1
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Li S, Li W, Wu X, Zhang B, Liu L, Yin L. Immune cell-derived extracellular vesicles for precision therapy of inflammatory-related diseases. J Control Release 2024; 368:533-547. [PMID: 38462043 DOI: 10.1016/j.jconrel.2024.03.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/13/2023] [Revised: 02/29/2024] [Accepted: 03/06/2024] [Indexed: 03/12/2024]
Abstract
Inflammation-related diseases impose a significant global health burden, necessitating urgent exploration of novel treatment modalities for improved clinical outcomes. We begin by discussing the limitations of conventional approaches and underscore the pivotal involvement of immune cells in the inflammatory process. Amidst the rapid growth of immunology, the therapeutic potential of immune cell-derived extracellular vesicles (EVs) has garnered substantial attention due to their capacity to modulate inflammatory response. We provide an in-depth examination of immune cell-derived EVs, delineating their promising roles across diverse disease conditions in both preclinical and clinical settings. Additionally, to direct the development of the next-generation drug delivery systems, we comprehensively investigate the engineered EVs on their advanced isolation methods, cargo loading techniques, and innovative engineering strategies. This review ends with a focus on the prevailing challenges and considerations regarding the clinical translation of EVs in future, emphasizing the need of standardized characterization and scalable production processes. Ultimately, immune cell-derived EVs represent a cutting-edge therapeutic approach and delivery platform, holding immense promise in precision medicine.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shuo Li
- Department of Pharmaceutics, China Pharmaceutical University, Nanjing 210009, China
| | - Wenqing Li
- Department of Pharmaceutics, China Pharmaceutical University, Nanjing 210009, China
| | - Xianggui Wu
- Department of Pharmaceutics, China Pharmaceutical University, Nanjing 210009, China
| | - Beiyuan Zhang
- Department of Pharmaceutics, China Pharmaceutical University, Nanjing 210009, China
| | - Lisha Liu
- Department of Pharmaceutics, China Pharmaceutical University, Nanjing 210009, China; NMPA Key Laboratory for Research and Evaluation of Pharmaceutical Preparations and Excipients, China Pharmaceutical University, Nanjing 210009, China.
| | - Lifang Yin
- Department of Pharmaceutics, China Pharmaceutical University, Nanjing 210009, China; NMPA Key Laboratory for Research and Evaluation of Pharmaceutical Preparations and Excipients, China Pharmaceutical University, Nanjing 210009, China; Key Laboratory of Drug Quality Control and Pharmacovigilance, China Pharmaceutical University, China; State Key Laboratory of Natural Medicine, China Pharmaceutical University, Nanjing 210009, China.
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2
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Lai JJ, Hill JJ, Huang CY, Lee GC, Mai KW, Shen MY, Wang SK. Unveiling the Complex World of Extracellular Vesicles: Novel Characterization Techniques and Manufacturing Considerations. Chonnam Med J 2024; 60:1-12. [PMID: 38304124 PMCID: PMC10828078 DOI: 10.4068/cmj.2024.60.1.1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/06/2023] [Revised: 01/08/2024] [Accepted: 01/09/2024] [Indexed: 02/03/2024] Open
Abstract
Extracellular vesicles (EVs) function as potent mediators of intercellular communication for many in vivo processes, contributing to both health and disease related conditions. Given their biological origins and diverse functionality from correspondingly unique "cargo" compositions, both endogenous and modified EVs are garnering attention as promising therapeutic modalities and vehicles for targeted therapeutic delivery applications. Their diversity in composition, however, has revealed a significant need for more comprehensive analytical-based characterization methods, and manufacturing processes that are consistent and scalable. In this review, we explore the dynamic landscape of EV research and development efforts, ranging from novel isolation approaches, to their analytical assessment through novel characterization techniques, and to their production by industrial-scale manufacturing process considerations. Expanding the horizon of these topics to EVs for in-human applications, we underscore the need for stringent development and adherence to Good Manufacturing Practice (GMP) guidelines. Wherein, the intricate interplay of raw materials, production in bioreactors, and isolation practices, along with analytical assessments compliant with the Minimal Information for Studies of Extracellular Vesicles (MISEV) guidelines, in conjunction with reference standard materials, collectively pave the way for standardized and consistent GMP production processes.
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Affiliation(s)
- James J. Lai
- Department of Bioengineering, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, USA
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, National Taiwan University of Science and Technology, Taipei, Taiwan
| | - John J. Hill
- Department of Bioengineering, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, USA
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, National Taiwan University of Science and Technology, Taipei, Taiwan
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, USA
- BioProcess Technology Group, BDO, Boston, MA, USA
| | - Casey Y. Huang
- Department of Bioengineering, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, USA
| | - Gino C. Lee
- Department of Bioengineering, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, USA
| | - Karol W. Mai
- Department of Bioengineering, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, USA
| | - Maggie Y. Shen
- Department of Bioengineering, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, USA
| | - Simon K. Wang
- Department of Bioengineering, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, USA
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3
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Cui Z, Amevor FK, Zhao X, Mou C, Pang J, Peng X, Liu A, Lan X, Liu L. Potential therapeutic effects of milk-derived exosomes on intestinal diseases. J Nanobiotechnology 2023; 21:496. [PMID: 38115131 PMCID: PMC10731872 DOI: 10.1186/s12951-023-02176-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/01/2023] [Accepted: 10/25/2023] [Indexed: 12/21/2023] Open
Abstract
Exosomes are extracellular vesicles with the diameter of 30 ~ 150 nm, and are widely involved in intercellular communication, disease diagnosis and drug delivery carriers for targeted disease therapy. Therapeutic application of exosomes as drug carriers is limited due to the lack of sources and methods for obtaining adequate exosomes. Milk contains abundant exosomes, several studies have shown that milk-derived exosomes play crucial roles in preventing and treating intestinal diseases. In this review, we summarized the biogenesis, secretion and structure, current novel methods used for the extraction and identification of exosomes, as well as discussed the role of milk-derived exosomes in treating intestinal diseases, such as inflammatory bowel disease, necrotizing enterocolitis, colorectal cancer, and intestinal ischemia and reperfusion injury by regulating intestinal immune homeostasis, restoring gut microbiota composition and improving intestinal structure and integrity, alleviating conditions such as oxidative stress, cell apoptosis and inflammation, and reducing mitochondrial reactive oxygen species (ROS) and lysosome accumulation in both humans and animals. In addition, we discussed future prospects for the standardization of milk exosome production platform to obtain higher concentration and purity, and complete exosomes derived from milk. Several in vivo clinical studies are needed to establish milk-derived exosomes as an effective and efficient drug delivery system, and promote its application in the treatment of various diseases in both humans and animals.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zhifu Cui
- College of Animal Science and Technology, Southwest University, Chongqing, P. R. China
| | - Felix Kwame Amevor
- Farm Animal Genetic Resources Exploration and Innovation Key Laboratory of Sichuan Province, Sichuan Agricultural University, Sichuan, P. R. China
| | - Xingtao Zhao
- College of Pharmacy, Chengdu University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Sichuan, P. R. China
| | - Chunyan Mou
- College of Animal Science and Technology, Southwest University, Chongqing, P. R. China
| | - Jiaman Pang
- College of Animal Science and Technology, Southwest University, Chongqing, P. R. China
| | - Xie Peng
- College of Animal Science and Technology, Southwest University, Chongqing, P. R. China
| | - Anfang Liu
- College of Animal Science and Technology, Southwest University, Chongqing, P. R. China
| | - Xi Lan
- College of Animal Science and Technology, Southwest University, Chongqing, P. R. China.
| | - Lingbin Liu
- College of Animal Science and Technology, Southwest University, Chongqing, P. R. China.
- College of Animal Science and Technology, Chongqing Key Laboratory of Forage & Herbivore, Chongqing Engineering Research Center for Herbivores Resource Protection and Utilization, Southwest University, Beibei, Chongqing, 400715, P. R. China.
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4
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Welsh JA, Arkesteijn GJA, Bremer M, Cimorelli M, Dignat-George F, Giebel B, Görgens A, Hendrix A, Kuiper M, Lacroix R, Lannigan J, van Leeuwen TG, Lozano-Andrés E, Rao S, Robert S, de Rond L, Tang VA, Tertel T, Yan X, Wauben MHM, Nolan JP, Jones JC, Nieuwland R, van der Pol E. A compendium of single extracellular vesicle flow cytometry. J Extracell Vesicles 2023; 12:e12299. [PMID: 36759917 PMCID: PMC9911638 DOI: 10.1002/jev2.12299] [Citation(s) in RCA: 46] [Impact Index Per Article: 46.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/12/2022] [Revised: 11/29/2022] [Accepted: 12/17/2022] [Indexed: 02/11/2023] Open
Abstract
Flow cytometry (FCM) offers a multiparametric technology capable of characterizing single extracellular vesicles (EVs). However, most flow cytometers are designed to detect cells, which are larger than EVs. Whereas cells exceed the background noise, signals originating from EVs partly overlap with the background noise, thereby making EVs more difficult to detect than cells. This technical mismatch together with complexity of EV-containing fluids causes limitations and challenges with conducting, interpreting and reproducing EV FCM experiments. To address and overcome these challenges, researchers from the International Society for Extracellular Vesicles (ISEV), International Society for Advancement of Cytometry (ISAC), and the International Society on Thrombosis and Haemostasis (ISTH) joined forces and initiated the EV FCM working group. To improve the interpretation, reporting, and reproducibility of future EV FCM data, the EV FCM working group published an ISEV position manuscript outlining a framework of minimum information that should be reported about an FCM experiment on single EVs (MIFlowCyt-EV). However, the framework contains limited background information. Therefore, the goal of this compendium is to provide the background information necessary to design and conduct reproducible EV FCM experiments. This compendium contains background information on EVs, the interaction between light and EVs, FCM hardware, experimental design and preanalytical procedures, sample preparation, assay controls, instrument data acquisition and calibration, EV characterization, and data reporting. Although this compendium focuses on EVs, many concepts and explanations could also be applied to FCM detection of other particles within the EV size range, such as bacteria, lipoprotein particles, milk fat globules, and viruses.
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Affiliation(s)
- Joshua A Welsh
- Translational Nanobiology Section, Laboratory of Pathology, Center for Cancer Research, National Cancer Institute, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, Maryland, USA
| | - Ger J A Arkesteijn
- Department of Biomolecular Health Sciences, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Utrecht University, Utrecht, The Netherlands
| | - Michel Bremer
- Institute for Transfusion Medicine, University Hospital Essen, University of Duisburg-Essen, Essen, Germany
| | - Michael Cimorelli
- Vesicle Observation Center, Amsterdam University Medical Centers, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
- Experimental Clinical Chemistry, Amsterdam University Medical Centers, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
- Department of Chemical Engineering, Drexel University, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, USA
| | - Françoise Dignat-George
- Aix Marseille Univ, INSERM, INRAE, C2VN, UFR de Pharmacie, Marseille, France
- Hematology and Vascular Biology Department, CHU La Conception, Assistance Publique-Hôpitaux de Marseille, Marseille, France
| | - Bernd Giebel
- Institute for Transfusion Medicine, University Hospital Essen, University of Duisburg-Essen, Essen, Germany
| | - André Görgens
- Institute for Transfusion Medicine, University Hospital Essen, University of Duisburg-Essen, Essen, Germany
- Clinical Research Center, Department for Laboratory Medicine, Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, Sweden
- Evox Therapeutics Ltd, Oxford, UK
| | - An Hendrix
- Laboratory of Experimental Cancer Research, Department of Human Structure and Repair, Ghent University, Ghent, Belgium
| | - Martine Kuiper
- Vesicle Observation Center, Amsterdam University Medical Centers, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
- Experimental Clinical Chemistry, Amsterdam University Medical Centers, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
- Biomedical Engineering & Physics, Amsterdam University Medical Centers, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
- Dutch Metrology Institute, VSL, Delft, The Netherlands
| | - Romaric Lacroix
- Aix Marseille Univ, INSERM, INRAE, C2VN, UFR de Pharmacie, Marseille, France
- Hematology and Vascular Biology Department, CHU La Conception, Assistance Publique-Hôpitaux de Marseille, Marseille, France
| | - Joanne Lannigan
- Flow Cytometry Support Services, LLC, Arlington, Virginia, USA
| | - Ton G van Leeuwen
- Vesicle Observation Center, Amsterdam University Medical Centers, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
- Biomedical Engineering & Physics, Amsterdam University Medical Centers, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
- Amsterdam Cardiovascular Sciences, Atherosclerosis and Ischemic Syndromes, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
- Cancer Center Amsterdam, Imaging and Biomarkers, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Estefanía Lozano-Andrés
- Department of Biomolecular Health Sciences, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Utrecht University, Utrecht, The Netherlands
| | - Shoaib Rao
- Institute for Transfusion Medicine, University Hospital Essen, University of Duisburg-Essen, Essen, Germany
| | - Stéphane Robert
- Aix Marseille Univ, INSERM, INRAE, C2VN, UFR de Pharmacie, Marseille, France
- Hematology and Vascular Biology Department, CHU La Conception, Assistance Publique-Hôpitaux de Marseille, Marseille, France
| | - Leonie de Rond
- Vesicle Observation Center, Amsterdam University Medical Centers, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
- Experimental Clinical Chemistry, Amsterdam University Medical Centers, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
- Biomedical Engineering & Physics, Amsterdam University Medical Centers, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Vera A Tang
- Flow Cytometry & Virometry Core Facility, Faculty of Medicine, Department of Biochemistry, Microbiology, and Immunology, University of Ottawa, Ottawa, Ontario, Canada
| | - Tobias Tertel
- Institute for Transfusion Medicine, University Hospital Essen, University of Duisburg-Essen, Essen, Germany
| | - Xiaomei Yan
- MOE Key Laboratory of Spectrochemical Analysis & Instrumentation, Key Laboratory for Chemical Biology of Fujian Province, Department of Chemical Biology, College of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Xiamen University, Xiamen, Fujian, People's Republic of China
| | - Marca H M Wauben
- Department of Biomolecular Health Sciences, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Utrecht University, Utrecht, The Netherlands
| | - John P Nolan
- Scintillon Institute, San Diego, California, USA
- Cellarcus Biosciences, San Diego, California, USA
| | - Jennifer C Jones
- Translational Nanobiology Section, Laboratory of Pathology, Center for Cancer Research, National Cancer Institute, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, Maryland, USA
| | - Rienk Nieuwland
- Vesicle Observation Center, Amsterdam University Medical Centers, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
- Experimental Clinical Chemistry, Amsterdam University Medical Centers, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
- Amsterdam Cardiovascular Sciences, Atherosclerosis and Ischemic Syndromes, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Edwin van der Pol
- Vesicle Observation Center, Amsterdam University Medical Centers, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
- Experimental Clinical Chemistry, Amsterdam University Medical Centers, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
- Biomedical Engineering & Physics, Amsterdam University Medical Centers, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
- Amsterdam Cardiovascular Sciences, Atherosclerosis and Ischemic Syndromes, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
- Cancer Center Amsterdam, Imaging and Biomarkers, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
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5
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Du Y, Wang H, Yang Y, Zhang J, Huang Y, Fan S, Gu C, Shangguan L, Lin X. Extracellular Vesicle Mimetics: Preparation from Top-Down Approaches and Biological Functions. Adv Healthc Mater 2022; 11:e2200142. [PMID: 35899756 DOI: 10.1002/adhm.202200142] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/18/2022] [Revised: 07/15/2022] [Indexed: 01/27/2023]
Abstract
Extracellular vesicles (EVs) have attracted attention as delivery vehicles due to their structure, composition, and unique properties in regeneration and immunomodulation. However, difficulties during production and isolation processes of EVs limit their large-scale clinical applications. EV mimetics (EVMs), prepared via top-down strategies that improve the yield of nanoparticles while retaining biological properties similar to those of EVs have been used to address these limitations. Herein, the preparation of EVMs is reviewed and their characteristics in terms of structure, composition, targeting ability, cellular uptake mechanism, and immunogenicity, as well as their strengths, limitations, and future clinical application prospects as EV alternatives are summarized.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yuan Du
- Department of Orthopaedic Surgery, Sir Run Run Shaw Hospital, Medical College of Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, 310020, China.,Department of Orthopaedics, The First Affiliated Hospital of Wenzhou Medical University, Wenzhou, 325000, China
| | - Hongyi Wang
- Department of Orthopaedic Surgery, Sir Run Run Shaw Hospital, Medical College of Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, 310020, China.,Department of Orthopaedics, The First Affiliated Hospital of Wenzhou Medical University, Wenzhou, 325000, China
| | - Yang Yang
- Department of Orthopaedic Surgery, Sir Run Run Shaw Hospital, Medical College of Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, 310020, China.,Department of Orthopaedics, The First Affiliated Hospital of Wenzhou Medical University, Wenzhou, 325000, China
| | - Jianfeng Zhang
- Department of Orthopaedic Surgery, Sir Run Run Shaw Hospital, Medical College of Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, 310020, China
| | - Yue Huang
- Department of Orthopaedic Surgery, Sir Run Run Shaw Hospital, Medical College of Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, 310020, China
| | - Shunwu Fan
- Department of Orthopaedic Surgery, Sir Run Run Shaw Hospital, Medical College of Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, 310020, China.,Hangzhou OrigO Biotechnology Co. Ltd., Hangzhou, 311200, China
| | - Chenhui Gu
- Department of Orthopaedic Surgery, Sir Run Run Shaw Hospital, Medical College of Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, 310020, China.,Department of Orthopaedics, The First Affiliated Hospital of Wenzhou Medical University, Wenzhou, 325000, China.,Hangzhou OrigO Biotechnology Co. Ltd., Hangzhou, 311200, China
| | - Liqing Shangguan
- Department of Orthopaedic Surgery, Sir Run Run Shaw Hospital, Medical College of Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, 310020, China.,Department of Orthopaedics, The First Affiliated Hospital of Wenzhou Medical University, Wenzhou, 325000, China
| | - Xianfeng Lin
- Department of Orthopaedic Surgery, Sir Run Run Shaw Hospital, Medical College of Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, 310020, China.,Department of Orthopaedics, The First Affiliated Hospital of Wenzhou Medical University, Wenzhou, 325000, China.,Hangzhou OrigO Biotechnology Co. Ltd., Hangzhou, 311200, China
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6
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Liang X, Niu Z, Galli V, Howe N, Zhao Y, Wiklander OPB, Zheng W, Wiklander RJ, Corso G, Davies C, Hean J, Kyriakopoulou E, Mamand DR, Amin R, Nordin JZ, Gupta D, Andaloussi SEL. Extracellular vesicles engineered to bind albumin demonstrate extended circulation time and lymph node accumulation in mouse models. J Extracell Vesicles 2022; 11:e12248. [PMID: 35879268 PMCID: PMC9314316 DOI: 10.1002/jev2.12248] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/30/2022] [Revised: 06/29/2022] [Accepted: 07/11/2022] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Extracellular vesicles (EVs) have shown promise as potential therapeutics for the treatment of various diseases. However, their rapid clearance after administration could be a limitation in certain therapeutic settings. To solve this, an engineering strategy is employed to decorate albumin onto the surface of the EVs through surface display of albumin binding domains (ABDs). ABDs were either included in the extracellular loops of select EV-enriched tetraspanins (CD63, CD9 and CD81) or directly fused to the extracellular terminal of single transmembrane EV-sorting domains, such as Lamp2B. These engineered EVs exert robust binding capacity to human serum albumins (HSA) in vitro and mouse serum albumins (MSA) after injection in mice. By binding to MSA, circulating time of EVs dramatically increases after different routes of injection in different strains of mice. Moreover, these engineered EVs show considerable lymph node (LN) and solid tumour accumulation, which can be utilized when using EVs for immunomodulation, cancer- and/or immunotherapy. The increased circulation time of EVs may also be important when combined with tissue-specific targeting ligands and could provide significant benefit for their therapeutic use in a variety of disease indications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiuming Liang
- Biomolecular MedicineClinical Research CenterDepartment of Laboratory Medicine Karolinska InstitutetStockholmSweden
- Cancer Research LaboratoryShandong University‐Karolinska Institutet collaborative LaboratorySchool of Basic Medical ScienceShandong UniversityJinanShandongPR China
| | - Zheyu Niu
- Biomolecular MedicineClinical Research CenterDepartment of Laboratory Medicine Karolinska InstitutetStockholmSweden
- Department of Hepatobiliary SurgeryShandong Provincial Hospital Affiliated to Shandong First Medical UniversityJinanChina
| | | | | | - Ying Zhao
- Experimental Cancer MedicineClinical Research CenterDepartment of Laboratory MedicineKarolinska InstitutetStockholmSweden
| | - Oscar P. B. Wiklander
- Biomolecular MedicineClinical Research CenterDepartment of Laboratory Medicine Karolinska InstitutetStockholmSweden
| | - Wenyi Zheng
- Biomolecular MedicineClinical Research CenterDepartment of Laboratory Medicine Karolinska InstitutetStockholmSweden
| | - Rim Jawad Wiklander
- Biomolecular MedicineClinical Research CenterDepartment of Laboratory Medicine Karolinska InstitutetStockholmSweden
| | - Giulia Corso
- Biomolecular MedicineClinical Research CenterDepartment of Laboratory Medicine Karolinska InstitutetStockholmSweden
| | | | | | | | - Doste R. Mamand
- Biomolecular MedicineClinical Research CenterDepartment of Laboratory Medicine Karolinska InstitutetStockholmSweden
| | - Risul Amin
- Biomolecular MedicineClinical Research CenterDepartment of Laboratory Medicine Karolinska InstitutetStockholmSweden
| | - Joel Z. Nordin
- Biomolecular MedicineClinical Research CenterDepartment of Laboratory Medicine Karolinska InstitutetStockholmSweden
| | - Dhanu Gupta
- Biomolecular MedicineClinical Research CenterDepartment of Laboratory Medicine Karolinska InstitutetStockholmSweden
| | - Samir EL Andaloussi
- Biomolecular MedicineClinical Research CenterDepartment of Laboratory Medicine Karolinska InstitutetStockholmSweden
- Evox Therapeutics LimitedOxfordUK
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7
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Rufino-Ramos D, Lule S, Mahjoum S, Ughetto S, Cristopher Bragg D, Pereira de Almeida L, Breakefield XO, Breyne K. Using genetically modified extracellular vesicles as a non-invasive strategy to evaluate brain-specific cargo. Biomaterials 2022; 281:121366. [PMID: 35033904 PMCID: PMC8886823 DOI: 10.1016/j.biomaterials.2022.121366] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/11/2021] [Revised: 12/25/2021] [Accepted: 01/04/2022] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Abstract
The lack of techniques to trace brain cell behavior in vivo hampers the ability to monitor status of cells in a living brain. Extracellular vesicles (EVs), nanosized membrane-surrounded vesicles, released by virtually all brain cells might be able to report their status in easily accessible biofluids, such as blood. EVs communicate among tissues using lipids, saccharides, proteins, and nucleic acid cargo that reflect the state and composition of their source cells. Currently, identifying the origin of brain-derived EVs has been challenging, as they consist of a rare population diluted in an overwhelming number of blood and peripheral tissue-derived EVs. Here, we developed a sensitive platform to select out pre-labelled brain-derived EVs in blood as a platform to study the molecular fingerprints of brain cells. This proof-of-principle study used a transducible construct tagging tetraspanin (TSN) CD63, a membrane-spanning hallmark of EVs equipped with affinity, bioluminescent, and fluorescent tags to increase detection sensitivity and robustness in capture of EVs secreted from pre-labelled cells into biofluids. Our platform enables unprecedented efficient isolation of neural EVs from the blood. These EVs derived from pre-labelled mouse brain cells or engrafted human neuronal progenitor cells (hNPCs) were submitted to multiplex analyses, including transcript and protein levels, in compliance with the multibiomolecule EV carriers. Overall, our novel strategy to track brain-derived EVs in a complex biofluid opens up new avenues to study EVs released from pre-labelled cells in near and distal compartments into the biofluid source.
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Affiliation(s)
- David Rufino-Ramos
- Neurology and Radiology Department, Massachusetts General Hospital, Harvard Medical School, 13(th)Street, Building 149, Charlestown, MA, 02129, USA; CNC-Center for Neuroscience and Cell Biology, University of Coimbra, Rua Larga, Coimbra, 3004-504, Portugal; Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Coimbra, Coimbra, 3000-548, Portugal; CIBB-Center for Innovative Biomedicine and Biotechnology, University of Coimbra, Coimbra, Portugal
| | - Sevda Lule
- Neurology and Radiology Department, Massachusetts General Hospital, Harvard Medical School, 13(th)Street, Building 149, Charlestown, MA, 02129, USA
| | - Shadi Mahjoum
- Neurology and Radiology Department, Massachusetts General Hospital, Harvard Medical School, 13(th)Street, Building 149, Charlestown, MA, 02129, USA
| | - Stefano Ughetto
- Neurology and Radiology Department, Massachusetts General Hospital, Harvard Medical School, 13(th)Street, Building 149, Charlestown, MA, 02129, USA
| | - D Cristopher Bragg
- Neurology and Radiology Department, Massachusetts General Hospital, Harvard Medical School, 13(th)Street, Building 149, Charlestown, MA, 02129, USA; The Collaborative Center for X-linked Dystonia-Parkinsonism, Massachusetts General Hospital, Charlestown, MA, 02129, USA
| | - Luís Pereira de Almeida
- CNC-Center for Neuroscience and Cell Biology, University of Coimbra, Rua Larga, Coimbra, 3004-504, Portugal; Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Coimbra, Coimbra, 3000-548, Portugal; CIBB-Center for Innovative Biomedicine and Biotechnology, University of Coimbra, Coimbra, Portugal
| | - Xandra O Breakefield
- Neurology and Radiology Department, Massachusetts General Hospital, Harvard Medical School, 13(th)Street, Building 149, Charlestown, MA, 02129, USA
| | - Koen Breyne
- Neurology and Radiology Department, Massachusetts General Hospital, Harvard Medical School, 13(th)Street, Building 149, Charlestown, MA, 02129, USA.
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8
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Staufer O, Dietrich F, Rimal R, Schröter M, Fabritz S, Boehm H, Singh S, Möller M, Platzman I, Spatz JP. Bottom-up assembly of biomedical relevant fully synthetic extracellular vesicles. SCIENCE ADVANCES 2021; 7:eabg6666. [PMID: 34516902 PMCID: PMC8442894 DOI: 10.1126/sciadv.abg6666] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/02/2023]
Abstract
Extracellular vesicles (EVs) are fundamental for intercellular communication and influence nearly every process in cell physiology. However, because of their intricate molecular complexity, quantitative knowledge on their signaling mechanisms is missing, particularly impeding their therapeutic application. We used a complementary and quantitative engineering approach based on sequential synthetic bottom-up assembly of fully functional EVs with precisely controlled lipid, protein, and RNA composition. We show that the functionalities of synthetic EVs are analogous to natural EVs and demonstrate their programmable therapeutic administration for wound healing and neovascularization therapy. We apply transcriptome profiling to systematically decode synergistic effects between individual EV constituents, enabling analytical dissection and a fundamental understanding of EV signaling.
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Affiliation(s)
- Oskar Staufer
- Department for Cellular Biophysics, Max Planck Institute for Medical Research, Jahnstraße 29, 69120 Heidelberg, Germany
- Institute for Molecular Systems Engineering (IMSE), Heidelberg University, 69120 Heidelberg, Germany
- Max Planck-Bristol Center for Minimal Biology, University of Bristol, 1 Tankard’s Close, Bristol BS8 1TD, UK
- Max Planck School Matter to Life, Jahnstraße 29, 69120 Heidelberg, Germany
- Corresponding author. (O.S.); (I.P.); (J.P.S.)
| | - Franziska Dietrich
- Department for Cellular Biophysics, Max Planck Institute for Medical Research, Jahnstraße 29, 69120 Heidelberg, Germany
- Institute for Molecular Systems Engineering (IMSE), Heidelberg University, 69120 Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Rahul Rimal
- DWI-Leibniz-Institute for Interactive Materials, Forckenbeckstrasse 50, 52056 Aachen, Germany
| | - Martin Schröter
- Department for Cellular Biophysics, Max Planck Institute for Medical Research, Jahnstraße 29, 69120 Heidelberg, Germany
- Institute for Molecular Systems Engineering (IMSE), Heidelberg University, 69120 Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Sebastian Fabritz
- Department for Chemical Biology, Max Planck Institute for Medical Research, Jahnstraße 29, D-69120 Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Heike Boehm
- Department for Cellular Biophysics, Max Planck Institute for Medical Research, Jahnstraße 29, 69120 Heidelberg, Germany
- Institute for Molecular Systems Engineering (IMSE), Heidelberg University, 69120 Heidelberg, Germany
- Max Planck School Matter to Life, Jahnstraße 29, 69120 Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Smriti Singh
- DWI-Leibniz-Institute for Interactive Materials, Forckenbeckstrasse 50, 52056 Aachen, Germany
| | - Martin Möller
- Max Planck School Matter to Life, Jahnstraße 29, 69120 Heidelberg, Germany
- DWI-Leibniz-Institute for Interactive Materials, Forckenbeckstrasse 50, 52056 Aachen, Germany
| | - Ilia Platzman
- Department for Cellular Biophysics, Max Planck Institute for Medical Research, Jahnstraße 29, 69120 Heidelberg, Germany
- Institute for Molecular Systems Engineering (IMSE), Heidelberg University, 69120 Heidelberg, Germany
- Max Planck-Bristol Center for Minimal Biology, University of Bristol, 1 Tankard’s Close, Bristol BS8 1TD, UK
- Corresponding author. (O.S.); (I.P.); (J.P.S.)
| | - Joachim Pius Spatz
- Department for Cellular Biophysics, Max Planck Institute for Medical Research, Jahnstraße 29, 69120 Heidelberg, Germany
- Institute for Molecular Systems Engineering (IMSE), Heidelberg University, 69120 Heidelberg, Germany
- Max Planck-Bristol Center for Minimal Biology, University of Bristol, 1 Tankard’s Close, Bristol BS8 1TD, UK
- Max Planck School Matter to Life, Jahnstraße 29, 69120 Heidelberg, Germany
- Corresponding author. (O.S.); (I.P.); (J.P.S.)
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9
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Alberro A, Iparraguirre L, Fernandes A, Otaegui D. Extracellular Vesicles in Blood: Sources, Effects, and Applications. Int J Mol Sci 2021; 22:ijms22158163. [PMID: 34360924 PMCID: PMC8347110 DOI: 10.3390/ijms22158163] [Citation(s) in RCA: 65] [Impact Index Per Article: 21.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/02/2021] [Revised: 07/26/2021] [Accepted: 07/27/2021] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Extracellular vesicles (EVs) are important players for intercellular communication. EVs are secreted by almost all cell types; they can transfer information between nearby or distant cells, and they are highly abundant in body fluids. In this review, we describe the general characteristics of EVs, as well as isolation and characterization approaches. Then, we focus on one of the most relevant sources of EVs: the blood. Indeed, apart from EVs secreted by blood cells, EVs of diverse origins travel in the bloodstream. We present the numerous types of EVs that have been found in circulation. Besides, the implications of blood-derived EVs in both physiological and pathological processes are summarized, highlighting their potential as biomarkers for the diagnosis, treatment monitoring, and prognosis of several diseases, and also as indicators of physiological modifications. Finally, the applications of EVs introduced in the circulatory system are discussed. We describe the use of EVs from distinct origins, naturally produced or engineered, autologous, allogeneic, or even from different species and the effects they have when introduced in circulation. Therefore, the present work provides a comprehensive overview of the components, effects, and applications of EVs in blood.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ainhoa Alberro
- Multiple Sclerosis Group, Biodonostia Health Research Institute, 20014 San Sebastian, Spain; (A.A.); (L.I.)
- Research Institute for Medicines (iMed.ULisboa), Faculty of Pharmacy, Universidade de Lisboa, 1649-003 Lisboa, Portugal;
| | - Leire Iparraguirre
- Multiple Sclerosis Group, Biodonostia Health Research Institute, 20014 San Sebastian, Spain; (A.A.); (L.I.)
| | - Adelaide Fernandes
- Research Institute for Medicines (iMed.ULisboa), Faculty of Pharmacy, Universidade de Lisboa, 1649-003 Lisboa, Portugal;
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences and Medicines, Faculty of Pharmacy, Universidade de Lisboa, 1649-003 Lisboa, Portugal
| | - David Otaegui
- Multiple Sclerosis Group, Biodonostia Health Research Institute, 20014 San Sebastian, Spain; (A.A.); (L.I.)
- Correspondence:
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10
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Liang Y, Lehrich BM, Zheng S, Lu M. Emerging methods in biomarker identification for extracellular vesicle-based liquid biopsy. J Extracell Vesicles 2021; 10:e12090. [PMID: 34012517 PMCID: PMC8114032 DOI: 10.1002/jev2.12090] [Citation(s) in RCA: 77] [Impact Index Per Article: 25.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/26/2020] [Revised: 03/17/2021] [Accepted: 04/13/2021] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Extracellular vesicles (EVs) are released by many cell types and distributed within various biofluids. EVs have a lipid membrane-confined structure that allows for carrying unique molecular information originating from their parent cells. The species and quantity of EV cargo molecules, including nucleic acids, proteins, lipids, and metabolites, may vary largely owing to their parent cell types and the pathophysiologic status. Such heterogeneity in EV populations provides immense challenges to researchers, yet allows for the possibility to prognosticate the pathogenesis of a particular tissue from unique molecular signatures of dispersing EVs within biofluids. However, the inherent nature of EV's small size requires advanced methods for EV purification and evaluation from the complex biofluid. Recently, the interdisciplinary significance of EV research has attracted growing interests, and the EV analytical platforms for their diagnostic prospect have markedly progressed. This review summarizes the recent advances in these EV detection techniques and methods with the intention of translating an EV-based liquid biopsy into clinical practice. This article aims to present an overview of current EV assessment techniques, with a focus on their progress and limitations, as well as an outlook on the clinical translation of an EV-based liquid biopsy that may augment current paradigms for the diagnosis, prognosis, and monitoring the response to therapy in a variety of disease settings.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yaxuan Liang
- Center for Biological Science and Technology, Advanced Institute of Natural SciencesBeijing Normal University at ZhuhaiZhuhaiChina
| | - Brandon M. Lehrich
- Medical Scientist Training ProgramUniversity of Pittsburgh School of Medicine and Carnegie Mellon UniversityPittsburghPennsylvaniaUSA
| | - Siyang Zheng
- Department Biomedical EngineeringCarnegie Mellon UniversityPittsburghPennsylvaniaUSA
- Department of Electrical and Computer EngineeringCarnegie Mellon UniversityPittsburghPennsylvaniaUSA
| | - Mengrou Lu
- Department Biomedical EngineeringCarnegie Mellon UniversityPittsburghPennsylvaniaUSA
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11
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Ahmed W, Neelakanta G, Sultana H. Tetraspanins as Potential Therapeutic Candidates for Targeting Flaviviruses. Front Immunol 2021; 12:630571. [PMID: 33968023 PMCID: PMC8097176 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2021.630571] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/17/2020] [Accepted: 04/06/2021] [Indexed: 12/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Tetraspanin family of proteins participates in numerous fundamental signaling pathways involved in viral transmission, virus-specific immunity, and virus-mediated vesicular trafficking. Studies in the identification of novel therapeutic candidates and strategies to target West Nile virus, dengue and Zika viruses are highly warranted due to the failure in development of vaccines. Recent evidences have shown that the widely distributed tetraspanin proteins may provide a platform for the development of novel therapeutic approaches. In this review, we discuss the diversified and important functions of tetraspanins in exosome/extracellular vesicle biology, virus-host interactions, virus-mediated vesicular trafficking, modulation of immune mechanism(s), and their possible role(s) in host antiviral defense mechanism(s) through interactions with noncoding RNAs. We also highlight the role of tetraspanins in the development of novel therapeutics to target arthropod-borne flaviviral diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Waqas Ahmed
- Department of Biological Sciences, Old Dominion University, Norfolk, VA, United States
| | - Girish Neelakanta
- Department of Biological Sciences, Old Dominion University, Norfolk, VA, United States.,Center for Molecular Medicine, Old Dominion University, Norfolk, VA, United States
| | - Hameeda Sultana
- Department of Biological Sciences, Old Dominion University, Norfolk, VA, United States.,Center for Molecular Medicine, Old Dominion University, Norfolk, VA, United States
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12
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Geeurickx E, Lippens L, Rappu P, De Geest BG, De Wever O, Hendrix A. Recombinant extracellular vesicles as biological reference material for method development, data normalization and assessment of (pre-)analytical variables. Nat Protoc 2021; 16:603-633. [PMID: 33452501 DOI: 10.1038/s41596-020-00446-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/27/2020] [Accepted: 10/15/2020] [Indexed: 01/29/2023]
Abstract
The diagnostic and therapeutic use of extracellular vesicles (EV) is under intense investigation and may lead to societal benefits. Reference materials are an invaluable resource for developing, improving and assessing the performance of regulated EV applications and for quantitative and objective data interpretation. We have engineered recombinant EV (rEV) as a biological reference material. rEV have similar biochemical and biophysical characteristics to sample EV and function as an internal quantitative and qualitative control throughout analysis. Spiking rEV in bodily fluids prior to EV analysis maps technical variability of EV applications and promotes intra- and inter-laboratory studies. This protocol, which is an Extension to our previously published protocol (Tulkens et al., 2020), describes the production, separation and quality assurance of rEV, their dilution and addition to bodily fluids, and the detection steps based on complementary fluorescence, nucleic acid and protein measurements. We demonstrate the use of rEV for method development, data normalization and assessment of pre-analytical variables. The protocol can be adopted by researchers with standard laboratory and basic EV separation/characterization experience and requires ~4-5 d.
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Affiliation(s)
- Edward Geeurickx
- Laboratory of Experimental Cancer Research, Department of Human Structure and Repair, Ghent University, Ghent, Belgium.,Cancer Research Institute Ghent, Ghent, Belgium
| | - Lien Lippens
- Laboratory of Experimental Cancer Research, Department of Human Structure and Repair, Ghent University, Ghent, Belgium.,Cancer Research Institute Ghent, Ghent, Belgium.,Department of Medical Oncology, Ghent University Hospital, Ghent, Belgium
| | - Pekka Rappu
- Department of Biochemistry, University of Turku, Turku, Finland
| | - Bruno G De Geest
- Cancer Research Institute Ghent, Ghent, Belgium.,Department of Pharmaceutics, Ghent University, Ghent, Belgium
| | - Olivier De Wever
- Laboratory of Experimental Cancer Research, Department of Human Structure and Repair, Ghent University, Ghent, Belgium.,Cancer Research Institute Ghent, Ghent, Belgium
| | - An Hendrix
- Laboratory of Experimental Cancer Research, Department of Human Structure and Repair, Ghent University, Ghent, Belgium. .,Cancer Research Institute Ghent, Ghent, Belgium.
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13
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Roles of Bile-Derived Exosomes in Hepatobiliary Disease. BIOMED RESEARCH INTERNATIONAL 2021; 2021:8743409. [PMID: 33511212 PMCID: PMC7822672 DOI: 10.1155/2021/8743409] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/12/2020] [Revised: 12/23/2020] [Accepted: 01/06/2021] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
Exosomes are vesicles with a diameter of 30-150 nm produced by living cells and secreted into the extracellular matrix. Exosomes mediate cellular communication by carrying active molecules, such as nucleic acids, proteins, and liposomes. Although exosomes are found in various body fluids, little is known about bile-derived exosomes. This review is the first to summarize the methods of bile storage and isolation of biliary exosomes, highlighting the roles of bile-derived exosomes, especially exosomal noncoding RNAs, in physiological and disease states and discussing their potential clinical applications.
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14
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Chiabotto G, Pasquino C, Camussi G, Bruno S. Molecular Pathways Modulated by Mesenchymal Stromal Cells and Their Extracellular Vesicles in Experimental Models of Liver Fibrosis. Front Cell Dev Biol 2020; 8:594794. [PMID: 33425900 PMCID: PMC7794013 DOI: 10.3389/fcell.2020.594794] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/14/2020] [Accepted: 11/06/2020] [Indexed: 12/18/2022] Open
Abstract
End-stage liver fibrosis is common to all chronic liver diseases. Since liver transplantation has several limitations, including lack of donors, immunological rejection, and high medical costs, therapeutic alternatives are needed. The administration of mesenchymal stromal cells (MSCs) has been proven effective in tissue regeneration after damage. However, the risk of uncontrolled side effects, such as cellular rejection and tumorigenesis, should be taken into consideration. A safer alternative to MSC transplantation is represented by the MSC secretome, which retains the same beneficial effect of the cell of origin, without showing any considerable side effect. The paracrine effect of MSCs is mainly carried out by secreted particles in the nanometer range, known as extracellular vesicles (EVs) that play a fundamental role in intercellular communication. In this review, we discuss the current literature on MSCs and MSC-EVs, focusing on their potential therapeutic action in liver fibrosis and on their molecular content (proteins and RNA), which contributes in reverting fibrosis and prompting tissue regeneration.
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Affiliation(s)
- Giulia Chiabotto
- Department of Medical Sciences, University of Turin, Turin, Italy.,Molecular Biotechnology Center, University of Turin, Turin, Italy
| | - Chiara Pasquino
- Department of Medical Sciences, University of Turin, Turin, Italy.,Molecular Biotechnology Center, University of Turin, Turin, Italy
| | - Giovanni Camussi
- Department of Medical Sciences, University of Turin, Turin, Italy.,Molecular Biotechnology Center, University of Turin, Turin, Italy
| | - Stefania Bruno
- Department of Medical Sciences, University of Turin, Turin, Italy.,Molecular Biotechnology Center, University of Turin, Turin, Italy
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15
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Brahmer A, Neuberger EWI, Simon P, Krämer-Albers EM. Considerations for the Analysis of Small Extracellular Vesicles in Physical Exercise. Front Physiol 2020; 11:576150. [PMID: 33343383 PMCID: PMC7744614 DOI: 10.3389/fphys.2020.576150] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/25/2020] [Accepted: 11/18/2020] [Indexed: 12/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Physical exercise induces acute physiological changes leading to enhanced tissue cross-talk and a liberation of extracellular vesicles (EVs) into the circulation. EVs are cell-derived membranous entities which carry bioactive material, such as proteins and RNA species, and are important mediators of cell-cell-communication. Different types of physical exercise interventions trigger the release of diverse EV subpopulations, which are hypothesized to be involved in physiological adaptation processes leading to health benefits and longevity. Large EVs (“microvesicles” and “microparticles”) are studied frequently in the context of physical exercise using straight forward flow cytometry approaches. However, the analysis of small EVs (sEVs) including exosomes is hampered by the complex composition of blood, confounding the methodology of EV isolation and characterization. This mini review presents a concise overview of the current state of research on sEVs released upon physical exercise (ExerVs), highlighting the technical limits of ExerV analysis. The purity of EV preparations is highly influenced by the co-isolation of non-EV structures in the size range or density of EVs, such as lipoproteins and protein aggregates. Technical constraints associated with EV purification challenge the quantification of distinct ExerV populations, the identification of their cargo, and the investigation of their biological functions. Here, we offer recommendations for the isolation and characterization of ExerVs to minimize the effects of these drawbacks. Technological advances in the ExerV research field will improve understanding of the inter-cellular cross-talk induced by physical exercise leading to health benefits.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alexandra Brahmer
- Extracellular Vesicles Research Group, Institute of Developmental Biology and Neurobiology, Johannes Gutenberg University of Mainz, Mainz, Germany.,Department of Sports Medicine, Rehabilitation and Disease Prevention, Johannes Gutenberg University of Mainz, Mainz, Germany
| | - Elmo W I Neuberger
- Department of Sports Medicine, Rehabilitation and Disease Prevention, Johannes Gutenberg University of Mainz, Mainz, Germany
| | - Perikles Simon
- Department of Sports Medicine, Rehabilitation and Disease Prevention, Johannes Gutenberg University of Mainz, Mainz, Germany
| | - Eva-Maria Krämer-Albers
- Extracellular Vesicles Research Group, Institute of Developmental Biology and Neurobiology, Johannes Gutenberg University of Mainz, Mainz, Germany
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16
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Lim HK, Jeffrey GP, Ramm GA, Soekmadji C. Pathogenesis of Viral Hepatitis-Induced Chronic Liver Disease: Role of Extracellular Vesicles. Front Cell Infect Microbiol 2020; 10:587628. [PMID: 33240824 PMCID: PMC7683521 DOI: 10.3389/fcimb.2020.587628] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/27/2020] [Accepted: 10/13/2020] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Extracellular vesicles are encapsulated lipid nanoparticles secreted by a variety of cell types in living organisms. They are known to carry proteins, metabolites, nucleic acids, and lipids as their cargoes and are important mediators of intercellular communication. The role of extracellular vesicles in chronic liver disease has been reported. Chronic liver disease such as viral hepatitis accounts for a significant mortality and morbidity burden worldwide. Hepatic fibrosis has been commonly associated with the chronic form of viral hepatitis, which results in end-stage liver disease, including cirrhosis, liver failure, and carcinoma in some patients. In this review, we discuss the potential role of extracellular vesicles in mediating communication between infectious agents (hepatitis B and C viruses) and host cells, and how these complex cell-cell interactions may facilitate the development of chronic liver disease. We will further discuss how understanding their biological mechanism of action might be beneficial for developing therapeutic strategies to treat chronic liver disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hong Kiat Lim
- Hepatic Fibrosis Group, Department of Cellular and Molecular Biology, QIMR Berghofer Medical Research Institute, Brisbane, QLD, Australia
| | - Gary P Jeffrey
- Faculty of Health and Medical Sciences, University of Western Australia, Perth, WA, Australia.,Sir Charles Gairdner Hospital, Nedlands, Hepatology Department and Liver Transplant Service, Perth, WA, Australia
| | - Grant A Ramm
- Hepatic Fibrosis Group, Department of Cellular and Molecular Biology, QIMR Berghofer Medical Research Institute, Brisbane, QLD, Australia.,Faculty of Medicine, The University of Queensland, Brisbane, QLD, Australia
| | - Carolina Soekmadji
- Hepatic Fibrosis Group, Department of Cellular and Molecular Biology, QIMR Berghofer Medical Research Institute, Brisbane, QLD, Australia.,Faculty of Medicine, The University of Queensland, Brisbane, QLD, Australia
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17
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Noren Hooten N, Yáñez‐Mó M, DeRita R, Russell A, Quesenberry P, Ramratnam B, Robbins PD, Di Vizio D, Wen S, Witwer KW, Languino LR. Hitting the Bullseye: Are extracellular vesicles on target? J Extracell Vesicles 2020; 10:e12032. [PMID: 33708359 PMCID: PMC7890543 DOI: 10.1002/jev2.12032] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/12/2020] [Revised: 10/26/2020] [Accepted: 10/31/2020] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Nicole Noren Hooten
- Laboratory of Epidemiology and Population ScienceNational Institute on AgingNational Institutes of HealthBaltimoreMarylandUSA
| | - María Yáñez‐Mó
- Departamento de Biología MolecularUAMCentro de Biología Molecular Severo OchoaIIS‐IPMadridSpain
| | - Rachel DeRita
- Department of Cancer BiologySidney Kimmel Cancer CenterJefferson UniversityPhiladelphiaPennsylvaniaUSA
| | - Ashley Russell
- Department of Molecular and Comparative PathobiologyJohns Hopkins University School of MedicineBaltimoreMarylandUSA
| | - Peter Quesenberry
- Division of Hematology/OncologyThe Warren Alpert Medical School of Brown UniversityProvidenceRhode IslandUSA
| | - Bharat Ramratnam
- Department of MedicineAlpert Medical SchoolBrown UniversityProvidenceRhode IslandUSA
| | - Paul D. Robbins
- Institute on the Biology of Aging and Metabolism, and Department of BiochemistryMolecular Biology and Biophysics University of MinnesotaMinneapolisMinnesotaUSA
| | - Dolores Di Vizio
- Departments of SurgeryBiomedical Sciences, and Pathology & Laboratory MedicineDivision of Cancer Biology and TherapeuticsCedars‐Sinai Medical CenterLos AngelesCaliforniaUSA
| | - Sicheng Wen
- Division of Hematology/OncologyThe Warren Alpert Medical School of Brown UniversityProvidenceRhode IslandUSA
| | - Kenneth W. Witwer
- Department of Molecular and Comparative PathobiologyJohns Hopkins University School of MedicineBaltimoreMarylandUSA
- Department of NeurologyRichman Family Precision Medicine Center of Excellence in Alzheimer’s DiseaseJohns Hopkins University School of MedicineBaltimoreMarylandUSA
| | - Lucia R. Languino
- Department of Cancer BiologySidney Kimmel Cancer CenterJefferson UniversityPhiladelphiaPennsylvaniaUSA
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18
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Tetraspanins, More than Markers of Extracellular Vesicles in Reproduction. Int J Mol Sci 2020; 21:ijms21207568. [PMID: 33066349 PMCID: PMC7589920 DOI: 10.3390/ijms21207568] [Citation(s) in RCA: 100] [Impact Index Per Article: 25.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/21/2020] [Revised: 10/08/2020] [Accepted: 10/08/2020] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
The participation of extracellular vesicles in many cellular processes, including reproduction, is unquestionable. Although currently, the tetraspanin proteins found in extracellular vesicles are mostly applied as markers, increasing evidence points to their role in extracellular vesicle biogenesis, cargo selection, cell targeting, and cell uptake under both physiological and pathological conditions. In this review, we bring other insight into the involvement of tetraspanin proteins in extracellular vesicle physiology in mammalian reproduction. We provide knowledge regarding the involvement of extracellular vesicle tetraspanins in these processes in somatic cells. Furthermore, we discuss the future direction towards an understanding of their functions in the tissues and fluids of the mammalian reproductive system in gamete maturation, fertilization, and embryo development; their involvement in mutual cell contact and communication in their complexity.
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19
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Azparren-Angulo M, Royo F, Gonzalez E, Liebana M, Brotons B, Berganza J, Goñi-de-Cerio F, Manicardi N, Abad-Jordà L, Gracia-Sancho J, Falcon-Perez JM. Extracellular vesicles in hepatology: Physiological role, involvement in pathogenesis, and therapeutic opportunities. Pharmacol Ther 2020; 218:107683. [PMID: 32961265 DOI: 10.1016/j.pharmthera.2020.107683] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/27/2020] [Accepted: 09/09/2020] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
Since the first descriptions of hepatocyte-released exosome-like vesicles in 2008, the number of publications describing Extracellular Vesicles (EVs) released by liver cells in the context of hepatic physiology and pathology has grown exponentially. This growing interest highlights both the importance that cell-to-cell communication has in the organization of multicellular organisms from a physiological point of view, as well as the opportunity that these circulating organelles offer in diagnostics and therapeutics. In the present review, we summarize systematically and comprehensively the myriad of works that appeared in the last decade and lighted the discussion about the best opportunities for using EVs in liver disease therapeutics.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maria Azparren-Angulo
- Exosomes Laboratory, Center for Cooperative Research in Biosciences (CIC bioGUNE), Basque Research and Technology Alliance (BRTA), Derio, Bizkaia 48160, Spain
| | - Felix Royo
- Exosomes Laboratory, Center for Cooperative Research in Biosciences (CIC bioGUNE), Basque Research and Technology Alliance (BRTA), Derio, Bizkaia 48160, Spain; Centro de Investigación Biomédica en Red de enfermedades hepáticas y digestivas (CIBERehd), Instituto de Salud Carlos III, Madrid 28029, Spain
| | - Esperanza Gonzalez
- Exosomes Laboratory, Center for Cooperative Research in Biosciences (CIC bioGUNE), Basque Research and Technology Alliance (BRTA), Derio, Bizkaia 48160, Spain
| | - Marc Liebana
- Exosomes Laboratory, Center for Cooperative Research in Biosciences (CIC bioGUNE), Basque Research and Technology Alliance (BRTA), Derio, Bizkaia 48160, Spain
| | - Bruno Brotons
- Exosomes Laboratory, Center for Cooperative Research in Biosciences (CIC bioGUNE), Basque Research and Technology Alliance (BRTA), Derio, Bizkaia 48160, Spain
| | - Jesús Berganza
- GAIKER Technology Centre, Basque Research and Technology Alliance (BRTA), Parque Tecnológico, Edificio 202, 48170 Zamudio, Bizkaia, Spain
| | - Felipe Goñi-de-Cerio
- GAIKER Technology Centre, Basque Research and Technology Alliance (BRTA), Parque Tecnológico, Edificio 202, 48170 Zamudio, Bizkaia, Spain
| | - Nicoló Manicardi
- Liver Vascular Biology Research Group, Barcelona Hepatic Hemodynamic Unit, IDIBAPS, CIBEREHD, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Laia Abad-Jordà
- Liver Vascular Biology Research Group, Barcelona Hepatic Hemodynamic Unit, IDIBAPS, CIBEREHD, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Jordi Gracia-Sancho
- Liver Vascular Biology Research Group, Barcelona Hepatic Hemodynamic Unit, IDIBAPS, CIBEREHD, Barcelona, Spain; Hepatology, Department of Biomedical Research, Inselspital & University of Bern, Switzerland
| | - Juan M Falcon-Perez
- Exosomes Laboratory, Center for Cooperative Research in Biosciences (CIC bioGUNE), Basque Research and Technology Alliance (BRTA), Derio, Bizkaia 48160, Spain; Centro de Investigación Biomédica en Red de enfermedades hepáticas y digestivas (CIBERehd), Instituto de Salud Carlos III, Madrid 28029, Spain; IKERBASQUE, Basque Foundation for Science, Bilbao, Bizkaia 48015, Spain.
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20
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Povero D, Yamashita H, Ren W, Subramanian MG, Myers RP, Eguchi A, Simonetto DA, Goodman ZD, Harrison SA, Sanyal AJ, Bosch J, Feldstein AE. Characterization and Proteome of Circulating Extracellular Vesicles as Potential Biomarkers for NASH. Hepatol Commun 2020; 4:1263-1278. [PMID: 32923831 PMCID: PMC7471415 DOI: 10.1002/hep4.1556] [Citation(s) in RCA: 50] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/13/2020] [Revised: 04/17/2020] [Accepted: 05/11/2020] [Indexed: 12/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Nonalcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD) is currently one of most common forms of chronic liver disease globally. NAFLD represents a wide spectrum of liver involvement from nonprogressive isolated steatosis to nonalcoholic steatohepatitis (NASH), characterized by liver necroinflammation and fibrosis and currently one of the top causes of end‐stage liver disease and hepatocellular carcinoma. At present, there is a lack of effective treatments, and a central barrier to the development of therapies is the requirement for an invasive liver biopsy for diagnosis of NASH. Discovery of reliable, noninvasive biomarkers are urgently needed. In this study, we tested whether circulating extracellular vesicles (EVs), cell‐derived small membrane‐surrounded structures with a rich cargo of bioactive molecules, may serve as reliable noninvasive “liquid biopsies” for NASH diagnosis and assessment of disease severity. Total circulating EVs and hepatocyte‐derived EVs were isolated by differential centrifugation and size‐exclusion chromatography from serum samples of healthy individuals, patients with precirrhotic NASH, and patients with cirrhotic NASH. EVs were further characterized by flow cytometry, electron microscopy, western blotting, and dynamic light scattering assays before performing a proteomics analysis. Our findings suggest that levels of total and hepatocyte‐derived EVs correlate with NASH clinical characteristics and disease severity. Additionally, using proteomics data, we developed understandable, powerful, and unique EV‐based proteomic signatures for potential diagnosis of advanced NASH. Conclusion: Our study shows that the quantity and protein constituents of circulating EVs provide strong evidence for EV protein–based liquid biopsies for NAFLD/NASH diagnosis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Davide Povero
- Department of Pediatrics University of California San Diego La Jolla CA
| | | | - Wenhua Ren
- Genomics and Microarray Core University of Colorado Denver Aurora CO
| | | | | | - Akiko Eguchi
- Department of Pediatrics University of California San Diego La Jolla CA
| | | | | | | | | | - Jaime Bosch
- Inselspital Bern University Bern Switzerland.,Ciberehd-Idibaps University of Barcelona Barcelona Spain
| | - Ariel E Feldstein
- Department of Pediatrics University of California San Diego La Jolla CA
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21
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Selected Tetraspanins Functionalized Niosomes as Potential Standards for Exosome Immunoassays. NANOMATERIALS 2020; 10:nano10050971. [PMID: 32443605 PMCID: PMC7712311 DOI: 10.3390/nano10050971] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/27/2020] [Revised: 04/26/2020] [Accepted: 05/08/2020] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
Quantitative detection of exosomes in bio-fluids is a challenging task in a dynamic research field. The absence of a well-established reference material (RM) for method development and inter-comparison studies could be potentially overcome with artificial exosomes: lab-produced biomimetic particles with morphological and functional properties close to natural exosomes. This work presents the design, development and functional characteristics of fully artificial exosomes based on tetraspanin extracellular loops-coated niosomes, produced by bio-nanotechnology methods based on supra-molecular chemistry and recombinant protein technology. Mono- and double-functionalized particles with CD9/CD63 tetraspanins have been developed and characterized from a morphological and functional point of view. Produced bio-particles showed close similarities with natural entities in terms of physical properties. Their utility for bioanalysis is demonstrated by their detection and molecular-type discrimination by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assays (ELISAs), one of the most frequent bio-analytical method found in routine and research labs. The basic material based on streptavidin-coated niosomes allows the surface functionalization with any biotinylated protein or peptide, introducing versatility. Although promising results have been reported, further optimizations and deeper characterization will help this innovative biomaterial become a robust RM for validation and development of diagnostic tools for exosomes determination.
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Gao J, Dong X, Wang Z. Generation, purification and engineering of extracellular vesicles and their biomedical applications. Methods 2020; 177:114-125. [PMID: 31790730 PMCID: PMC7198327 DOI: 10.1016/j.ymeth.2019.11.012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/31/2019] [Revised: 11/23/2019] [Accepted: 11/25/2019] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Extracellular vesicles (EVs), derived from cell membranes, demonstrate the potential to be excellent therapeutics and drug carriers. Although EVs are promising, the process to develop high-quality and scalable EVs for their translation is demanding. Within this research, we analyzed the production of EVs, their purification and their post-bioengineering, and we also discussed the biomedical applications of EVs. We focus on the developments of methods in producing EVs including biological, physical, and chemical approaches. Furthermore, we discuss the challenges and the opportunities that arose when we translated EVs in clinic. With the advancements in nanotechnology and immunology, genetically engineering EVs is a new frontier in developing new therapeutics in order to tailor to individuals and different disease stages in treatments of cancer and inflammatory diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jin Gao
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, College of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences, Washington State University, Spokane, WA 99202, USA
| | - Xinyue Dong
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, College of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences, Washington State University, Spokane, WA 99202, USA
| | - Zhenjia Wang
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, College of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences, Washington State University, Spokane, WA 99202, USA.
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23
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Rigalli JP, Barros ER, Sommers V, Bindels RJM, Hoenderop JGJ. Novel Aspects of Extracellular Vesicles in the Regulation of Renal Physiological and Pathophysiological Processes. Front Cell Dev Biol 2020; 8:244. [PMID: 32351960 PMCID: PMC7174565 DOI: 10.3389/fcell.2020.00244] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/13/2020] [Accepted: 03/23/2020] [Indexed: 12/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Extracellular vesicles (EV) are nanosized particles released by a large variety of cells. They carry molecules such as proteins, RNA and lipids. While urinary EVs have been longer studied as a source of biomarkers for renal and non-renal disorders, research on EVs as regulatory players of renal physiological and pathological processes has experienced an outbreak recently in the past decade. In general, the microenvironment and (patho)physiological state of the donor cells affect the cargo of the EVs released, which then determines the effect of these EVs once they reach a target cell. For instance, EVs released by renal epithelial cells modulate the expression and function of water and solute transporting proteins in other cells. Also, EVs have been demonstrated to regulate renal organogenesis and blood flow. Furthermore, a dual role of EVs promoting, but also counteracting, disease has also been reported. EVs released by renal tubular cells can reach fibroblasts, monocytes, macrophages, T cells and natural killer cells, thus influencing the pathogenesis and progression of renal disorders like acute kidney injury and fibrosis, nephrolithiasis, renal transplant rejection and renal cancer, among others. On the contrary, EVs may also exert a cytoprotective role upon renal damage and promote recovery of renal function. In the current review, a systematic summary of the key studies from the past 5 years addressing the role of EVs in the modulation of renal physiological and pathophysiological processes is provided, highlighting open questions and discussing the potential of future research.
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Affiliation(s)
- Juan Pablo Rigalli
- Department of Physiology, Radboud Institute for Molecular Life Sciences, Radboud University Medical Center, Nijmegen, Netherlands
| | - Eric Raul Barros
- Department of Physiology, Radboud Institute for Molecular Life Sciences, Radboud University Medical Center, Nijmegen, Netherlands.,Department of Endocrinology, School of Medicine, Pontificia Universidad Católica de Chile, Santiago, Chile
| | - Vera Sommers
- Department of Physiology, Radboud Institute for Molecular Life Sciences, Radboud University Medical Center, Nijmegen, Netherlands
| | - René J M Bindels
- Department of Physiology, Radboud Institute for Molecular Life Sciences, Radboud University Medical Center, Nijmegen, Netherlands
| | - Joost G J Hoenderop
- Department of Physiology, Radboud Institute for Molecular Life Sciences, Radboud University Medical Center, Nijmegen, Netherlands
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Daßler-Plenker J, Küttner V, Egeblad M. Communication in tiny packages: Exosomes as means of tumor-stroma communication. Biochim Biophys Acta Rev Cancer 2020; 1873:188340. [PMID: 31926290 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbcan.2020.188340] [Citation(s) in RCA: 45] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/25/2019] [Revised: 01/06/2020] [Accepted: 01/06/2020] [Indexed: 02/08/2023]
Abstract
Tumor-derived exosomes are nano-sized vesicles acting as multi-signal devices influencing tumor growth at local and distant sites. Exosomes are derived from the endolysosomal compartment and can shuttle diverse biomolecules like nucleic acids (microRNAs and DNA fragments), lipids, proteins, and even pharmacological compounds from a donor cell to recipient cells. The transfer of cargo to recipient cells enables tumor-derived exosomes to influence diverse cellular functions like proliferation, cell survival, and migration in recipient cells, highlighting tumor-derived exosomes as important players in communication within the tumor microenvironment and at distant sites. In this review, we discuss the mechanisms associated with exosome biogenesis and cargo sorting. In addition, we highlight the communication of tumor-derived exosomes in the tumor microenvironment during different phases of tumor development, focusing on angiogenesis, immune escape mechanisms, drug resistance, and metastasis.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Victoria Küttner
- Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory, 1 Bungtown Road, Cold Spring Harbor, NY 11724, USA
| | - Mikala Egeblad
- Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory, 1 Bungtown Road, Cold Spring Harbor, NY 11724, USA.
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25
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Geeurickx E, Hendrix A. Targets, pitfalls and reference materials for liquid biopsy tests in cancer diagnostics. Mol Aspects Med 2019; 72:100828. [PMID: 31711714 DOI: 10.1016/j.mam.2019.10.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 93] [Impact Index Per Article: 18.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/31/2019] [Revised: 10/14/2019] [Accepted: 10/18/2019] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
Assessment of cell free DNA (cfDNA) and RNA (cfRNA), circulating tumor cells (CTC) and extracellular vesicles (EV) in blood or other bodily fluids can enable early cancer detection, tumor dynamics assessment, minimal residual disease detection and therapy monitoring. However, few liquid biopsy tests progress towards clinical application because results are often discordant and challenging to reproduce. Reproducibility can be enhanced by the development and implementation of standard operating procedures and reference materials to identify and correct for pre-analytical variables. In this review we elaborate on the technological considerations, pre-analytical variables and the use and availability of reference materials for the assessment of liquid biopsy targets in blood and highlight initiatives towards the standardization of liquid biopsy testing.
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Affiliation(s)
- Edward Geeurickx
- Laboratory of Experimental Cancer Research, Department of Human Structure and Repair, Ghent University, 9000, Ghent, Belgium; Cancer Research Institute Ghent, 9000, Ghent, Belgium
| | - An Hendrix
- Laboratory of Experimental Cancer Research, Department of Human Structure and Repair, Ghent University, 9000, Ghent, Belgium; Cancer Research Institute Ghent, 9000, Ghent, Belgium.
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26
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The generation and use of recombinant extracellular vesicles as biological reference material. Nat Commun 2019; 10:3288. [PMID: 31337761 PMCID: PMC6650486 DOI: 10.1038/s41467-019-11182-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 82] [Impact Index Per Article: 16.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/30/2018] [Accepted: 06/26/2019] [Indexed: 11/08/2022] Open
Abstract
Recent years have seen an increase of extracellular vesicle (EV) research geared towards biological understanding, diagnostics and therapy. However, EV data interpretation remains challenging owing to complexity of biofluids and technical variation introduced during sample preparation and analysis. To understand and mitigate these limitations, we generated trackable recombinant EV (rEV) as a biological reference material. Employing complementary characterization methods, we demonstrate that rEV are stable and bear physical and biochemical traits characteristic of sample EV. Furthermore, rEV can be quantified using fluorescence-, RNA- and protein-based technologies available in routine laboratories. Spiking rEV in biofluids allows recovery efficiencies of commonly implemented EV separation methods to be identified, intra-method and inter-user variability induced by sample handling to be defined, and to normalize and improve sensitivity of EV enumerations. We anticipate that rEV will aid EV-based sample preparation and analysis, data normalization, method development and instrument calibration in various research and biomedical applications. There is no universal reference material to develop extracellular vesicle (EV) separation methods and carry out calibration and normalization. Here the authors use HIV-derived gag proteins to assemble recombinant fluorescent EV as a trackable reference material resembling the physical and biochemical properties of sample EV.
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