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Kaiserman J, O’Hara BA, Haley SA, Atwood WJ. An Elusive Target: Inhibitors of JC Polyomavirus Infection and Their Development as Therapeutics for the Treatment of Progressive Multifocal Leukoencephalopathy. Int J Mol Sci 2023; 24:8580. [PMID: 37239927 PMCID: PMC10218015 DOI: 10.3390/ijms24108580] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/25/2023] [Revised: 05/08/2023] [Accepted: 05/09/2023] [Indexed: 05/28/2023] Open
Abstract
Progressive multifocal leukoencephalopathy (PML) is a rare demyelinating disease caused by infection with JC Polyomavirus (JCPyV). Despite the identification of the disease and isolation of the causative pathogen over fifty years ago, no antiviral treatments or prophylactic vaccines exist. Disease onset is usually associated with immunosuppression, and current treatment guidelines are limited to restoring immune function. This review summarizes the drugs and small molecules that have been shown to inhibit JCPyV infection and spread. Paying attention to historical developments in the field, we discuss key steps of the virus lifecycle and antivirals known to inhibit each event. We review current obstacles in PML drug discovery, including the difficulties associated with compound penetrance into the central nervous system. We also summarize recent findings in our laboratory regarding the potent anti-JCPyV activity of a novel compound that antagonizes the virus-induced signaling events necessary to establish a productive infection. Understanding the current panel of antiviral compounds will help center the field for future drug discovery efforts.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | - Walter J. Atwood
- Department of Molecular Biology, Cell Biology, and Biochemistry, Brown University, Providence, RI 02912, USA
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Inhibition of Retrograde Transport Limits Polyomavirus Infection In Vivo. mSphere 2017; 2:mSphere00494-17. [PMID: 29152583 PMCID: PMC5687923 DOI: 10.1128/mspheredirect.00494-17] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/23/2017] [Accepted: 10/30/2017] [Indexed: 02/08/2023] Open
Abstract
PyVs can cause significant morbidity and mortality in immunocompromised individuals. No clinically efficacious anti-PyV therapeutic agents are available. A recently identified inhibitor of retrograde transport, Retro-2cycl, blocks movement of PyV virion-containing vesicles from early endosomes to the endoplasmic reticulum, an early step in the PyV life cycle. Retro-2cycl and its derivatives have been shown to inhibit infection by human PyVs in tissue culture. Here, we demonstrate that a derivative of Retro-2cycl, Retro-2.1, reduces infection by MuPyV in the kidneys of acutely infected mice. Mimicking the common clinical scenario of PyV resurgence, we further show that MuPyV levels increase in the kidneys of immunocompromised, persistently infected mice and that this increase is inhibited by Retro-2.1. These data provide the first evidence for control of a natural PyV infection in vivo by administration of an inhibitor of retrograde transport. Polyomaviruses (PyVs) silently infect most humans, but they can cause life-threatening diseases in immunocompromised individuals. The JC polyomavirus (JCPyV) induces progressive multifocal leukoencephalopathy, a severe demyelinating disease in multiple sclerosis patients receiving immunomodulatory therapy, and BK polyomavirus (BKPyV)-associated nephropathy is a major cause of kidney allograft failure. No effective anti-PyV agents are available. Several compounds have been reported to possess anti-PyV activity in vitro, but none have shown efficacy in clinical trials. Productive PyV infection involves usurping the cellular retrograde vesicular transport pathway to enable endocytosed virions to navigate to the endoplasmic reticulum where virion uncoating begins. Compounds inhibiting this pathway have been shown to reduce infection by simian virus 40 (SV40), JCPyV, and BKPyV in tissue culture. In this study, we investigated the potential of Retro-2.1, a retrograde transport inhibitor, to limit infection by mouse polyomavirus (MuPyV) in vivo. We found that Retro-2.1 significantly reduced MuPyV levels in the kidney during acute infection without affecting renal function or the MuPyV-specific CD8 T cell response. To approximate the clinical setting of PyV resurgence in immunocompromised hosts, we showed that antibody-mediated depletion of T cells in persistently infected mice elevated MuPyV levels in the kidney and that Retro-2.1 blunted this increase in virus levels. In summary, these data indicate that inhibition of retrograde vesicular transport in vivo controls infection in a natural PyV mouse model and supports development of these compounds as potential therapeutic agents for individuals at risk for human PyV-associated diseases. IMPORTANCE PyVs can cause significant morbidity and mortality in immunocompromised individuals. No clinically efficacious anti-PyV therapeutic agents are available. A recently identified inhibitor of retrograde transport, Retro-2cycl, blocks movement of PyV virion-containing vesicles from early endosomes to the endoplasmic reticulum, an early step in the PyV life cycle. Retro-2cycl and its derivatives have been shown to inhibit infection by human PyVs in tissue culture. Here, we demonstrate that a derivative of Retro-2cycl, Retro-2.1, reduces infection by MuPyV in the kidneys of acutely infected mice. Mimicking the common clinical scenario of PyV resurgence, we further show that MuPyV levels increase in the kidneys of immunocompromised, persistently infected mice and that this increase is inhibited by Retro-2.1. These data provide the first evidence for control of a natural PyV infection in vivo by administration of an inhibitor of retrograde transport.
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Maru S, Jin G, Schell TD, Lukacher AE. TCR stimulation strength is inversely associated with establishment of functional brain-resident memory CD8 T cells during persistent viral infection. PLoS Pathog 2017; 13:e1006318. [PMID: 28410427 PMCID: PMC5406018 DOI: 10.1371/journal.ppat.1006318] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/09/2017] [Revised: 04/26/2017] [Accepted: 03/27/2017] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Establishing functional tissue-resident memory (TRM) cells at sites of infection is a newfound objective of T cell vaccine design. To directly assess the impact of antigen stimulation strength on memory CD8 T cell formation and function during a persistent viral infection, we created a library of mouse polyomavirus (MuPyV) variants with substitutions in a subdominant CD8 T cell epitope that exhibit a broad range of efficiency in stimulating TCR transgenic CD8 T cells. By altering a subdominant epitope in a nonstructural viral protein and monitoring memory differentiation of donor monoclonal CD8 T cells in immunocompetent mice, we circumvented potentially confounding changes in viral infection levels, virus-associated inflammation, size of the immunodominant virus-specific CD8 T cell response, and shifts in TCR affinity that may accompany temporal recruitment of endogenous polyclonal cells. Using this strategy, we found that antigen stimulation strength was inversely associated with the function of memory CD8 T cells during a persistent viral infection. We further show that CD8 TRM cells recruited to the brain following systemic infection with viruses expressing epitopes with suboptimal stimulation strength respond more efficiently to challenge CNS infection with virus expressing cognate antigen. These data demonstrate that the strength of antigenic stimulation during recruitment of CD8 T cells influences the functional integrity of TRM cells in a persistent viral infection. Tissue-resident memory (TRM) cells are a subset of memory T cells that primarily reside in non-lymphoid tissues and serve as sentinels and effectors against secondary infections. TRM cells have been extensively characterized in mucosal barriers, but much less is known about this population in non-barrier sites such as the brain. In this study, we designed a novel strategy to evaluate the impact of T cell stimulation strength on the generation and functionality of memory CD8 T cells in both lymphoid and nonlymphoid tissues. Using a mouse polyomavirus (MuPyV) library expressing variants of a subdominant epitope recognized by TCR transgenic CD8 T cells, we found that systemic infection producing weaker responses during T cell priming was sufficient for recruitment of effector cells to the brain. Furthermore, lower stimulation conferred greater functionality to memory T cells in the spleen and to brain TRM cells. Our findings demonstrate that the strength of antigenic stimulation experienced by a naïve T cell early in infection is a determinant of memory functional integrity during viral persistence in a non-barrier organ.
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Affiliation(s)
- Saumya Maru
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Penn State College of Medicine, Hershey, Pennsylvania, United States of America
| | - Ge Jin
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Penn State College of Medicine, Hershey, Pennsylvania, United States of America
| | - Todd D. Schell
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Penn State College of Medicine, Hershey, Pennsylvania, United States of America
| | - Aron E. Lukacher
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Penn State College of Medicine, Hershey, Pennsylvania, United States of America
- * E-mail:
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Type I Interferons Regulate the Magnitude and Functionality of Mouse Polyomavirus-Specific CD8 T Cells in a Virus Strain-Dependent Manner. J Virol 2016; 90:5187-99. [PMID: 26984726 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.00199-16] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/31/2016] [Accepted: 03/10/2016] [Indexed: 01/09/2023] Open
Abstract
UNLABELLED Mouse polyomavirus (MPyV) is a ubiquitous persistent natural mouse pathogen. A glutamic acid (E)-to-glycine (G) difference at position 91 of the VP1 capsid protein shifts the profile of tumors induced by MPyV from an epithelial to a mesenchymal cell origin. Here we asked if this tropism difference affects the MPyV-specific CD8 T cell response, which controls MPyV infection and tumorigenesis. Infection by the laboratory MPyV strain RA (VP1-91G) or a strain A2 mutant with an E-to-G substitution at VP1 residue 91 [A2(91G)] generated a markedly smaller virus-specific CD8 T cell response than that induced by A2(VP1-91E) infection. Mutant A2(91G)-infected mice showed a higher frequency of memory precursor (CD127(hi) KLRG1(lo)) CD8 T cells and a higher recall response than those of A2-infected mice. Using T cell receptor (TCR)-transgenic CD8 T cells and immunization with peptide-pulsed dendritic cells, we found that early bystander inflammation associated with A2 infection contributed to recruitment of the larger MPyV-specific CD8 T cell response. Beta interferon (IFN-β) transcripts were induced early during A2 or A2(91G) infections. IFN-β inhibited replication of A2 and A2(91G) in vitro Using mice lacking IFN-αβ receptors (IFNAR(-/-)), we showed that type I IFNs played a role in controlling MPyV replication in vivo but differentially affected the magnitude and functionality of virus-specific CD8 T cells recruited by A2 and A2(91G) viral infections. These data indicate that type I IFNs are involved in protection against MPyV infection and that their effect on the antiviral CD8 T cell response depends on capsid-mediated tropism properties of the MPyV strain. IMPORTANCE Isolates of the human polyomavirus JC virus from patients with the frequently fatal demyelinating brain disease progressive multifocal leukoencephalopathy (PML) carry single amino acid substitutions in the domain of the VP1 capsid protein that binds the sialic acid moiety of glycoprotein/glycolipid receptors on host cells. These VP1 mutations may alter neural cell tropism or enable escape from neutralizing antibodies. Changes in host cell tropism can affect recruitment of virus-specific CD8 T cells. Using mouse polyomavirus, we demonstrate that a single amino acid difference in VP1 known to shift viral tropism profoundly affects the quantity and quality of the anti-polyomavirus CD8 T cell response and its differentiation into memory cells. These findings raise the possibility that CD8 T cell responses to infections by human polyomaviruses may be influenced by VP1 mutations involving domains that engage host cell receptors.
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Abstract
Human polyomaviruses are associated with substantial morbidity in immunocompromised patients, including those with HIV/AIDS, recipients of bone marrow and kidney transplants, and individuals receiving immunomodulatory agents for autoimmune and inflammatory diseases. No effective antipolyomavirus agents are currently available, and no host determinants have been identified to predict susceptibility to polyomavirus-associated diseases. Using the mouse polyomavirus (MPyV) infection model, we recently demonstrated that perforin-granzyme exocytosis, tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNF-α), and Fas did not contribute to control of infection or virus-induced tumors. Gamma interferon (IFN-γ) was recently shown to inhibit replication by human BK polyomavirus in primary cultures of renal tubular epithelial cells. In this study, we provide evidence that IFN-γ is an important component of the host defense against MPyV infection and tumorigenesis. In immortalized and primary cells, IFN-γ reduces expression of MPyV proteins and impairs viral replication. Mice deficient for the IFN-γ receptor (IFN-γR(-/-)) maintain higher viral loads during MPyV infection and are susceptible to MPyV-induced tumors; this increased viral load is not associated with a defective MPyV-specific CD8(+) T cell response. Using an acute MPyV infection kidney transplant model, we further show that IFN-γR(-/-) donor kidneys harbor higher MPyV levels than donor kidneys from wild-type mice. Finally, administration of IFN-γ to persistently infected mice significantly reduces MPyV levels in multiple organs, including the kidney, a major reservoir for persistent mouse and human polyomavirus infections. These findings demonstrate that IFN-γ is an antiviral effector molecule for MPyV infection.
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Yi JS, Cox MA, Zajac AJ. T-cell exhaustion: characteristics, causes and conversion. Immunology 2010; 129:474-81. [PMID: 20201977 PMCID: PMC2842494 DOI: 10.1111/j.1365-2567.2010.03255.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 432] [Impact Index Per Article: 30.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/15/2010] [Revised: 01/23/2010] [Accepted: 01/25/2010] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
T-cell exhaustion is characterized by the stepwise and progressive loss of T-cell functions and can culminate in the physical deletion of the responding cells. Exhaustion is well-defined during chronic lymphocytic choriomeningitis virus infection and commonly develops under conditions of antigen-persistence, which occur following many chronic infections that are of significant public health concern including hepatitis B virus, hepatitis C virus and human immunodeficiency virus infections, as well as during tumour outgrowth. Exhaustion is not a uniformly disabled setting as a gradation of phenotypic and functional defects can manifest, and these cells are distinct from prototypic effector, memory and also anergic T cells. We are gaining insights into the extrinsic and intrinsic factors that determine the severity of exhaustion. These include the duration and magnitude of antigenic activation, availability of CD4 T-cell help, the levels of stimulatory and suppressive cytokines, as well as the expression of activatory and inhibitory receptors. More information is now becoming available regarding the molecular mechanisms that attenuate the responsiveness of exhausted T cells. As the parameters that dictate exhaustion are more thoroughly defined, this is fostering the development of methods that prevent and rejuvenate functionally inferior responses. In this article we discuss our current understanding of the properties of exhausted T cells and the mechanisms that promote and maintain this state.
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Affiliation(s)
- John S Yi
- Department of Microbiology, University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, AL 35294, USA
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Shaping successful and unsuccessful CD8 T cell responses following infection. J Biomed Biotechnol 2010; 2010:159152. [PMID: 20379363 PMCID: PMC2850140 DOI: 10.1155/2010/159152] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/26/2009] [Accepted: 01/22/2010] [Indexed: 01/05/2023] Open
Abstract
CD8 T cells play a vital role in the immunological protection against intracellular pathogens. Ideally, robust effector responses are induced, which eradicate the pathogen, and durable memory CD8 T cells are also established, which help confer protection against subsequent reinfection. The quality and magnitude of these responses is dictated by multiple factors, including their initial interactions with professional antigen-presenting cells, as well as the cytokine milieu and availability of CD4 T cell help. These factors set the transcriptional landscape of the responding T cells, which in turn influences their phenotypic and functional attributes as well as ultimate fate. Under certain conditions, such as during chronic infections, the development of these usually successful responses becomes subverted. Here we discuss advances in our understanding of the cellular and molecular determinants of T cell quality, and the formation of effector, memory, and exhausted CD8 T cells, during acute and chronic infections.
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Frebel H, Richter K, Oxenius A. How chronic viral infections impact on antigen-specific T-cell responses. Eur J Immunol 2010; 40:654-63. [DOI: 10.1002/eji.200940102] [Citation(s) in RCA: 78] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
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Kalia V, Sarkar S, Ahmed R. CD8 T-Cell Memory Differentiation during Acute and Chronic Viral Infections. ADVANCES IN EXPERIMENTAL MEDICINE AND BIOLOGY 2010; 684:79-95. [DOI: 10.1007/978-1-4419-6451-9_7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 54] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/23/2023]
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Bucks CM, Norton JA, Boesteanu AC, Mueller YM, Katsikis PD. Chronic antigen stimulation alone is sufficient to drive CD8+ T cell exhaustion. THE JOURNAL OF IMMUNOLOGY 2009; 182:6697-708. [PMID: 19454664 DOI: 10.4049/jimmunol.0800997] [Citation(s) in RCA: 109] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
The failure of CD8(+) T cells to respond to chronic infection has been termed "exhaustion" and describes the condition in which CD8(+) T cells exhibit reduced differentiation, proliferation, and effector function. CD8(+) T cell exhaustion has been extensively studied in the murine model of chronic infection, lymphocytic choriomeningitis virus (LCMV). Although LCMV-based studies have yielded many interesting findings, they have not allowed for discrimination between the roles of cytokine- and Ag-driven exhaustion. We have created a system of chronic Ag stimulation using murine influenza A virus that leads to exhaustion and functional disability of virus-specific CD8(+) T cells, in the absence of high viral titers, sustained proinflammatory cytokine production and lymphocyte infection. Our findings show that Ag alone is sufficient to drive CD8(+) T cell impairment, that Ag-driven loss of virus-specific CD8(+) T cells is TRAIL mediated, and that removal of Ag reverses exhaustion. Although programmed death 1 was up-regulated on chronic Ag-stimulated CD8(+) T cells, it played no role in the exhaustion. These findings provide a novel insight into the mechanisms that control functional exhaustion of CD8(+) T cells in chronic infection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christine M Bucks
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Drexel University College of Medicine, Philadelphia, PA 19129, USA
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WIESEL MELANIE, WALTON SENTA, RICHTER KIRSTEN, OXENIUS ANNETTE. Virus-specific CD8 T cells: activation, differentiation and memory formation. APMIS 2009; 117:356-81. [DOI: 10.1111/j.1600-0463.2009.02459.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 52] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
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12
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Swanson PA, Lukacher AE, Szomolanyi-Tsuda E. Immunity to polyomavirus infection: the polyomavirus-mouse model. Semin Cancer Biol 2009; 19:244-51. [PMID: 19505652 DOI: 10.1016/j.semcancer.2009.02.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/16/2008] [Revised: 02/01/2009] [Accepted: 02/06/2009] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
A ubiquitous clinically silent murine pathogen, polyomavirus has enjoyed long-term co-evolution with the mouse, a highly tractable and genetically and immunologically informative small animal model. Thus, polyomavirus has provided a valuable experimental construct to decipher the host immune mechanisms that come into play to control systemic low-level persistent viral infections. Impaired immunosurveillance for infected cells puts the murine host at risk both to injury resulting from excessive direct virus cytolysis and development of virus-induced tumors. In this review, we present our current understanding of the multifaceted immune response invoked by the mouse to maintain détente with this potentially deleterious persistent natural pathogen, and discuss implications of these studies for therapeutic interventions for human polyomavirus infection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Phillip A Swanson
- Department of Pathology, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, GA 30322, USA
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Plesa G, Snook AE, Waldman SA, Eisenlohr LC. Derivation and fluidity of acutely induced dysfunctional CD8+ T cells. THE JOURNAL OF IMMUNOLOGY 2008; 180:5300-8. [PMID: 18390711 DOI: 10.4049/jimmunol.180.8.5300] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
Dysfunctional CD8(+) T (T(CD8(+))) cells lacking cytokine production have been identified in many viral infections, but their genesis is not well understood. Established results indicate that such cells could be either high avidity that enter a refractory state due to overstimulation or low avidity that are only partially stimulated. Using an acute, resolving infection model that results in rapid production of dysfunctional cells, we show that this IL2 unresponsive phenotype emerges from the low end of the avidity spectrum and is characterized by broad TCR usage and a reduced proliferation rate. Furthermore, the dysfunctional population is extremely fluid, being sustained by high Ag dose but virtually eliminated following low dose boosting. Together, these results suggest that persistence of dysfunctional cells generated in this manner depends upon continual exposure to high Ag levels and that such cells may ultimately predominate if functional cells become exhausted.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gabriela Plesa
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Thomas Jefferson University, Philadelphia, PA 19107, USA
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Swanson PA, Pack CD, Hadley A, Wang CR, Stroynowski I, Jensen PE, Lukacher AE. An MHC class Ib-restricted CD8 T cell response confers antiviral immunity. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2008; 205:1647-57. [PMID: 18541714 PMCID: PMC2442642 DOI: 10.1084/jem.20080570] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
Although immunity against intracellular pathogens is primarily provided by CD8 T lymphocytes that recognize pathogen-derived peptides presented by major histocompatibility complex (MHC) class Ia molecules, MHC class Ib–restricted CD8 T cells have been implicated in antiviral immunity. Using mouse polyoma virus (PyV), we found that MHC class Ia–deficient (Kb−/−Db−/−) mice efficiently control this persistently infecting mouse pathogen. CD8 T cell depletion mitigates clearance of PyV in Kb−/−Db−/− mice. We identified the ligand for PyV-specific CD8 T cells in Kb−/−Db−/− mice as a nonamer peptide from the VP2 capsid protein presented by Q9, a member of the β2 microglobulin–associated Qa-2 family. Using Q9-VP2 tetramers, we monitored delayed but progressive expansion of these antigen-specific CD8αβ T cells in Kb−/−Db−/− mice. Importantly, we demonstrate that Q9-VP2–specific CD8 T cells more effectively clear wild-type PyV than a VP2 epitopenull mutant PyV. Finally, we show that wild-type mice also generate Q9-restricted VP2 epitope–specific CD8 T cells to PyV infection. To our knowledge, this is the first evidence for a defined MHC class Ib–restricted antiviral CD8 T cell response that contributes to host defense. This study motivates efforts to uncover MHC class Ib–restricted CD8 T cell responses in other viral infections, and given the limited polymorphism of MHC class Ib molecules, it raises the possibility of developing peptide-based viral vaccines having broad coverage across MHC haplotypes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Phillip A Swanson
- Department of Pathology, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, GA 30322, USA
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15
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Bell JJ, Ellis JS, Guloglu FB, Tartar DM, Lee HH, Divekar RD, Jain R, Yu P, Hoeman CM, Zaghouani H. Early effector T cells producing significant IFN-gamma develop into memory. THE JOURNAL OF IMMUNOLOGY 2008; 180:179-87. [PMID: 18097018 DOI: 10.4049/jimmunol.180.1.179] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
Currently, transition of T cells from effector to memory is believed to occur as a consequence of exposure to residual suboptimal Ag found in lymphoid tissues at the waning end of the effector phase and microbial clearance. This led to the interpretation that memory arises from slightly activated late effectors producing reduced amounts of IFN-gamma. In this study, we show that CD4 T cells from the early stage of the effector phase in which both the Ag and activation are optimal also transit to memory. Moreover, early effector T cells that have undergone four divisions expressed significant IL-7R, produced IFN-gamma, and yielded rapid and robust memory responses. Cells that divided three times that had marginal IL-7R expression and no IFN-gamma raised base level homeostatic memory, whereas those that have undergone only two divisions and produced IFN-gamma yielded conditioned memory despite low IL-7R expression. Thus, highly activated early effectors generated under short exposure to optimal Ag in vivo develop into memory, and such transition is dependent on a significant production of the cell's signature cytokine, IFN-gamma.
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Affiliation(s)
- J Jeremiah Bell
- Department of Molecular Microbiology and Immunology, University of Missouri School of Medicine, Columbia, MO 65212, USA
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Fernandez M, Evans I, Hassan E, Carbone F, Jones C. Neonatal CD8+ T cells are slow to develop into lytic effectors after HSV infectionin vivo. Eur J Immunol 2008; 38:102-13. [DOI: 10.1002/eji.200636945] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/10/2022]
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Kemball CC, Szomolanyi-Tsuda E, Lukacher AE. Allogeneic differences in the dependence on CD4+ T-cell help for virus-specific CD8+ T-cell differentiation. J Virol 2007; 81:13743-53. [PMID: 17913814 PMCID: PMC2168883 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.01778-07] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
CD4(+) T-cell help enables antiviral CD8(+) T cells to differentiate into fully competent memory cells and sustains CD8(+) T-cell-mediated immunity during persistent virus infection. We recently reported that mice of C57BL/6 and C3H strains differ in their dependence on CD28 and CD40L costimulation for long-term control of infection by polyoma virus, a persistent mouse pathogen. In this study, we asked whether mice of these inbred strains also vary in their requirement for CD4(+) T-cell help for generating and maintaining polyoma virus-specific CD8(+) T cells. CD4(+) T-cell-depleted C57BL/6 mice mounted a robust antiviral CD8(+) T-cell response during acute infection, whereas unhelped CD8(+) T-cell effectors in C3H mice were functionally impaired during acute infection and failed to expand upon antigenic challenge during persistent infection. Using (C57BL/6 x C3H)F(1) mice, we found that the dispensability for CD4(+) T-cell help for the H-2(b)-restricted polyoma virus-specific CD8(+) T-cell response during acute infection extends to the H-2(k)-restricted antiviral CD8(+) T cells. Our findings demonstrate that dependence on CD4(+) T-cell help for antiviral CD8(+) T-cell effector differentiation can vary among allogeneic strains of inbred mice.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christopher C Kemball
- Department of Pathology, Emory University School of Medicine, Woodruff Memorial Research Building, Room 7307, 101 Woodruff Circle, Atlanta, GA 30322, USA
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Kemball CC, Pack CD, Guay HM, Li ZN, Steinhauer DA, Szomolanyi-Tsuda E, Lukacher AE. The antiviral CD8+ T cell response is differentially dependent on CD4+ T cell help over the course of persistent infection. THE JOURNAL OF IMMUNOLOGY 2007; 179:1113-21. [PMID: 17617604 DOI: 10.4049/jimmunol.179.2.1113] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
Although many studies have investigated the requirement for CD4(+) T cell help for CD8(+) T cell responses to acute viral infections that are fully resolved, less is known about the role of CD4(+) T cells in maintaining ongoing CD8(+) T cell responses to persistently infecting viruses. Using mouse polyoma virus (PyV), we asked whether CD4(+) T cell help is required to maintain antiviral CD8(+) T cell and humoral responses during acute and persistent phases of infection. Though fully intact during acute infection, the PyV-specific CD8(+) T cell response declined numerically during persistent infection in MHC class II-deficient mice, leaving a small antiviral CD8(+) T cell population that was maintained long term. These unhelped PyV-specific CD8(+) T cells were functionally unimpaired; they retained the potential for robust expansion and cytokine production in response to Ag rechallenge. In addition, although a strong antiviral IgG response was initially elicited by MHC class II-deficient mice, these Ab titers fell, and long-lived PyV-specific Ab-secreting cells were not detected in the bone marrow. Finally, using a minimally myeloablative mixed bone marrow chimerism approach, we demonstrate that recruitment and/or maintenance of new virus-specific CD8(+) T cells during persistent infection is impaired in the absence of MHC class II-restricted T cells. In summary, these studies show that CD4(+) T cells differentially affect CD8(+) T cell responses over the course of a persistent virus infection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christopher C Kemball
- Department of Pathology, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, GA 30322, USA
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Shin H, Wherry EJ. CD8 T cell dysfunction during chronic viral infection. Curr Opin Immunol 2007; 19:408-15. [PMID: 17656078 DOI: 10.1016/j.coi.2007.06.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 268] [Impact Index Per Article: 15.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/07/2007] [Accepted: 06/08/2007] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
Clearance of primary infection often leads to the development of highly functional memory T cells capable of rapid and long-lasting protective immunity. By contrast, chronic infections can result in T cell dysfunction and poor pathogen control. In this review, we will discuss recent work that highlights two main types of T cell dysfunction during chronic infection: exhaustion of effector functions and altered memory T cell development.
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Affiliation(s)
- Haina Shin
- Immunology Program, The Wistar Institute, 3601 Spruce Street, Philadelphia, PA 19104, USA
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20
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Penna A, Pilli M, Zerbini A, Orlandini A, Mezzadri S, Sacchelli L, Missale G, Ferrari C. Dysfunction and functional restoration of HCV-specific CD8 responses in chronic hepatitis C virus infection. Hepatology 2007; 45:588-601. [PMID: 17326153 DOI: 10.1002/hep.21541] [Citation(s) in RCA: 219] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
UNLABELLED The functional impairment of HCV-specific T cell responses is believed to be an important determinant of HCV persistence, but the functional T cell defects of patients with chronic hepatitis C (CH-C) are only partially defined. CD8 responses to HLA-A2-restricted epitopes of HCV and other unrelated viruses were studied in 23 HLA-A2-positive patients both ex vivo and after in vitro culture. Degranulation capacity, intracellular perforin, and granzyme-A content and cytokine production (IFN-gamma, TNF-alpha) by HCV- and non-HCV-specific CD8 cells were tested both ex vivo and in vitro, whereas cytolytic activity was studied after 10 days' expansion in vitro. Memory maturation and role of exhaustion were assessed ex vivo by HCV-specific CD8 staining for CD127 and PD-1, and in vitro after peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMC) culture in the presence of anti-PD-L1 monoclonal antibodies. IFN-gamma production and cytolytic activity were expressed less efficiently by HCV-specific than by non-HCV specific CD8 cells derived from the same CH-C patients. The amount of stored granzyme-A within single cells was always lower in HCV-specific CD8 cells, which were less efficient also in the release of lytic granules and in the production of TNF-alpha. The CD8 dysfunction was associated with high PD-1 expression by most HCV-specific CD8 cells, and PD-1/PD-L1 blockade by anti-PD-L1 antibodies in vitro was able to improve the HCV-specific CD8 function. CONCLUSION Our study characterizes CD8 defects that may be important in maintaining HCV persistence; identification of strategies to correct these defects may help to define novel approaches to treat HCV infection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Amalia Penna
- Laboratory of Viral Immunopathology, Unit of Infectious Diseases and Hepatology, Azienda Ospedaliero-Universitaria di Parma, Parma, Italy.
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21
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Verdeil G, Chaix J, Schmitt-Verhulst AM, Auphan-Anezin N. Temporal cross-talk between TCR and STAT signals for CD8 T cell effector differentiation. Eur J Immunol 2007; 36:3090-100. [PMID: 17111352 DOI: 10.1002/eji.200636347] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
The strength and duration of signaling through surface receptors is a primary means of controlling cell fate decisions. In adaptive immunity, Ag-initiated T cell stimulation is secondarily regulated by cytokines. We here summarize evidence for temporal control of a gene expression program in naive CD8 T cells. It is initiated in response to TCR engagement but relies on secondary signaling from cytokine receptors to be sustained and to allow development of full effector capacity. This mechanism permits cytokine receptor signaling to rescue abortive TCR signaling, such as that induced in response to weak or partial TCR agonists. Indeed, limiting TCR-initiated signaling on the Ras/ERK pathway may be complemented by STAT activation. Thus, TCR- and cytokine-driven activation of transcription factors and epigenetic modifications may act in concert in a temporally staggered process to establish the functional program of effector CD8 T cells. Based on gene expression profiling, molecular targets whose activation or inactivation may boost or dampen CD8 T cell effectors are also identified. Manipulation of these targets may, respectively, increase anti-tumor responses or prevent graft-versus-host reactions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Grégory Verdeil
- Centre d'Immunologie de Marseille-Luminy, INSERM U631, CNRS UMR 6102, Université de la Méditerranée, Marseille, France
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22
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Kemball CC, Lee EDH, Szomolanyi-Tsuda E, Pearson TC, Larsen CP, Lukacher AE. Costimulation requirements for antiviral CD8+ T cells differ for acute and persistent phases of polyoma virus infection. THE JOURNAL OF IMMUNOLOGY 2006; 176:1814-24. [PMID: 16424212 DOI: 10.4049/jimmunol.176.3.1814] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
The requirement for costimulation in antiviral CD8+ T cell responses has been actively investigated for acutely resolved viral infections, but it is less defined for CD8+ T cell responses to persistent virus infection. Using mouse polyoma virus (PyV) as a model of low-level persistent virus infection, we asked whether blockade of the CD40 ligand (CD40L) and CD28 costimulatory pathways impacts the magnitude and function of the PyV-specific CD8+ T response, as well as the humoral response and viral control during acute and persistent phases of infection. Costimulation blockade or gene knockout of either CD28 or CD40L substantially dampened the magnitude of the acute CD8+ T cell response; simultaneous CD28 and CD40L blockade severely depressed the acute T cell response, altered the cell surface phenotype of PyV-specific CD8+ T cells, decreased PyV VP1-specific serum IgG titers, and resulted in an increase in viral DNA levels in multiple organs. CD28 and CD40L costimulation blockade during acute infection also diminished the memory PyV-specific CD8+ T cell response and serum IgG titer, but control of viral persistence varied between mouse strains and among organs. Interestingly, we found that CD28 and CD40L costimulation is dispensable for generating and/or maintaining PyV-specific CD8+ T cells during persistent infection; however, blockade of CD27 and CD28 costimulation in persistently infected mice caused a reduction in PyV-specific CD8+ T cells. Taken together, these data indicate that CD8+ T cells primed within the distinct microenvironments of acute vs persistent virus infection differ in their costimulation requirements.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christopher C Kemball
- Department of Pathology, University of Massachusetts Medical School, Worcester, MA 01655, USA
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23
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Khazaie K, von Boehmer H. The impact of CD4+CD25+ Treg on tumor specific CD8+ T cell cytotoxicity and cancer. Semin Cancer Biol 2006; 16:124-36. [PMID: 16443370 DOI: 10.1016/j.semcancer.2005.11.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 99] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/26/2022]
Abstract
There is sufficient evidence to suggest that tumor growth elicits specific immune responses, including CD8(+) and CD4(+) T cell responses that may delay tumor growth and could potentially be harnessed to eradicate cancer. Nevertheless the frequent outcome of cancer is lethality associated with uncontrolled growth and dissemination of tumor cells. The failure of the immune response may be naturally programmed and related to a specific subpopulation of CD4(+)CD25(+) regulatory T cells, whose function is to protect us against autoimmunity. Recent investigations have shed light on the in vivo behavior and functions of these cells. It is becoming evident that a major impact of these cells is on the cytolytic action of specific CD8(+) T cells that target the tumor. Inhibition of cytotoxicity is dependent on TGF-beta signaling by the effector cells. Thus, targeting immune regulation may provide a promising approach to the immune therapy of cancer. This approach however could also have unexpected deleterious consequences, as surprising new observations indicate that regulatory T cells can also delay tumor growth by independent mechanisms that relate to their cross talk with the innate immune response to cancer.
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Affiliation(s)
- Khashayarsha Khazaie
- Department of Cancer Immunology and AIDS, Dana Farber Cancer Institute, Harvard Medical School, 44 Binney Street, Boston, MA 02115, USA.
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24
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Fadel SA, Cowell LG, Cao S, Ozaki DA, Kepler TB, Steeber DA, Sarzotti M. Neonate-primed CD8+ memory cells rival adult-primed memory cells in antigen-driven expansion and anti-viral protection. Int Immunol 2006; 18:249-57. [PMID: 16418189 DOI: 10.1093/intimm/dxh360] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Immunizations early in life, when the host is most susceptible to infection, allow protective immunological memory to develop. Decreasing the dose of Cas-Br-E murine leukemia virus when priming neonatal mice results in adult-like, Type 1 protective responses, but the resulting memory cell populations are smaller than after adult priming. After secondary challenge, virus-specific CD8+ memory cell populations expand twice as much in neonate-primed mice as in adult-primed mice. We found that when equivalent numbers of virus-specific cells were transferred into virus-susceptible mice, protection from disease was similar whether donor, immune mice were primed as neonates or adults, and IL-4 did not alter in vivo virus-specific CD8+ memory cell effector function. Hence, neonate-primed CD8+ cells develop into memory cells that rival adult-primed cells in proliferation and effector function.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shaza A Fadel
- Department of Immunology, Duke University Medical Center, Durham, NC 27710, USA
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25
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Kobayashi K, Ishii M, Shiina M, Ueno Y, Kondo Y, Kanno A, Miyazaki Y, Yamamoto T, Kobayashi T, Niitsuma H, Kikumoto Y, Takizawa H, Shimosegawa T. Interferon-gamma is produced by CD8 T cells in response to HLA-A24-restricted hepatitis C virus epitopes after sustained virus loss. Clin Exp Immunol 2005; 141:81-8. [PMID: 15958073 PMCID: PMC1809409 DOI: 10.1111/j.1365-2249.2005.02018.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 03/21/2005] [Indexed: 11/29/2022] Open
Abstract
Differences in cytotoxic T lymphocyte activity in hepatitis C virus infection may account for the outcome of interferon monotherapy. To investigate this hypothesis, we analysed the response of peripheral CD8(+) T cells that recognized epitopes presented by HLA-A*2402. We synthesized HLA/beta2-microglobulin/peptide complexes using two epitopes. Production of interferon-gamma by CD8(+) T cells in response to plastic-bound monomeric HLA/peptide complex was observed frequently in sustained virus responders (SVR) (n = 13) against all the peptides, NS31296-1304 (the percentage of responding patients, 61.5%) and core 129-137 (53.8%), while no interferon-gamma production was observed in non-responders (NR) (n = 13) for any of the peptides. Tetramer-staining showed the presence of CD8(+) T cells specific for all the peptides except NS31296-1304 in two SVR at the end of interferon monotherapy, although hardly any such cells were found in four NR. Specific killing was observed against peptides NS31296-1304 (3/4) and core 129-137 (1/4) in sustained responders but none in non-responders. These results suggest that the responses of cytotoxic T lymphocytes (CTLs) were induced during interferon therapy in these patients and that interferon-gamma production by CD8(+) T lymphocytes against HCV NS31296-1304 and core 129-137 are well maintained in patients with SVR compared with those with NR. These findings emphasize the importance of the CD8(+) T cell response in controlling HCV infection.
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Affiliation(s)
- K Kobayashi
- Tohoku University School of Health Sciences and Comprehensive Research and Education Center for Planning of Drug Development and Clinical Evaluation, Sendai, Japan.
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26
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Kemball CC, Lee EDH, Vezys V, Pearson TC, Larsen CP, Lukacher AE. Late Priming and Variability of Epitope-Specific CD8+T Cell Responses during a Persistent Virus Infection. THE JOURNAL OF IMMUNOLOGY 2005; 174:7950-60. [PMID: 15944301 DOI: 10.4049/jimmunol.174.12.7950] [Citation(s) in RCA: 62] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
Control of persistently infecting viruses requires that antiviral CD8(+) T cells sustain their numbers and effector function. In this study, we monitored epitope-specific CD8(+) T cells during acute and persistent phases of infection by polyoma virus, a mouse pathogen that is capable of potent oncogenicity. We identified several novel polyoma-specific CD8(+) T cell epitopes in C57BL/6 mice, a mouse strain highly resistant to polyoma virus-induced tumors. Each of these epitopes is derived from the viral T proteins, nonstructural proteins produced by both productively and nonproductively (and potentially transformed) infected cells. In contrast to CD8(+) T cell responses described in other microbial infection mouse models, we found substantial variability between epitope-specific CD8(+) T cell responses in their kinetics of expansion and contraction during acute infection, maintenance during persistent infection, as well as their expression of cytokine receptors and cytokine profiles. This epitope-dependent variability also extended to differences in maturation of functional avidity from acute to persistent infection, despite a narrowing in TCR repertoire across all three specificities. Using a novel minimal myeloablation-bone marrow chimera approach, we visualized priming of epitope-specific CD8(+) T cells during persistent virus infection. Interestingly, epitope-specific CD8(+) T cells differed in CD62L-selectin expression profiles when primed in acute or persistent phases of infection, indicating that the context of priming affects CD8(+) T cell heterogeneity. In summary, persistent polyoma virus infection both quantitatively and qualitatively shapes the antiviral CD8(+) T cell response.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christopher C Kemball
- Department of Pathology, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, GA 30322, USA
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27
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Engelhardt KR, Richter K, Baur K, Staeheli P, Hausmann J. The functional avidity of virus-specific CD8+ T?cells is down-modulated in Borna disease virus-induced immunopathology of the central nervous system. Eur J Immunol 2005; 35:487-97. [PMID: 15627979 DOI: 10.1002/eji.200425232] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/12/2023]
Abstract
Borna disease virus (BDV) infection of the central nervous system (CNS) leads to severe neurological symptoms in susceptible MRL mice. The disease is mainly mediated by CD8+ T cells specific for the immunodominant epitope TELEISSI in the BDV nucleoprotein. In this study, TELEISSI/MHC class I tetramers were used to directly visualize antigen-specific CD8+ T cells. We found that on average approximately 30% of the ex vivo analyzed CD8+ T cells in the CNS of diseased mice were specific for TELEISSI. Unexpectedly, the frequency of tetramer-reactive brain-derived CD8+ T cells doubled following overnight culture in the absence of antigen. The majority of CD8+ T cells showed enhanced tetramer binding without up-regulation of T cell receptor surface expression. The frequency of IFN-gamma-secreting CD8+ T cells after antigen-specific stimulation was higher in overnight cultures than in freshly isolated BDV-specific brain lymphocytes, and enhanced tetramer binding correlated with elevated sensitivity to lower levels of peptide antigen in cytotoxicity assays. These results indicate that the functional avidity of virus-specific CD8+ T cells was down-modulated in vivo. Thus, quantification of tissue-infiltrating CD8+ T cells by the tetramer technique must be interpreted with caution as it may underestimate the real frequency of antigen-specific CD8+ T cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Karin R Engelhardt
- Department of Virology, Institute of Medical Microbiology and Hygiene, University of Freiburg, Freiburg, Germany
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28
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Abstract
Polyomaviruses establish persistent infection in a variety of hosts, including humans, where they pose an oncogenic threat under conditions of depressed immune function. Control of persistent infection by these DNA tumor viruses requires continuous immunosurveillance by functionally competent antiviral CD8+ T cells. Repetitive antigen encounter by these T cells, however, often leads to their deletion or inactivation. Elucidation of the in vivo mechanisms that sustain antigen-specific CD8+ T-cell effector activity in the face of persistent antigen is essential for devising immunotherapeutic strategies against viral oncogenesis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Aron E Lukacher
- Department of Pathology, Woodruff Memorial Research Building, Rm. 7307, Emory University School of Medicine, 1639 Pierce Drive, Atlanta, GA 30322, USA.
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29
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Abstract
The purpose of immunological memory is to protect the host from reinfection, to control persistent infections, and, through maternal antibody, to protect the host's immunologically immature offspring from primary infections. Immunological memory is an exclusive property of the acquired immune system, where in the presence of CD4 T cell help, T cells and B cells clonally expand and differentiate to provide effector systems that protect the host from pathogens. Here we describe how T and B cell memory is generated in response to virus infections and how these cells respond when the host is infected again by similar or different viruses.
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Affiliation(s)
- Raymond M Welsh
- Department of Pathology, University of Massachusetts Medical School, Worcester, Massachusetts 01655, USA.
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30
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Fuller MJ, Khanolkar A, Tebo AE, Zajac AJ. Maintenance, loss, and resurgence of T cell responses during acute, protracted, and chronic viral infections. THE JOURNAL OF IMMUNOLOGY 2004; 172:4204-14. [PMID: 15034033 DOI: 10.4049/jimmunol.172.7.4204] [Citation(s) in RCA: 176] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
The acute phase of many viral infections is associated with the induction of a pronounced CD8 T cell response which plays a principle role in clearing the infection. By contrast, certain infections are not as readily controlled. In this study, we have used the well-defined system of lymphocytic choriomeningitis virus (LCMV) infection of mice to determine quantitative and qualitative changes in virus-specific CD8 T cell responses that rapidly resolve acute infections, more slowly control protracted infections, or fail to clear chronic infections. Acute LCMV infection elicits potent, functional, multi-epitope-specific CD8 T cell responses. Virus-specific CD8 T cells also expand, albeit to a lesser extent, during protracted LCMV infection. Under these conditions, there is a progressive diminution in the capacity to produce IL-2, TNF-alpha, and IFN-gamma. Changes in cytotoxic activities are also detectable but differ depending upon the specificity of the responding cells. As the infection is slowly resolved, a resurgence of cytokine production by virus-specific CD8 T cells is observed. CD4-deficient mice cannot control infection with certain strains of LCMV, but do mount multi-epitope-specific CD8 T cell responses that also lose effector capabilities; however, they are not maintained indefinitely in an unresponsive state as these cells become deleted over time. Overall, our findings suggest that constant high viral loads result in the progressive diminution of T cell effector functions and subsequent physical loss of the responding cells, whereas if the viral load is brought under control a partial restoration of CD8 T cell functions can occur.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michael J Fuller
- Department of Microbiology, University of Alabama, Birmingham, AL 35294, USA
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31
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Affiliation(s)
- E John Wherry
- Emory Vaccine Center and Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Emory University School of Medicine, G211 Rollins Research Building, 1510 Clifton Rd., Atlanta, GA 30322, USA
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32
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Vankayalapati R, Klucar P, Wizel B, Weis SE, Samten B, Safi H, Shams H, Barnes PF. NK cells regulate CD8+ T cell effector function in response to an intracellular pathogen. THE JOURNAL OF IMMUNOLOGY 2004; 172:130-7. [PMID: 14688318 DOI: 10.4049/jimmunol.172.1.130] [Citation(s) in RCA: 129] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/11/2023]
Abstract
We studied the role of NK cells in regulating human CD8+ T cell effector function against mononuclear phagocytes infected with the intracellular pathogen Mycobacterium tuberculosis. Depletion of NK cells from PBMC of healthy tuberculin reactors reduced the frequency of M. tuberculosis-responsive CD8+IFN-gamma+ cells and decreased their capacity to lyse M. tuberculosis-infected monocytes. The frequency of CD8+ IFN-gamma+ cells was restored by soluble factors produced by activated NK cells and was dependent on IFN-gamma, IL-15, and IL-18. M. tuberculosis-activated NK cells produced IFN-gamma, activated NK cells stimulated infected monocytes to produce IL-15 and IL-18, and production of IL-15 and IL-18 were inhibited by anti-IFN-gamma. These findings suggest that NK cells maintain the frequency of M. tuberculosis-responsive CD8+IFN-gamma+ T cells by producing IFN-gamma, which elicits secretion of IL-15 and IL-18 by monocytes. These monokines in turn favor expansion of Tc1 CD8+ T cells. The capacity of NK cells to prime CD8+ T cells to lyse M. tuberculosis-infected target cells required cell-cell contact between NK cells and infected monocytes and depended on interactions between the CD40 ligand on NK cells and CD40 on infected monocytes. NK cells link the innate and the adaptive immune responses by optimizing the capacity of CD8+ T cells to produce IFN-gamma and to lyse infected cells, functions that are critical for protective immunity against M. tuberculosis and other intracellular pathogens.
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MESH Headings
- Antibodies, Blocking/pharmacology
- CD40 Antigens/immunology
- CD40 Antigens/metabolism
- CD40 Ligand/immunology
- CD40 Ligand/metabolism
- CD40 Ligand/physiology
- CD56 Antigen/biosynthesis
- CD56 Antigen/physiology
- CD8-Positive T-Lymphocytes/cytology
- CD8-Positive T-Lymphocytes/immunology
- CD8-Positive T-Lymphocytes/metabolism
- CD8-Positive T-Lymphocytes/microbiology
- Cells, Cultured
- Cytotoxicity, Immunologic/immunology
- Humans
- Immunity, Cellular
- Interferon-gamma/biosynthesis
- Interferon-gamma/physiology
- Interleukin-15/antagonists & inhibitors
- Interleukin-15/biosynthesis
- Interleukin-18/antagonists & inhibitors
- Interleukin-18/biosynthesis
- Intracellular Fluid/immunology
- Intracellular Fluid/microbiology
- Killer Cells, Natural/immunology
- Killer Cells, Natural/metabolism
- Killer Cells, Natural/microbiology
- Leukocytes, Mononuclear/immunology
- Leukocytes, Mononuclear/metabolism
- Leukocytes, Mononuclear/microbiology
- Lymphocyte Activation/immunology
- Lymphocyte Count
- Monokines/physiology
- Mycobacterium tuberculosis/immunology
- Mycobacterium tuberculosis/pathogenicity
- Solubility
- T-Lymphocytes, Regulatory/immunology
- T-Lymphocytes, Regulatory/metabolism
- T-Lymphocytes, Regulatory/microbiology
- Up-Regulation/immunology
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Affiliation(s)
- Ramakrishna Vankayalapati
- Center for Pulmonary and Infectious Disease Control, University of Texas Health Center, 11937 US Highway 271, Tyler, TX 75708, USA
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33
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Li L, Lee HH, Bell JJ, Gregg RK, Ellis JS, Gessner A, Zaghouani H. IL-4 Utilizes an Alternative Receptor to Drive Apoptosis of Th1 Cells and Skews Neonatal Immunity toward Th2. Immunity 2004; 20:429-40. [PMID: 15084272 DOI: 10.1016/s1074-7613(04)00072-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 109] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/17/2003] [Revised: 02/05/2004] [Accepted: 02/11/2004] [Indexed: 01/06/2023]
Abstract
Primary neonatal Th1 cells develop alongside of Th2 upon priming of the newborn but undergo apoptosis upon recall with antigen. These Th1 cells were isolated, and their death was correlated with elevated IL-13Ralpha1 chain expression. Strikingly, neutralization of Th2s' IL-4 reduced apoptosis, sustained recall responses, and the live Th1 cells displayed a decrease in IL-13Ralpha1 expression. Blockade of IL-13Ralpha1 or IL-4Ralpha also restores recall and secondary Th1 responses. Adult T cells primed within the neonatal environment did not upregulate IL-13Ralpha1 chain or undergo apoptosis and developed recall Th1 responses. These observations indicate that developmental expression of IL-13Ralpha1 along with IL-4Ralpha provides a receptor through which IL-4 induces death of Th1 cells and skews neonatal immunity toward Th2.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lequn Li
- Department of Molecular Microbiology and Immunology, University of Missouri School of Medicine, M616 Medical Sciences Building, Columbia, MO 65212 USA
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34
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Abstract
Virus-specific memory T cell populations demonstrate plasticity in antigenic and functional phenotype, in recognition of antigen, and in their ability to accommodate new memory T cell populations. The adaptability of complex antigen-specific T cell repertoires allows the host to respond to a diverse array of pathogens and accommodate memory pools to many pathogens in a finite immune system. This is in part accounted for by crossreactive memory T cells, which can be employed in immune responses and mediate protective immunity or life-threatening immunopathology.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Raymond M Welsh
- Department of Pathology, University of Massachusetts Medical School, 55 Lake Avenue North, Worcester, MA 01655 USA
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35
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Ramsburg E, Tigelaar R, Craft J, Hayday A. Age-dependent requirement for gammadelta T cells in the primary but not secondary protective immune response against an intestinal parasite. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2003; 198:1403-14. [PMID: 14597739 PMCID: PMC2194243 DOI: 10.1084/jem.20030050] [Citation(s) in RCA: 81] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/08/2023]
Abstract
Between weaning (3 wk of age) and adulthood (7 wk of age), mice develop increased resistance to infection with Eimeria vermiformis, an abundant intestinal parasite that causes coccidiosis. This development of resistance was perturbed in T cell receptor (TCR)δ−/− mice, which at 4 wk of age remained largely susceptible to infection and prone to infection-associated dehydration. These phenotypes were rescued by the repopulation of γδ cells after adoptive transfer of lymphoid progenitors into newborn recipients. Because αβ T cells are necessary and sufficient for the protection of adult mice against E. vermiformis, the requirement for γδ cells in young mice shows a qualitative difference between the cellular immune responses operating at different ages. An important contribution toward primary immune protection in young hosts may have provided a strong selective pressure for the evolutionary conservation of γδ cells. This notwithstanding, the development of effective, pathogen-specific immunity in young mice requires αβ T cells, just as it does in adult mice.
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Affiliation(s)
- Elizabeth Ramsburg
- Section of Immunobiology, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, CT 06511, USA
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36
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Araki K, Yoshimatsu K, Lee BH, Kariwa H, Takashima I, Arikawa J. Hantavirus-specific CD8(+)-T-cell responses in newborn mice persistently infected with Hantaan virus. J Virol 2003; 77:8408-17. [PMID: 12857910 PMCID: PMC165253 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.77.15.8408-8417.2003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
The relationship between virus-specific CD8(+)-T-cell responses and viral persistence was studied in mice by using Hantaan virus (HTNV). We first established a simple method for measuring levels of virus-specific CD8(+) T cells by flow cytometry. Next, to produce a mouse model of persistent HTNV infection, newborn mice were inoculated subcutaneously within 24 h of birth with 1 or 0.1 50% newborn mouse lethal dose of HTNV. All mice that escaped lethal infection were persistently infected with HTNV until at least 30 days after virus inoculation and had no virus-specific CD8(+) T cells producing gamma interferon (IFN-gamma). Subsequently, the virus was eliminated from some of the mice, depending on the appearance of functional virus-specific CD8(+) T cells, which have the ability to produce IFN-gamma and tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNF-alpha) and have cytotoxic activity. Neutralizing antibodies were detected in all mice, regardless of the presence or absence of virus. In the acute phase, which occurs within 30 days of infection, IFN-gamma-producing HTNV-specific CD8(+) T cells were detected on day 15 after virus inoculation. However, TNF-alpha production and the cytotoxic activity of these specific CD8(+) T cells were impaired and HTNV was not removed. Almost all of these specific CD8(+) T cells disappeared by day 18. These results suggest that functional HTNV-specific CD8(+) T cells are important for clearance of HTNV.
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Affiliation(s)
- Koichi Araki
- Laboratory of Public Health, Department of Environmental Veterinary Sciences, Graduate School of Veterinary Medicine, Hokkaido University, Sapporo 060-0818, Japan
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37
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Byers AM, Kemball CC, Moser JM, Lukacher AE. Cutting edge: rapid in vivo CTL activity by polyoma virus-specific effector and memory CD8+ T cells. JOURNAL OF IMMUNOLOGY (BALTIMORE, MD. : 1950) 2003; 171:17-21. [PMID: 12816977 DOI: 10.4049/jimmunol.171.1.17] [Citation(s) in RCA: 91] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
For viruses that establish persistent infection, continuous immunosurveillance by effector-competent antiviral CD8(+) T cells is likely essential for limiting viral replication. Although it is well documented that virus-specific memory CD8(+) T cells synthesize cytokines after short term in vitro stimulation, there is limited evidence that these T cells exhibit cytotoxicity, the dominant antiviral effector function. Here, we show that antiviral CD8(+) T cells in mice acutely infected by polyoma virus, a persistent mouse pathogen, specifically eliminate viral peptide-pulsed donor spleen cells within minutes after adoptive transfer and do so via a perforin-dependent mechanism. Antiviral memory CD8(+) T cells were similarly capable of rapidly mobilizing potent Ag-specific cytotoxic activity in vivo. These findings strongly support the concept that a cytotoxic effector-memory CD8(+) T cell population operates in vivo to control this persistent viral infection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anthony M Byers
- Department of Pathology, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, GA 30322, USA
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38
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Efferson CL, Schickli J, Ko BK, Kawano K, Mouzi S, Palese P, García-Sastre A, Ioannides CG. Activation of tumor antigen-specific cytotoxic T lymphocytes (CTLs) by human dendritic cells infected with an attenuated influenza A virus expressing a CTL epitope derived from the HER-2/neu proto-oncogene. J Virol 2003; 77:7411-24. [PMID: 12805440 PMCID: PMC164815 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.77.13.7411-7424.2003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
The development of cancer vaccines requires approaches to induce expansion and functional differentiation of tumor antigen-specific cytotoxic T lymphocyte (CTL) effectors which posses cytolytic capability and produce cytokines. Efficient induction of such cells is hindered by the poor immunogenicity of tumor antigens and by the poor transduction efficiency of dendritic cells (DCs) with current nonreplicating vectors. We have investigated the use of influenza A virus, a potent viral inducer of CTLs, as a vector expressing the immunodominant HER-2 CTL epitope KIF (E75). For this purpose, an attenuated influenza A/PR8/34 virus with a truncated nonstructural (NS1) gene was generated containing the E75 epitope in its neuraminidase protein (KIF-NS virus). Stimulation of peripheral blood mononuclear cells from healthy donors and of tumor-associated lymphocytes from ovarian and breast cancer patients with DCs infected with KIF-NS virus (KIF-NS DC) induced CTLs that specifically recognized the peptide KIF and HER-2-expressing tumors in cytotoxicity assays and secreted gamma interferon (IFN-gamma) and interleukin-2 at recall with peptide. Priming with KIF-NS DCs increased the number of E75(+) CD45RO(+) cells by more than 10-fold compared to nonstimulated cells. In addition, KIF-NS virus induced high levels of IFN-alpha in DCs. This is the first report demonstrating induction of human epitope-specific CTLs against a tumor-associated antigen with a live attenuated recombinant influenza virus vector. Such vectors may provide a novel approach for tumor antigen delivery, lymphocyte activation, and differentiation in human cancer vaccine development.
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Affiliation(s)
- Clay L Efferson
- Department of Gynecologic Oncology, M.D. Anderson Cancer Center, Houston, Texas 77030, USA
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39
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Abstract
There is extensive plasticity in the T-cell response to antigen. Helper CD4(+) T cells, cytotoxic CD8(+) T cells, the progression from naïve to effector and memory T cells, and differentiation into Th1, Tc1, Th2 and Tc2 subsets have long been recognized. More recently it has become apparent that T-cell populations display additional diversity in terms of phenotype, anatomical distribution and effector function.
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Affiliation(s)
- David L Woodland
- Trudeau Institute, 100 Algonquin Avenue, Saranac Lake, New York, NY 12983, USA.
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40
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Curtsinger JM, Lins DC, Mescher MF. Signal 3 determines tolerance versus full activation of naive CD8 T cells: dissociating proliferation and development of effector function. J Exp Med 2003; 197:1141-51. [PMID: 12732656 PMCID: PMC2193970 DOI: 10.1084/jem.20021910] [Citation(s) in RCA: 367] [Impact Index Per Article: 17.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/31/2022] Open
Abstract
Activation of naive CD8 T cells to undergo clonal expansion and develop effector function requires three signals: (a) Ag, (b) costimulation, and (c) IL-12 or adjuvant. The requirement for the third signal to stimulate Ag-dependent proliferation is variable, making the greatest contribution when Ag levels are low. At high Ag levels, extensive proliferation can occur in vitro or in vivo in the absence of a third signal. However, despite having undergone the same number of divisions, cells that expand in the absence of a third signal fail to develop cytolytic effector function. Thus, proliferation and development of cytolytic function can be fully uncoupled. Furthermore, these cells are rendered functionally tolerant in vivo, in that subsequent restimulation with a potent stimulus results in limited clonal expansion, impaired IFN-gamma production, and no cytolytic function. Thus, the presence or absence of the third signal appears to be a critical variable in determining whether stimulation by Ag results in tolerance versus development of effector function and establishment of a responsive memory population.
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Affiliation(s)
- Julie M Curtsinger
- Department of Laboratory Medicine and Pathology, Center for Immunology, University of Minnesota, MN 55455, USA
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41
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Khanolkar A, Fuller MJ, Zajac AJ. T cell responses to viral infections: lessons from lymphocytic choriomeningitis virus. Immunol Res 2003; 26:309-21. [PMID: 12403369 DOI: 10.1385/ir:26:1-3:309] [Citation(s) in RCA: 42] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
Abstract
The elaboration of a successful immune response is critical for the clearance of viral infections. CD8 T cells can directly kill virus-infected cells and also produce cytokines that modulate virus replication. Thus, the failure to induce or sustain these responses can profoundly impact the outcome of infections. Lymphocytic choriomeningitis virus (LCMV) infection of mice has proven to be one of the most informative experimental systems for examining antiviral T cell responses. In recent years, the application of newly developed approaches to analyze these responses has revealed that acute infections induce remarkably high levels of antiviral T cells. By contrast, protracted or chronic infections are associated with both the functional impairment and deletion of virus-specific CD8 T cells. This article discusses some of our findings using LCMV infection of mice as well as their relevance to other infections of animals and humans.
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Affiliation(s)
- Aaruni Khanolkar
- Department of Microbiology, University of Alabama at Birmingham, 35294-2170, USA
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42
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Auphan-Anezin N, Verdeil G, Schmitt-Verhulst AM. Distinct thresholds for CD8 T cell activation lead to functional heterogeneity: CD8 T cell priming can occur independently of cell division. JOURNAL OF IMMUNOLOGY (BALTIMORE, MD. : 1950) 2003; 170:2442-8. [PMID: 12594268 DOI: 10.4049/jimmunol.170.5.2442] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/02/2023]
Abstract
To examine the bases for CD8 T cell functional heterogeneity, we analyzed responses to partial vs full agonist Ag. An extended period of interaction with APCs was required to set the threshold required for cell division in response to partial as compared with full agonist Ag. Acquisition of cytolytic function was restricted to the divided T cell population. In contrast, the threshold for commitment to produce IFN-gamma and express some activation markers appeared lower and independent of cell division. Indeed, we characterized a T cell population stimulated in response to the partial agonist that was committed to produce IFN-gamma, but failed to divide or secrete IL-2. Importantly, this activated nondivided population behaved as "primed" rather than "anergized," indicating 1) that priming of CD8 T cells may be induced by suboptimal stimulation independent of cell division and 2) that encounter with Ag does not always induce a complete differentiation program in naive CD8 T cells, as previously reported.
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MESH Headings
- Animals
- CD8-Positive T-Lymphocytes/immunology
- CD8-Positive T-Lymphocytes/metabolism
- Cell Differentiation/genetics
- Cell Differentiation/immunology
- Cell Division/genetics
- Cell Division/immunology
- Cells, Cultured
- Clone Cells
- Crosses, Genetic
- Cytotoxicity, Immunologic/genetics
- Genetic Heterogeneity
- H-2 Antigens/genetics
- H-2 Antigens/physiology
- Immunization
- Immunization, Secondary
- Interphase/genetics
- Interphase/immunology
- Lymphocyte Activation/genetics
- Lymphokines/metabolism
- Mice
- Mice, Inbred C57BL
- Mice, Inbred CBA
- Mice, Transgenic
- Receptors, Antigen, T-Cell/genetics
- Receptors, Antigen, T-Cell/immunology
- Receptors, Antigen, T-Cell/metabolism
- T-Lymphocyte Subsets/immunology
- T-Lymphocyte Subsets/metabolism
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Affiliation(s)
- Nathalie Auphan-Anezin
- Centre d'Immunologie de Marseille-Luminy, Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique-Institut National de la Santé et de la Recherche Médicale-Université de la Méditerranée, Campus de Luminy, Marseille, France.
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43
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Abstract
As naive CD8+ T cells circulate throughout the bloodstream and secondary lymphoid tissues (i.e. spleen and lymph nodes), they sample complexes of peptides and MHC class I molecules expressed on the surface of professional antigen presenting cells (APCs). A proper fit between lymphocyte and APCs sets into motion a complex series of events that result in the generation of activated cytotoxic T lymphocytes (CTLs) that are the principal immune effectors against infected and transformed cells. Owing to the severe immunopathology that can result from the aberrant stimulation of CTLs, the activation of naïve CD8(+) T cells is a tightly regulated process. A growing body of evidence suggests that the quality of stimulation naïve CD8+ T cells receive during the induction and maintenance of an immune response dictates the functional competency of the responding antigen-specific CTLs, and that CD8+ T cells and their progeny "effector cells" can exist long-term in vastly different activation states.
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Affiliation(s)
- Donald R Drake
- The Beirne B. Carter Center for Immunology Research, University of Virginia, Box 801386, MR4 Bldg., HSC Box 4012, Charlottesville, VA 22906, USA
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44
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Byers AM, Kemball CC, Andrews NP, Lukacher AE. Regulation of antiviral CD8+ T cells by inhibitory natural killer cell receptors. Microbes Infect 2003; 5:169-77. [PMID: 12650775 DOI: 10.1016/s1286-4579(02)00086-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
Recent evidence indicates that CD8(+) T cells express natural killer cell receptors that constrain the range and magnitude of their activities. For virus-specific CD8(+) T cells, upregulation of these receptors serves to control infection, while concurrently minimizing bystander pathology. Dysregulated expression of these receptors, however, may foster the establishment of persistent virus infection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anthony M Byers
- Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, Woodruff Memorial Research Building, Rm. 7307, Emory University School of Medicine, 1639 Pierce Drive, Atlanta, GA 30322, USA
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45
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Martinez X, Regner M, Kovarik J, Zarei S, Hauser C, Lambert PH, Leclerc C, Siegrist CA. CD4-independent protective cytotoxic T cells induced in early life by a non-replicative delivery system based on virus-like particles. Virology 2003; 305:428-35. [PMID: 12573588 DOI: 10.1006/viro.2002.1775] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
The relative immaturity of the neonatal immune system limits CD4(+) Th1 and cytotoxic T lymphocyte (CTL) responses, and represents a significant challenge for the development of vaccines against intracellular pathogens. In this report, we demonstrate the ability of a non-replicative delivery system based on parvovirus-like particles (VLP) to induce CTL responses in the neonatal period. A single immunization of 1-week-old BALB/c mice with recombinant VLP carrying a CD8(+) T cell determinant from lymphocytic choriomeningitis virus (VLP-LCMV) induced antigen-specific CD8(+) cytotoxic T cells that were similar to those elicited by adult immunization, as assessed by cytotoxic activity, interferon (IFN)-gamma secretion, cytotoxic precursor cell frequencies, in vitro avidity for antigen and protective activity against viral challenge. These CTL responses are elicited within 2 weeks of a single immunization, in the absence of adjuvant and independently of the presence and help of CD4(+) T cells, highlighting the potential of VLP as candidate vaccine vectors in early life.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xavier Martinez
- W.H.O. Collaborating Center for Neonatal Vaccinology, Department of Pathology, University of Geneva Medical School, Switzerland
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46
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Fuller MJ, Zajac AJ. Ablation of CD8 and CD4 T cell responses by high viral loads. JOURNAL OF IMMUNOLOGY (BALTIMORE, MD. : 1950) 2003; 170:477-86. [PMID: 12496434 DOI: 10.4049/jimmunol.170.1.477] [Citation(s) in RCA: 215] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
To evaluate the impact of sustained viral loads on anti-viral T cell responses we compared responses that cleared acute lymphocytic choriomeningitis virus infection with those that were elicited but could not resolve chronic infection. During acute infection, as replicating virus was cleared, CD8 T cell responses were down-regulated, and a pool of resting memory cells developed. In chronically infected hosts, the failure to control the infection was associated with pronounced and prolonged activation of virus-specific CD8 T cells. Nevertheless, there was a progressive diminution of their effector activities as their capacity to produce first IL-2, then TNF-alpha, and finally IFN-gamma was lost. Chronic lymphocytic choriomeningitis virus infection was also associated with differential contraction of certain CD8 T cell responses, resulting in altered immunodominance. However, this altered immunodominance was not due to selective expansion of T cells expressing particular TCR Vbeta segments during chronic infection. High viral loads were not only associated with the ablation of CD8 T cell responses, but also with impaired production of IL-2 by virus-specific CD4 T cells. Taken together, our data show that sustained exposure to high viral loads results in the progressive functional inactivation of virus-specific T cell responses, which may further promote virus persistence.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michael J Fuller
- Department of Microbiology, University of Alabama, Birmingham, AL 35294-2170, USA
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47
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Zhang J, Silvestri N, Whitton JL, Hassett DE. Neonates mount robust and protective adult-like CD8(+)-T-cell responses to DNA vaccines. J Virol 2002; 76:11911-9. [PMID: 12414933 PMCID: PMC136875 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.76.23.11911-11919.2002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Neonates are thought to mount less vigorous adaptive immune responses than adults to antigens and infectious agents. This concept has led to a delay in the administration of many currently available vaccines until late infancy or early childhood. It has recently been shown that vaccines composed of plasmid DNA can induce both humoral and cell-mediated antimicrobial immunity when administered within hours of birth. In most of these studies, immune responses were measured weeks or months after the initial vaccination, and it is therefore questionable whether the observed responses were actually the result of priming of splenocytes within the neonatal period. Here we show that DNA vaccination at birth results in the rapid induction of antigen-specific CD8(+) T cells within neonatal life. Analyses of T-cell effector functions critical for the resolution of many viral infections revealed that neonatal and adult CD8(+) T cells produce similar arrays of cytokines. Furthermore, the avidities of neonatal and adult CD8(+) T cells for peptide and the rapidity with which they upregulate cytokine production after recall encounters with antigen are similar. Protective immunity against the arenavirus lymphocytic choriomeningitis virus, which is mediated by CD8(+) cytotoxic T cells, is also rapidly acquired within the neonatal period. Collectively these data imply that, at least in the case of CD8(+) T cells, neonates are not as immunodeficient as previously supposed and that DNA vaccines may be an effective and safe means of providing critical cell-mediated antiviral immunity extremely early in life.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jie Zhang
- The Scripps Research Institute, La Jolla, California 92037, USA
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48
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McKenna KC, Xu Y, Kapp JA. Injection of soluble antigen into the anterior chamber of the eye induces expansion and functional unresponsiveness of antigen-specific CD8+ T cells. JOURNAL OF IMMUNOLOGY (BALTIMORE, MD. : 1950) 2002; 169:5630-7. [PMID: 12421942 DOI: 10.4049/jimmunol.169.10.5630] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
The injection of soluble Ag into the anterior chamber (a.c.) of the eye induces systemic tolerance, termed a.c.-associated immune deviation (ACAID), characterized by Ag-specific inhibition of delayed-type hypersensitivity responses and a reduction in complement-fixing Abs. Recently, we have shown that CD8(+) CTL responses are also inhibited in ACAID. In this study, we have used an adoptive transfer approach to follow the fate of Ag-specific CD8(+) TCR transgenic (OT-I) T cells in vivo during the induction and expression of ACAID. C57BL/6 (B6) recipients of OT-I splenocytes that were injected with chicken OVA in the a.c. displayed reduced OVA-specific delayed-type hypersensitivity and CTL responses, compared with those of mice given OVA in the subconjunctiva or an irrelevant Ag human IgG in the a.c. OT-I T cells increased 9-fold in the submandibular lymph nodes and 3-fold in the spleen following an a.c. injection with OVA, indicating that expansion rather than deletion of Ag-specific CD8(+) T cells was induced by this treatment. OT-I T cells expanded equivalently upon administration of OVA in CFA to mice previously given OVA in the a.c. or subconjunctiva. However, the lytic activity attributed to OT-I T cells was reduced on a per-cell basis in mice previously given OVA in the a.c. We conclude that tolerance of CTL responses in mice given Ag via the a.c. results from unresponsiveness of Ag-specific CD8(+) T cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kyle C McKenna
- Departments of Ophthalmology and Pathology, Emory University School of Medicine, 1365 Clifton Road NE,, Atlanta, GA 30322, USA
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49
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Blohm U, Roth E, Brommer K, Dumrese T, Rosenthal FM, Pircher H. Lack of effector cell function and altered tetramer binding of tumor-infiltrating lymphocytes. JOURNAL OF IMMUNOLOGY (BALTIMORE, MD. : 1950) 2002; 169:5522-30. [PMID: 12421928 DOI: 10.4049/jimmunol.169.10.5522] [Citation(s) in RCA: 53] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
Tumor-specific CD8 T cell responses to MCA102 fibrosarcoma cells expressing the cytotoxic T cell epitope gp33 from lymphocytic choriomeningitis virus were studied. MCA102(gp33) tumors grew progressively in C57BL/6 mice, despite induction of peripheral gp33-tetramer(+) T cells that were capable of mediating antiviral protection, specific cell rejection, and concomitant tumor immunity. MCA102(gp33) tumors were infiltrated with a high number ( approximately 20%) of CD11b(+)CD11c(-) macrophage-phenotype cells that were able to cross-present the gp33 epitope to T cells. Tumor-infiltrating CD8 T cells exhibited a highly activated phenotype but lacked effector cell function. Strikingly, a significant portion of tumor-infiltrating lymphocytes expressed TCRs specific for gp33 but bound MHC tetramers only after cell purification and a 24-h resting period in vitro. The phenomenon of "tetramer-negative T cells" was not restricted to tumor-infiltrating lymphocytes from MCA102(gp33) tumors, but was also observed when Ag-specific T cells derived from an environment with high Ag load were analyzed ex vivo. Thus, using a novel tumor model, allowing us to trace tumor-specific T cells at the single cell level in vivo, we demonstrate that the tumor microenvironment is able to alter the functional activity of T cells infiltrating the tumor mass.
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MESH Headings
- Animals
- Antigen Presentation/genetics
- Antigens, Viral/biosynthesis
- Antigens, Viral/immunology
- Antigens, Viral/metabolism
- CD11b Antigen/biosynthesis
- CD4-Positive T-Lymphocytes/immunology
- CD4-Positive T-Lymphocytes/metabolism
- CD8-Positive T-Lymphocytes/immunology
- CD8-Positive T-Lymphocytes/metabolism
- Cell Division/genetics
- Cell Division/immunology
- Cell Separation
- Cells, Cultured
- Cytotoxicity, Immunologic/genetics
- Epitopes, T-Lymphocyte/biosynthesis
- Epitopes, T-Lymphocyte/immunology
- Female
- Fibrosarcoma/immunology
- Fibrosarcoma/metabolism
- Fibrosarcoma/pathology
- Glycoproteins/biosynthesis
- Glycoproteins/immunology
- Glycoproteins/metabolism
- Histocompatibility Antigens Class I/metabolism
- Immunity, Innate/genetics
- Lymphocyte Count
- Lymphocytes, Tumor-Infiltrating/immunology
- Lymphocytes, Tumor-Infiltrating/metabolism
- Lymphocytes, Tumor-Infiltrating/pathology
- Lymphocytic choriomeningitis virus/immunology
- Male
- Mice
- Mice, Inbred C57BL
- Mice, Transgenic
- Neoplasm Transplantation
- Peptide Fragments/biosynthesis
- Peptide Fragments/immunology
- Peptide Fragments/metabolism
- Protein Binding/genetics
- Protein Binding/immunology
- Receptors, Antigen, T-Cell/biosynthesis
- Tumor Cells, Cultured
- Viral Proteins/biosynthesis
- Viral Proteins/immunology
- Viral Proteins/metabolism
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Affiliation(s)
- Ulrike Blohm
- Institute of Medical Microbiology and Hygiene, Department of Immunology, University of Freiburg, Hermann-Herdfer-Strasse 11, D-79104 Freiburg, Germany
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50
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Cameron TO, Norris PJ, Patel A, Moulon C, Rosenberg ES, Mellins ED, Wedderburn LR, Stern LJ. Labeling antigen-specific CD4(+) T cells with class II MHC oligomers. J Immunol Methods 2002; 268:51-69. [PMID: 12213343 DOI: 10.1016/s0022-1759(02)00200-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 41] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/04/2023]
Abstract
Class I MHC-peptide oligomers (MHC tetramers) have become popular reagents for the detection and characterization of antigen-specific CD8(+) T cells. Class II MHC proteins can be produced by expression in Escherichia coli followed by in vitro folding, or by native expression in insect cells; biotin can be introduced by site-specific chemical modification of cysteine, or by enzymatic modification of a peptide tag; and a variety of fluorescent streptavidin preparations can be used for oligomerization. Here we review methodologies for production of fluorescent oligomers of soluble class II MHC proteins and discuss their use in analysis of antigen-specific CD4(+) T cells. We explore the experimental conditions necessary for efficient staining of CD4(+) T cells using oligomers of class II MHC proteins, and we establish a standard protocol. Finally, we consider complications and challenges associated with these reagents, discuss the interpretation of staining results, and suggest future directions for investigation, in particular the use of MHC oligomers for the study of T cell avidity modulation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Thomas O Cameron
- Department of Chemistry, MIT, 77 Massachusetts Avenue, Cambridge 02139, USA
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