children and adolescents: a scoping review and meta-analysis

BACKGROUND

Several risk and protective factors play a role in the development of posttraumatic stress symptoms (PTSS) in children and youth. The evidence for social support (SS) as a protective factor is rising; however, a review of the evidence is lacking.

OBJECTIVE

This scoping review and meta-analysis aims to map out and synthesize the present research on the influence of social support on PTSS in children and adolescents.

METHOD

The literature searched through PubMed, MEDLINE, Embase, PsycInfo, and CINAHL identified 3629 abstracts. Ninety articles published from 1999 to 2020 were selected, including a total of 77,439 participants.

RESULTS

Most papers focused on social and emotional support from family members (36/88) and peers (26/88); other types of support (e.g., informational support and support from professionals) were not widely reported. The cross-sectional studies illustrated an overall significant, but weak, negative correlation between global social support and PTSS. A similar weak negative association was found between family support and PTSS. The association between peer support and PTSS was not significant. For longitudinal studies, 4 of 5 indicated that SS was a significant negative predictor of PTSS.

CONCLUSIONS

There was conceptual, methodological, and statistical heterogeneity of the identified studies. This review suggests a weak negative relationship between global SS and PTSS in children and adolescents. Higher global SS was related to less PTSS. The evidence regarding family support revealed a more stable negative relationship with PTSS than that for peer support. Investigating social support without specifying the form of support confounds the effect. Studies on informational, teacher, or professional support seem to be lacking. More studies are needed on the longitudinal effects of SS on PTSS.

Longitudinal transactional relationships between caregiver and child mental health during the COVID-19 global pandemic

BACKGROUND

Emerging work examining the psychological impact of COVID-19 on children and families suggests that the relationship between pandemic-related stress, child psychosocial functioning, and caregiver mental health are interrelated. However, much of this research is unidirectional and thus little is known about the bidirectional cascading effects children and caregivers may experience. The current study examined the transactional relationships between caregiver and child mental health over time during the COVID-19 pandemic.

METHODS

Linguistically, racially, and ethnically diverse caregivers (N = 286) of young children completed measures of caregiver mental health, caregiver pandemic-related stress, and child mental health (i.e., externalizing, internalizing, prosocial behavior) across three time points in the spring of 2020.

RESULTS

Using autoregressive cross-lagged analyses, impaired caregiver mental health at Time 1 (April 2020) predicted increased caregiver pandemic-related stress at Time 2 (May 2020). Caregiver pandemic-related stress at Time 1 predicted increased child internalizing symptoms at Time 2 which, in turn, predicted increased caregiver pandemic-related stress at Time 3 (July 2020). Lastly, impaired caregiver mental health at Time 2 (May 2020) predicted increased child externalizing symptoms at Time 3 (July 2020).

CONCLUSIONS

Assessing transactional relationships between child and caregiver mental health during the COVID-19 pandemic is important to inform models of risk and resilience. Interventions at the level of the caregiver, the child, and/or the family should be considered as a way to interrupt potential negative developmental cascades.

Effects of extreme weather events on child mood and behavior

Extreme weather events (EWEs) are increasing in frequency and severity as the planet continues to become warmer. Resulting disasters have the potential to wreak havoc on the economy, infrastructure, family unit, and human health. Global estimates project that children will be disproportionately impacted by the changing climate - shouldering 88% of the related burdens. Exposure to EWEs in childhood is traumatic, with ramifications for mental health specifically. Symptoms of posttraumatic stress, depression, and anxiety have all been associated with childhood EWE exposure and have the potential to persist under certain circumstances. Conversely, many childhood survivors of EWE also demonstrate resilience and experience only transient symptoms. While the majority of studies are focused on the effects resulting from one specific type of disaster (hurricanes), we have synthesized the literature across the various types of EWEs. We describe psychological symptoms and behavior, the potential for long-term effects, and potential protective factors and risk factors. What this paper adds Climate change-related phenomena such as extreme weather events (EWEs) have the potential to impact mood and behavior in children. Posttraumatic stress (PTS) is the most common mental health consequence in child survivors of EWEs. PTS is often comorbid with depression and/or anxiety in this group.

Trajectories of peer relationship problems and emotional symptoms in children 5 years after a nuclear disaster: Fukushima Health Management Survey

The Fukushima Daiichi Nuclear Power Station (NPS) accident, which occurred in March 2011, is having long-term effects on children. About 3 years after the accident, we identified three patterns of peer relationship problems and four patterns of emotional symptoms using group-based trajectory modeling. As a result, we reported that different factors might be related to very severe trajectories of peer relationship problems and emotional symptoms. In this study, we used five waves of data from fiscal year (FY) 2011 to FY2015 from the Mental Health and Lifestyle Survey, a detailed survey of the Fukushima Health Management Survey started in FY2011. We analyzed 7013 residents within the government-designated evacuation zone (aged 6-12 years old as of 11 March 2011) with responses to all items of psychological distress in at least one wave from FY2011 and FY2015. We planned this study to describe the trajectories of peer relationship problems and emotional symptoms in children and to examine potential risks and protective factors over the 5 years following the NPS accident. We identified four patterns of peer relationship problems and five patterns of emotional symptoms using latent class growth analysis. For peer relationship problems, male sex, experiencing the NPS explosion and lack of exercise habits were associated with the severe trajectory group. For emotional symptoms, experiencing the NPS explosion, experiencing the tsunami disaster and lack of exercise habits were associated with the severe trajectory group. Exercise habits are very important for the mental health of evacuees after a nuclear disaster.

Effects of Autonomic Nervous System Functioning and Tornado Exposure on Long-Term Outcomes of Aggressive Children

This study examined whether pre-disaster indicators of sympathetic and parasympathetic activity moderated the relation between degree of disaster exposure from an EF-4 tornado and changes in the externalizing and internalizing behavior problems of children at-risk for aggression. Participants included 188 children in 4th-6th grades (65% male; 78% African American; ages 9-13) and their parents from predominantly low-income households who were participating in a prevention study when the tornado occurred in 2011. Fourth-grade children who exhibited elevated levels of aggressive behavior were recruited in three annual cohorts. Parent-rated externalizing and internalizing problems were assessed prior to the tornado (Wave 1; W1), and at 4-12 months (W2), 16-24 months (W3), 42-28 months (W4) and 56-60 months (W5) post-tornado. Children's pre-tornado Skin Conductance Level (SCL) reactivity and Respiratory Sinus Arrhythmia (RSA) withdrawal were assessed at W1 using SCL and RSA measured during resting baseline and during the first 5 min of the Iowa Gambling Task (IGT). Children and parents reported their exposure to tornado-related trauma and disruptions at Wave 3. Children displayed less reduction in externalizing problems if there had been higher child- or parent-reported tornado exposure and less RSA withdrawal, or if they had lower parent-reported TORTE and less SCL reactivity or lower SCL baseline. Highlighting the importance of children's pre-disaster arousal, higher levels of disaster exposure negatively affected children's level of improvement in externalizing problems when children had less vagal withdrawal, and when tornado exposure disrupted the protective effects of higher SCL reactivity and higher SCL baseline.

Resilience after natural disasters: the process of harnessing resources in communities differentially exposed to a flood

Background: Disasters negatively impact mental health and well-being. Studying how people adapt and recover after adversity is crucial for disaster preparedness and response. Objective: This study examined how differentially affected communities harness their resources to adapt to the aftermath of a flood. We predicted that stronger individual, interpersonal, and community resources protect against psychosocial resource loss and, through that, are related to fewer symptoms of posttraumatic stress and depression and higher life satisfaction. We also predicted that these effects would be stronger in a flooded community, compared to a threatened, but non-flooded community. Method: Participants were randomly sampled community members from two neighbouring municipalities. One municipality was severely flooded during the 2014 floods in South East Europe (affected community, na = 223), the other was threatened but not flooded (comparison community, nc = 224). Interviews were conducted one and a half years after the disaster using the Connor-Davidson Resilience Scale 10-item version, the Multidimensional Scale of Perceived Social Support, the Community Resources Scale, the Psychosocial Resource Loss Scale, the PTSD Checklist for DSM-5, the Center for Epidemiological Studies Depression Scale Revised and the Satisfaction with Life Scale. Results: Stronger individual, interpersonal, and community resources were found to be related to better post-disaster outcomes directly and indirectly through psychosocial resource loss. In the affected community, interpersonal resources and community social capital and engagement were stronger predictors of positive adaptation. In the comparison community, community economic development and trust in community leadership were more important. Conclusion: This study provides evidence that people affected by disasters can harness their individual, interpersonal, and community resources to recover and adapt. Post-disaster interventions should aim to strengthen family and community ties, thus increasing available social support and community connectedness.

Safe but Lonely? Loneliness, Anxiety, and Depression Symptoms and COVID-19

Background

The COVID-19 pandemic has led governments worldwide to implement unprecedented response strategies. While crucial to limiting the spread of the virus, “social distancing” may lead to severe psychological consequences, especially in lonely individuals.

Methods

We used cross-sectional (n = 380) and longitudinal (n = 74) designs to investigate the links between loneliness, anxiety, and depression symptoms (ADS) and COVID-19 risk perception and affective response in young adults who implemented social distancing during the first 2 weeks of the state of epidemic threat in Poland.

Results

Loneliness was correlated with ADS and with affective response to COVID-19’s threat to health. However, increased worry about the social isolation and heightened risk perception for financial problems was observed in lonelier individuals. The cross-lagged influence of the initial affective response to COVID-19 on subsequent levels of loneliness was also found.

Conclusion

The reciprocal connections between loneliness and COVID-19 response may be of crucial importance for ADS during the COVID-19 crisis.

Anxiety and resilience in the face of natural disasters associated with climate change: A review and methodological critique

In the past two decades, climate change-related natural disasters, such as hurricanes, floods, and droughts have become increasingly frequent and severe, impacting the emotional and psychological well-being of those who are directly or indirectly exposed to them. Despite great interest in understanding differences in anxiety and resilience in response to natural disasters, enthusiasm appears to outstrip empirical clarity, as there remains considerable ambiguity as to determinants of resilient or pathological outcomes following exposure to natural disasters. In addition, there are several major methodological limitations in climate change and related natural disaster research, including the use of univariate analyses, cross-sectional design, and retrospective measures. Keeping these limitations in mind, we first review literature examining the mental health outcomes of natural disasters. Findings suggest that, overall, resilience is more common than pathological outcomes. Second, we use a multi-dimensional framework of resilience to selectively review factors at the event, individual, as well as family and community levels that could help inform resilient or pathological outcomes. Finally, we consider key limitations and future directions for research and practice in the field of anxiety and resilience in response to climate disasters.

Longitudinal Relationships between Perceived Social Support and Symptom Outcomes: Findings from a sample of Adult Survivors of Childhood Sexual Abuse

INTRODUCTION

Cross-sectional studies have consistently reported an inverse association between perceived social support and the severity of mental health symptoms among adult survivors of childhood sexual abuse (CSA). However, there is a lack of longitudinal studies investigating the bidirectional association between social support and the severity of symptoms among adult CSA-survivors, as well as the role of relational problems in predicting perceived social support and symptom levels over time. The present study addressed these questions in a sample of primarily female CSA-survivors.

METHODS

In a three-wave, four-year longitudinal study of 506 CSA-survivors (94.9% women, 5.1% men) recruited from support centers for sexual abuse survivors in Norway, we used cross-lagged panel structural equation modeling to examine the directionality of the longitudinal associations between perceived social support and symptoms of posttraumatic stress, anxiety, depression and insomnia.

RESULTS

Cross-lagged panel analyses revealed significant weak reciprocal associations between perceived social support and depression, posttraumatic stress symptoms and anxiety symptoms, but not with insomnia symptoms. The observed effects were partly overlapping and partly inconsistent across the different symptom domains. Relational problems predicted social support cross-sectionally and longitudinally, whereas only cross-sectional associations were found between the relational problems variable and mental health symptoms. Theoretical and clinical implications of the findings are discussed, alongside methodological limitations of the study.

Impact of Extreme Weather Events on Sub-Saharan African Child and Adolescent Mental Health: A Protocol for a Systematic Review

Sub-Saharan Africa (SSA) has been identified by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) as being the most vulnerable region to climate change impacts. A major concern is the increase in extreme weather events (EWE) such as storms, floods, droughts, heatwaves, wildfires, and landslides in SSA and their potential to affect the health and well-being of children and adolescents. The objective of this systematic review is to examine the direct and indirect impacts of EWE on the mental health of children and adolescents living in SSA, in order to inform protective adaptation strategies and promote resilience. A meta-analysis will not be possible, since the assumption is that limited studies have been published on the EWE-associated mental health impacts on children and adolescents living in SSA and that those studies that are available are heterogenous. There is acknowledgement in the global literature of the need to highlight child and adolescent mental health more prominently in climate change health strategies and policies. It is vital that adaptation strategies are informed by research on risk prevention and promotion of resilience to ensure the mental health of children and adolescents is protected.

Posttraumatic Stress and Depression in the Aftermath of Environmental Disasters: A Review of Quantitative Studies Published in 2018

PURPOSE OF REVIEW

As interest in the mental health consequences of environmental disasters increases, this review aimed to summarize peer-reviewed studies published in 2018 on posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) and depression symptoms after such events.

RECENT FINDINGS

Notable trends in the past year of research included studies focusing on vulnerable populations (e.g., persons with preexisting physical health conditions), assessing the cumulative impact of exposure to multiple disasters, exploring pathway leading to PTSD and depression symptoms, and evaluating the effectiveness of post-disaster interventions. Over 100 articles were identified, focused on 40 disasters that occurred between 1982 and 2017. Prevalence estimates ranged from 0 to 70.51% for PTSD and 1.9 to 59.5% for depression. Consistent predictors of adverse outcomes included female gender, socioeconomic disadvantage, high disaster exposure, and low psychosocial resources. Further research that expands upon recent advances in the literature is critical given the large proportion of the world's population exposed to disasters and the increasing incidence of such events.

Safe but Lonely? Loneliness, Anxiety, and Depression Symptoms and COVID-19

BACKGROUND

The COVID-19 pandemic has led governments worldwide to implement unprecedented response strategies. While crucial to limiting the spread of the virus, "social distancing" may lead to severe psychological consequences, especially in lonely individuals.

METHODS

We used cross-sectional (n = 380) and longitudinal (n = 74) designs to investigate the links between loneliness, anxiety, and depression symptoms (ADS) and COVID-19 risk perception and affective response in young adults who implemented social distancing during the first 2 weeks of the state of epidemic threat in Poland.

RESULTS

Loneliness was correlated with ADS and with affective response to COVID-19's threat to health. However, increased worry about the social isolation and heightened risk perception for financial problems was observed in lonelier individuals. The cross-lagged influence of the initial affective response to COVID-19 on subsequent levels of loneliness was also found.

CONCLUSION

The reciprocal connections between loneliness and COVID-19 response may be of crucial importance for ADS during the COVID-19 crisis.

A decennial review of psychotraumatology: what did we learn and where are we going?

On 6 December 2019 we start the 10th year of the European Journal of Psychotraumatogy (EJPT), a full Open Access journal on psychotrauma. This editorial is part of a special issue/collection celebrating the 10 years anniversary of the journal where we will acknowledge some of our most impactful articles of the past decade (also discussed below and marked with * in the reference list). In this editorial the editors present a decennial review of the field addressing a range of topics that are core to both the journal and to psychotraumatology as a discipline. These include neurobiological developments (genomics, neuroimaging and neuroendocrine research), forms of trauma exposure and impact across the lifespan, mass trauma and early interventions, work-related trauma, trauma in refugee populations, and the potential consequences of trauma such as PTSD or Complex PTSD, but also resilience. We address innovations in psychological, medication (enhanced) and technology-assisted treatments, mediators and moderators like social support and finally how new research methods help us to gain insights in symptom structures or to better predict symptom development or treatment success. We aimed to answer three questions 1. Where did we stand in 2010? 2. What did we learn in the past 10 years? 3. What are our knowledge gaps? We conclude with a number of recommendations concerning top priorities for the future direction of the field of psychotraumatology and correspondingly the journal.

Social support, interpersonal, and community dynamics following disasters caused by natural hazards

The most essential, and possibly the most reliably present, characteristic of all disasters is that they exert strong impact on social relationships. Two very different, at times conflicting, dynamic processes emerge in their aftermath: the initial outpouring of immense mutual helping and solidarity, followed by a subsequent sense of loss in the quality of interpersonal and community relationships. This review of recent findings in the area of disaster mental health confirmed two major patterns of social support dynamics following disastrous events resulting from natural hazards: a mobilization of received social support and deterioration of perceived social support and sense of community. Social support is a critical resource helping people cope with natural disasters. Its psychologically and socially protective functions for survivors and their communities unfold in a complex matrix of benefits and liabilities.

[Extreme weather events and their impact on the mental health of children and adolescents]

As part of climate change, a rise in meteorological extreme weather events (EWE) like heavy precipitation and flooding can be observed in Germany. Severe extreme events can evoke great fear and pose a risk for traumatization. These traumas and the sustained stress caused by the event may result in adverse psychological health effects. Children and adolescents represent a vulnerable group due to the fact that they hold less coping strategies than adults and are strongly dependent on their environment.This narrative overview intends to summarise the prevalence of mental illness after an EWE and the related risk factors in order to draw meaningful conclusions about the mental health of children and adolescents in Germany. Therefore, existing literature from the WHO European region and from countries with a similar income level (e.g. Canada, Australia, USA) was taken into account. Since floods and heavy precipitation are the most frequent EWE in Germany, the focus was placed on them.An increase in anxiety disorders, depression symptoms, posttraumatic stress and behavioural disorders can be observed in children and adolescents after an EWE. The literature provides little information on the prevalence of such mental health effects as a result of EWEs and their effects, and which risk factors are of importance. There is thus still considerable need for research internationally and especially in Germany.

Children and natural disasters

The number of children affected by natural disasters each year is alarmingly high and can be expected to rise as climate change continues. The mental consequences have been documented not only in the rates of post-traumatic stress symptoms and post-traumatic stress disorder, but also for depression and other mental health problems. To contribute towards the knowledge in this area, this special issue of the European Journal of Psychotraumatology focuses on how children can be prepared for natural disasters and the mental health aspects of such events. It includes articles on communicating risks to children, involving children in disaster risk reduction, and the mental health consequences for children from an earthquake, a volcanic eruption, a flood and a hurricane. In this special issue specifically focusing on children and natural disasters, we hope to enhance our understanding of some of the complex pathways and pave the way for improving our interventions.