Effect of norepinephrine on swelling-induced potassium transport in duck red cells. Evidence against a volume-regulatory decrease under physiological conditions

Regulation of erythrocyte Na+/K+/2Cl- cotransport by an oxygen-switched kinase cascade

Many erythrocyte processes and pathways, including glycolysis, the pentose phosphate pathway (PPP), KCl cotransport, ATP release, Na⁺/K⁺-ATPase activity, ankyrin-band 3 interactions, and nitric oxide (NO) release, are regulated by changes in O₂ pressure that occur as a red blood cell (RBC) transits between the lungs and tissues. The O₂ dependence of glycolysis, PPP, and ankyrin-band 3 interactions (affecting RBC rheology) are controlled by O₂-dependent competition between deoxyhemoglobin (deoxyHb), but not oxyhemoglobin (oxyHb), and other proteins for band 3. We undertook the present study to determine whether the O₂ dependence of Na⁺/K⁺/2Cl^- cotransport (catalyzed by Na⁺/K⁺/2Cl^- cotransporter 1 [NKCC1]) might similarly originate from competition between deoxyHb and a protein involved in NKCC1 regulation for a common binding site on band 3. Using three transgenic mouse strains having mutated deoxyhemoglobin-binding sites on band 3, we found that docking of deoxyhemoglobin at the N terminus of band 3 displaces the protein with no lysine kinase 1 (WNK1) from its overlapping binding site on band 3. This displacement enabled WNK1 to phosphorylate oxidative stress-responsive kinase 1 (OSR1), which, in turn, phosphorylated and activated NKCC1. Under normal solution conditions, the NKCC1 activation increased RBC volume and thereby induced changes in RBC rheology. Because the deoxyhemoglobin-mediated WNK1 displacement from band 3 in this O₂ regulation pathway may also occur in the regulation of other O₂-regulated ion transporters, we hypothesize that the NKCC1-mediated regulatory mechanism may represent a general pattern of O₂ modulation of ion transporters in erythrocytes.

Carriers, exchangers, and cotransporters in the first 100 years of the Journal of General Physiology

Jennings reviews the many contributions of JGP articles to our current understanding of solute transporter mechanisms.

Transporters, pumps, and channels are proteins that catalyze the movement of solutes across membranes. The single-solute carriers, coupled exchangers, and coupled cotransporters that are collectively known as transporters are distinct from conductive ion channels, water channels, and ATP-hydrolyzing pumps. The main conceptual framework for studying transporter mechanisms is the alternating access model, which comprises substrate binding and release events on each side of the permeability barrier and translocation events involving conformational changes between inward-facing and outward-facing conformational states. In 1948, the Journal of General Physiology began to publish work that focused on the erythrocyte glucose transporter—the first transporter to be characterized kinetically—followed by articles on the rates, stoichiometries, asymmetries, voltage dependences, and regulation of coupled exchangers and cotransporters beginning in the 1960s. After the dawn of cDNA cloning and sequencing in the 1980s, heterologous expression systems and site-directed mutagenesis allowed identification of the functional roles of specific amino acid residues. In the past two decades, structures of transport proteins have made it possible to propose specific models for transporter function at the molecular level. Here, we review the contribution of JGP articles to our current understanding of solute transporter mechanisms. Whether the topic has been kinetics, energetics, regulation, mutagenesis, or structure-based modeling, a common feature of these articles has been a quantitative, mechanistic approach, leading to lasting insights into the functions of transporters.

Coordinated control of volume regulatory Na+/H+ and K+/H+ exchange pathways in Amphiuma red blood cells

The Na(+)/H(+) and K(+)/H(+) exchange pathways of Amphiuma tridactylum red blood cells (RBCs) are quiescent at normal resting cell volume yet are selectively activated in response to cell shrinkage and swelling, respectively. These alkali metal/H(+) exchangers are activated by net kinase activity and deactivated by net phosphatase activity. We employed relaxation kinetic analyses to gain insight into the basis for coordinated control of these volume regulatory ion flux pathways. This approach enabled us to develop a model explaining how phosphorylation/dephosphorylation-dependent events control and coordinate the activity of the Na(+)/H(+) and K(+)/H(+) exchangers around the cell volume set point. We found that the transition between initial and final steady state for both activation and deactivation of the volume-induced Na(+)/H(+) and K(+)/H(+) exchange pathways in Amphiuma RBCs proceed as a single exponential function of time. The rate of Na(+)/H(+) exchange activation increases with cell shrinkage, whereas the rate of Na(+)/H(+) exchange deactivation increases as preshrunken cells are progressively swollen. Similarly, the rate of K(+)/H(+) exchange activation increases with cell swelling, whereas the rate of K(+)/H(+) exchange deactivation increases as preswollen cells are progressively shrunken. We propose a model in which the activities of the controlling kinases and phosphatases are volume sensitive and reciprocally regulated. Briefly, the activity of each kinase-phosphatase pair is reciprocally related, as a function of volume, and the volume sensitivities of kinases and phosphatases controlling K(+)/H(+) exchange are reciprocally related to those controlling Na(+)/H(+) exchange.

Activation of Na+/H+ and K+/H+ exchange by calyculin A in Amphiuma tridactylum red blood cells: implications for the control of volume-induced ion flux activity

Alteration in cell volume of vertebrates results in activation of volume-sensitive ion flux pathways. Fine control of the activity of these pathways enables cells to regulate volume following osmotic perturbation. Protein phosphorylation and dephosphorylation have been reported to play a crucial role in the control of volume-sensitive ion flux pathways. Exposing Amphiuma tridactylu red blood cells (RBCs) to phorbol esters in isotonic medium results in a simultaneous, dose-dependent activation of both Na(+)/H(+) and K(+)/H(+) exchangers. We tested the hypothesis that in Amphiuma RBCs, both shrinkage-induced Na(+)/H(+) exchange and swelling-induced K(+)/H(+) exchange are activated by phosphorylation-dependent reactions. To this end, we assessed the effect of calyculin A, a phosphatase inhibitor, on the activity of the aforementioned exchangers. We found that exposure of Amphiuma RBCs to calyculin-A in isotonic media results in simultaneous, 1-2 orders of magnitude increase in the activity of both K(+)/H(+) and Na(+)/H(+) exchangers. We also demonstrate that, in isotonic media, calyculin A-dependent increases in net Na(+) uptake and K(+) loss are a direct result of phosphatase inhibition and are not dependent on changes in cell volume. Whereas calyculin A exposure in the absence of volume changes results in stimulation of both the Na(+)/H(+) and K(+)/H(+) exchangers, superimposing cell swelling or shrinkage and calyculin A treatment results in selective activation of K(+)/H(+) or Na(+)/H(+) exchange, respectively. We conclude that kinase-dependent reactions are responsible for Na(+)/H(+) and K(+)/H(+) exchange activity, whereas undefined volume-dependent reactions confer specificity and coordinated control.

Molecular cloning of NHE1 from winter flounder RBCs: activation by osmotic shrinkage, cAMP, and calyculin A

In this report, we describe the cloning, cellular localization, and functional characteristics of Na(+)/H(+) exchanger 1 (NHE1) from red blood cells of the winter flounder Pseudopleuronectes americanus (paNHE1). The paNHE1 protein localizes primarily to the marginal band and exhibits a 74% similarity to the trout beta-NHE, and 65% to the human NHE1 (hNHE1). Functionally, paNHE1 shares characteristics of both beta-NHE and hNHE1 in that it is activated both by manipulations that increase cAMP and by cell shrinkage, respectively. In accordance, the paNHE1 protein exhibits both protein kinase A consensus sites as in beta-NHE and a region of high homology to that required for shrinkage-dependent activation of hNHE1. After shrinkage-dependent activation of paNHE1 and resulting activation of a Cl(-)/HCO(3)(-) exchanger, their parallel operation results in net uptake of NaCl and osmotically obliged water. Activation of paNHE1 by cAMP is at least additive to that elicited by osmotic shrinkage, suggesting that these stimuli regulate paNHE1 by distinct mechanisms. Finally, exposure to the serine/threonine phosphatase inhibitor calyculin A potently activates paNHE1, and this activation is also additive to that induced by shrinkage or cAMP.

Coordinate modulation of Na-K-2Cl cotransport and K-Cl cotransport by cell volume and chloride

Na-K-2Cl cotransporter (NKCC) and K-Cl cotransporter (KCC) play key roles in cell volume regulation and epithelial Cl(-) transport. Reductions in either cell volume or cytosolic Cl(-) concentration ([Cl(-)](i)) stimulate a corrective uptake of KCl and water via NKCC, whereas cell swelling triggers KCl loss via KCC. The dependence of these transporters on volume and [Cl(-)](i) was evaluated in model duck red blood cells. Replacement of [Cl(-)](i) with methanesulfonate elevated the volume set point at which NKCC activates and KCC inactivates. The set point was insensitive to cytosolic ionic strength. Reducing [Cl(-)](i) at a constant driving force for inward NKCC and outward KCC caused the cells to adopt the new set point volume. Phosphopeptide maps of NKCC indicated that activation by cell shrinkage or low [Cl(-)](i) is associated with phosphorylation of a similar constellation of Ser/Thr sites. Like shrinkage, reduction of [Cl(-)](i) accelerated NKCC phosphorylation after abrupt inhibition of the deactivating phosphatase with calyculin A in vivo, whereas [Cl(-)] had no specific effect on dephosphorylation in vitro. Our results indicate that NKCC and KCC are reciprocally regulated by a negative feedback system dually modulated by cell volume and [Cl(-)]. The major effect of Cl(-) on NKCC is exerted through the volume-sensitive kinase that phosphorylates the transport protein.

Macromolecular crowding and its role as intracellular signalling of cell volume regulation

Macromolecular crowding has been proposed as a mechanism by means of which a cell can sense relatively small changes in volume or, more accurately, the concentration of intracellular solutes. According to the macromolecular theory, the kinetics and equilibria of enzymes can be greatly influenced by small changes in the concentration of ambient, inert macromolecules. A 10% change in the concentration of intracellular proteins can lead to changes of up to a factor of ten in the thermodynamic activity of putative molecular regulatory species, and consequently, the extent to which such regulator(s) may bind to and activate membrane-associated ion transporters. The aim of this review is to examine the concept of macromolecular crowding and how it profoundly affects macromolecular association in an intact cell with particular emphasis on its implication as a sensor and a mechanism through which cell volume is regulated.

The Na-K-Cl cotransporter of secretory epithelia

The Na-K-Cl cotransporters are a class of ion transport proteins that transport Na, K, and Cl ions into and out of cells in an electrically neutral manner, in most cases with a stoichiometry of 1Na:1K:2Cl. To date, two Na-K-Cl cotransporter isoforms have been identified: NKCC1, which is present in a wide variety of secretory epithelia and non-epithelial cells; and NKCC2, which is present exclusively in the kidney, in the epithelial cells of the thick ascending limb of Henle's loop and of the macula densa. Both NKCC isoforms represent part of a diverse family of cation-chloride cotransport proteins that share a common predicted membrane topology; this family also includes Na-Cl cotransporters and multiple K-Cl cotransporter isoforms. In secretory epithelia, the regulation of NKCC1, which is typically present on the basolateral membrane, is tightly coordinated with that of other transporters, including apical Cl channels, to maintain cell volume and integrity during active salt and fluid secretion. Changes in intracellular [Cl] ([Cl]i) appear to be involved in this regulation of NKCC1, which is directly phosphorylated by an unknown protein kinase in response to various secretagogues as well as reductions in [Cl]i and cell volume. This review focuses on structure-function relationships within NKCC1 and on recent developments pertaining to NKCC1 regulation at cellular and molecular levels.

Sodium-potassium-chloride cotransport

Obligatory, coupled cotransport of Na(+), K(+), and Cl(-) by cell membranes has been reported in nearly every animal cell type. This review examines the current status of our knowledge about this ion transport mechanism. Two isoforms of the Na(+)-K(+)-Cl(-) cotransporter (NKCC) protein (approximately 120-130 kDa, unglycosylated) are currently known. One isoform (NKCC2) has at least three alternatively spliced variants and is found exclusively in the kidney. The other (NKCC1) is found in nearly all cell types. The NKCC maintains intracellular Cl(-) concentration ([Cl(-)](i)) at levels above the predicted electrochemical equilibrium. The high [Cl(-)](i) is used by epithelial tissues to promote net salt transport and by neural cells to set synaptic potentials; its function in other cells is unknown. There is substantial evidence in some cells that the NKCC functions to offset osmotically induced cell shrinkage by mediating the net influx of osmotically active ions. Whether it serves to maintain cell volume under euvolemic conditons is less clear. The NKCC may play an important role in the cell cycle. Evidence that each cotransport cycle of the NKCC is electrically silent is discussed along with evidence for the electrically neutral stoichiometries of 1 Na(+):1 K(+):2 Cl- (for most cells) and 2 Na(+):1 K(+):3 Cl(-) (in squid axon). Evidence that the absolute dependence on ATP of the NKCC is the result of regulatory phosphorylation/dephosphorylation mechanisms is decribed. Interestingly, the presumed protein kinase(s) responsible has not been identified. An unusual form of NKCC regulation is by [Cl(-)](i). [Cl(-)](i) in the physiological range and above strongly inhibits the NKCC. This effect may be mediated by a decrease of protein phosphorylation. Although the NKCC has been studied for approximately 20 years, we are only beginning to frame the broad outlines of the structure, function, and regulation of this ubiquitous ion transport mechanism.

Loop diuretics inhibit detubulation and vacuolation in amphibian muscle fibres exposed to osmotic shock

The effect of loop diuretics at concentrations known to influence cellular water entry coupled to Na-K-Cl co-transport, upon the vacuolation and detubulation following osmotic shock, was investigated in amphibian skeletal muscles. These were exposed to a glycerol-Ringer solution (18 min), an isotonic Ca2+/Mg2+ Ringer solution and cooling. Adding bumetanide (1.0 and 2.0 microM) to these solutions sharply reduced the incidence of detubulation, assessed by abolition or otherwise of action potential after-depolarisations, from 93.9 +/- 4.7% (n = 6) to 5.0 +/- 1.1% (n = 4: mean +/- SEM: 2.0 microM bumetanide). It dramatically reduced the number and fraction of muscle volume occupied by tubular vacuoles, measured using confocal microscopy, from 60.3 +/- 4.3% (n = 10) to 9.0 +/- 1.1% (n = 35). The incidence of large horseradish peroxidase-lined tubular vacuoles, viewed using electronmicroscopy, similarly was reduced with 2 microM bumetanide in the glycerol-Ringer solution. Bumetanide acted through cellular volume adjustments early in the detubulation protocol. Thus, it exerted its maximum effect when added to the glycerol-Ringer, rather than the Ca2+/Mg2+ Ringer solution. Furthermore, whereas fibre diameters measured using scanning electron microscopy returned to normal during glycerol treatment relative to those of control fibres left in isotonic Ringer, addition of 2.0 microM bumetanide in the glycerol Ringer left markedly smaller fibre diameters. Finally equipotent concentrations of the chemically distinct loop diuretics. furosemide and ethacrynic acid similarly influenced detubulation. These findings implicate Na-K-Cl co-transport in the water entry into muscle fibres that would be expected following introduction of extracellular glycerol. This might then enable the subsequent Na-K-ATPase dependent water extrusion that produces the tubular distension (vacuolation) and detachment (detubulation) following glycerol withdrawal, phenomena also observed in muscular dystrophy.

Volume-sensitive K(+)/Cl(-) cotransport in rabbit erythrocytes. Analysis of the rate-limiting activation and inactivation events

The kinetics of activation and inactivation of K(+)/Cl(-) cotransport (KCC) have been measured in rabbit red blood cells for the purpose of determining the individual rate constants for the rate-limiting activation and inactivation events. Four different interventions (cell swelling, N-ethylmaleimide [NEM], low intracellular pH, and low intracellular Mg(2+)) all activate KCC with a single exponential time course; the kinetics are consistent with the idea that there is a single rate-limiting event in the activation of transport by all four interventions. In contrast to LK sheep red cells, the KCC flux in Mg(2+)-depleted rabbit red cells is not affected by cell volume. KCC activation kinetics were examined in cells pretreated with NEM at 0 degrees C, washed, and then incubated at higher temperatures. The forward rate constant for activation has a very high temperature dependence (E(a) approximately 32 kCal/mol), but is not affected measurably by cell volume. Inactivation kinetics were examined by swelling cells at 37 degrees C to activate KCC, and then resuspending at various osmolalities and temperatures to inactivate most of the transporters. The rate of transport inactivation increases steeply as cell volume decreases, even in a range of volumes where nearly all the transporters are inactive in the steady state. This finding indicates that the rate-limiting inactivation event is strongly affected by cell volume over the entire range of cell volumes studied, including normal cell volume. The rate-limiting inactivation event may be mediated by a protein kinase that is inhibited, either directly or indirectly, by cell swelling, low Mg(2+), acid pH, and NEM.

Regulation of Na+-K+-2Cl- cotransport in turkey red cells: the role of oxygen tension and protein phosphorylation

1. Na+-K+-2Cl- cotransport (NKCC) was studied in turkey red cells using Na+ dependence or bumetanide sensitivity of 86Rb+ influx to monitor activity of the transporter. 2. Deoxygenation was the major physiological stimulus for NKCC activity: oxygen tensions (PO2) over the physiological range modulated the transporter, with a PO2 for half-maximal activation of about 41 mmHg (n = 3). In air, activity of NKCC was also stimulated by shrinkage and isoproteronol (isoprenaline, 5 microgr;M). By contrast, in deoxygenated cells, although the transporter activity was markedly elevated, it was no longer sensitive to volume or beta-adrenergic stimulation. 3. Calyculin A, a protein phosphatase inhibitor, stimulated cotransport with a lag of about 5 min. N-Ethylmaleimide (NEM) inhibited cotransport and also blocked the stimulatory effect of calyculin A if administered before calyculin A. Stimulation by calyculin A and deoxygenation were not additive. Staurosporine (2 microM) inhibited deoxygenated-stimulated K+ influxes, but not those stimulated by calyculin A. NEM added during calyculin A stimulation, i.e. during the 5 min lag, caused transport activity to be clamped at levels intermediate between maximal (calyculin A alone) and control. Cells treated with calyculin A alone or with calyculin A followed by NEM were no longer sensitive to volume, isoproteronol or PO2. 4. The results have characterized the interaction between deoxygenation and other stimuli of NKCC activity. They have also shown that it is possible to manipulate the transporter in a reciprocal way to that shown previously for K+-Cl- cotransport.

Functional interaction of the K-Cl cotransporter (KCC1) with the Na-K-Cl cotransporter in HEK-293 cells

We have studied the regulation of the K-Cl cotransporter KCC1 and its functional interaction with the Na-K-Cl cotransporter. K-Cl cotransporter activity was substantially activated in HEK-293 cells overexpressing KCC1 (KCC1-HEK) by hypotonic cell swelling, 50 mM external K, and pretreatment with N-ethylmaleimide (NEM). Bumetanide inhibited 86Rb efflux in KCC1-HEK cells after cell swelling [inhibition constant (Ki) approximately 190 microM] and pretreatment with NEM (Ki approximately 60 microM). Thus regulation of KCC1 is consistent with properties of the red cell K-Cl cotransporter. To investigate functional interactions between K-Cl and Na-K-Cl cotransporters, we studied the relationship between Na-K-Cl cotransporter activation and intracellular Cl concentration ([Cl]i). Without stimulation, KCC1-HEK cells had greater Na-K-Cl cotransporter activity than controls. Endogenous Na-K-Cl cotransporter of KCC1-HEK cells was activated <2-fold by low-Cl hypotonic prestimulation, compared with 10-fold activation in HEK-293 cells and >20-fold activation in cells overexpressing the Na-K-Cl cotransporter (NKCC1-HEK). KCC1-HEK cells had lower resting [Cl]i than HEK-293 cells; cell volume was not different among cell lines. We found a steep relationship between [Cl]i and Na-K-Cl cotransport activity within the physiological range, supporting a primary role for [Cl]i in activation of Na-K-Cl cotransport and in apical-basolateral cross talk in ion-transporting epithelia.

Ontogeny of cation-Cl- cotransporter expression in rat neocortex

Neuronal precursors and immature cortical neurons actively accumulate Cl- and as a consequence depolarize in response to GABAA receptor activation. With maturity, intracellular Cl- decreases resulting in a shift towards GABAA inhibition. These observations suggest that changes in expression of cation-Cl- cotransporters may have a significant role in the ontogeny of neuronal Cl- homeostasis. Using ribonuclease protection analysis and in situ hybridization we examined the developmental expression of all presently known members of the cation-Cl- cotransporter gene family in rat brain. Of the inwardly directed cotransporters, NKCC-1, NKCC-2, and NCC-1, only NKCC-1 was detected at significant levels in brain. NKCC-1 was expressed in neurons, appearing first in cortical plate but not in ventricular or subventricular zone. Expression levels peaked by the third postnatal week and were maintained into adulthood. The outwardly directed cotransporters, KCC-1 and KCC-2, demonstrated significantly different levels and time courses of expression. KCC-1 was expressed prenatally at very low levels which increased little over the course of development. In contrast, KCC-2 expression appeared perinatally and increased dramatically after the first week of postnatal life. Differential changes in expression of this gene family occurred during periods of critical shifts in chloride homeostasis and GABA response suggestive of a role in these processes. Furthermore the absence of expression of known inwardly directed cotransporters in Cl- accumulating neuroepithelia and lack of evidence for glial expression suggests that as yet unidentified members of this gene family may be involved in chloride homeostasis in immature neuronal precursors and neuroglia.

The Na-K-Cl cotransporters

The Na-K-Cl cotransporters are a class of membrane proteins that transport Na, K, and Cl ions into and out of a wide variety of epithelial and nonepithelial cells. The transport process mediated by Na-K-Cl cotransporters is characterized by electroneutrality (almost always with stoichiometry of 1Na:1K:2Cl) and inhibition by the "loop" diuretics bumetanide, benzmetanide, and furosemide. Presently, two distinct Na-K-Cl cotransporter isoforms have been identified by cDNA cloning and expression; genes encoding these two isoforms are located on different chromosomes and their gene products share approximately 60% amino acid sequence identity. The NKCC1 (CCC1, BSC2) isoform is present in a wide variety of tissues; most epithelia containing NKCC1 are secretory epithelia with the Na-K-Cl cotransporter localized to the basolateral membrane. By contrast, NKCC2 (CCC2, BSC1) is found only in the kidney, localized to the apical membrane of the epithelial cells of the thick ascending limb of Henle's loop and of the macula densa. Mutations in the NKCC2 gene result in Bartter's syndrome, an inherited disease characterized by hypokalemic metabolic alkalosis, hypercalciuria, salt wasting, and volume depletion. The two Na-K-Cl cotransporter isoforms are also part of a superfamily of cation-chloride cotransporters, which includes electroneutral K-Cl and Na-Cl cotransporters. Na-K-Cl cotransporter activity is affected by a large variety of hormonal stimuli as well as by changes in cell volume; in many tissues this regulation (particularly of the NKCCI isoform) occurs through direct phosphorylation/dephosphorylation of the cotransport protein itself though the specific protein kinases involved remain unknown. An important regulator of cotransporter activity in secretory epithelia and other cells as well is intracellular [Cl] ([Cl]i), with a reduction in [Cl]i being the apparent means by which basolateral Na-K-Cl cotransport activity is increased and thus coordinated with that of stimulated apical Cl channels in actively secreting epithelia.

A volume-sensitive protein kinase regulates the Na-K-2Cl cotransporter in duck red blood cells

When Na-K-2Cl cotransport is activated in duck red blood cells by either osmotic cell shrinkage, norepinephrine, fluoride, or calyculin A, phosphorylation of the transporter occurs at a common set of serine/threonine sites. To examine the kinetics and regulation of the activating kinase, phosphatase activity was inhibited abruptly with calyculin A and the subsequent changes in transporter phosphorylation and activity were determined. Increases in fractional incorporation of 32P into the transporter and uptake of 86Rb by the cells were closely correlated, suggesting that the phosphorylation event is rate determining in the activation process. Observed in this manner, the activating kinase was 1) stimulated by cell shrinkage, 2) inhibited by cell swelling, staurosporine, or N-ethylmaleimide, and 3) unaffected by norepinephrine or fluoride. The inhibitory effect of swelling on kinase activity was progressively relieved by calyculin A, suggesting that the kinase itself is switched on by phosphorylation. The kinetics of activation by calyculin A conformed to an autocatalytic model in which the volume-sensitive kinase is stimulated by a product of its own reaction (e.g., via autophosphorylation).

A model of Na-K-2Cl cotransport based on ordered ion binding and glide symmetry

In the duck red blood cell, Na-K-2Cl cotransport exhibits two modes of ion movement: net cotransport and obligate cation exchange. In high-K cells, the predominant exchange is K/K (or K/Rb). In high-Na cells, it becomes Na/Na (or Na/Li). Both represent partial reactions in which a fully loaded carrier releases part of its cargo, rebinds fresh ions, and returns back across the membrane fully loaded. Net cotransport occurs when the carrier unloads completely and returns empty. This mode has a fixed stoichiometry of 1Na:1K:2Cl under all conditions tested. The ion requirements of the two exchanges differ: K/K exchange requires only K and Cl outside but all three ions inside. Na/Na exchange requires all three ions outside but only Na inside. We propose a simple model in which the carrier can only move when either fully loaded or completely empty and in which the ions bind in a strictly ordered sequence. For example, externally, a Na binds first and then a Cl, followed by a K and a second Cl. Internally, the first on is the first off (glide symmetry), so the Na is released first and then the first Cl, followed by the K and finally by the second Cl. Only then can the empty form return to the outside to start a new cycle.

Functional significance of cell volume regulatory mechanisms

To survive, cells have to avoid excessive alterations of cell volume that jeopardize structural integrity and constancy of intracellular milieu. The function of cellular proteins seems specifically sensitive to dilution and concentration, determining the extent of macromolecular crowding. Even at constant extracellular osmolarity, volume constancy of any mammalian cell is permanently challenged by transport of osmotically active substances across the cell membrane and formation or disappearance of cellular osmolarity by metabolism. Thus cell volume constancy requires the continued operation of cell volume regulatory mechanisms, including ion transport across the cell membrane as well as accumulation or disposal of organic osmolytes and metabolites. The various cell volume regulatory mechanisms are triggered by a multitude of intracellular signaling events including alterations of cell membrane potential and of intracellular ion composition, various second messenger cascades, phosphorylation of diverse target proteins, and altered gene expression. Hormones and mediators have been shown to exploit the volume regulatory machinery to exert their effects. Thus cell volume may be considered a second message in the transmission of hormonal signals. Accordingly, alterations of cell volume and volume regulatory mechanisms participate in a wide variety of cellular functions including epithelial transport, metabolism, excitation, hormone release, migration, cell proliferation, and cell death.

Molecular cloning and functional expression of the K-Cl cotransporter from rabbit, rat, and human. A new member of the cation-chloride cotransporter family

We report the cloning, sequence analysis, tissue distribution, and functional expression of the K-Cl cotransport protein, KCC1. KCC1 was identified by searching the human expressed sequence tag data base, based on the expectation that it would be distantly related to the Na-K-Cl cotransporter. Rabbit KCC1 (rbKCC1) and rat KCC1 (rtKCC1) were cloned by screening rabbit kidney and rat brain cDNA libraries using homologous cDNA probes. Human KCC1 (hKCC1) was obtained from I.M.A.G.E. clones and in part by reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction; it exhibits 97% identity with rbKCC1. KCC1 encodes a 1085-residue polypeptide with substantial sequence homology (24-25% identity) to the bumetanide-sensitive Na-K-Cl cotransporter (NKCC or BSC) and the thiazide-sensitive Na-Cl cotransporter (NCC or TSC). Hydropathy analysis of KCC1 indicates structural homology to NKCC, including 12 transmembrane domains, a large extracellular loop with potential N-linked glycosylation sites, and cytoplasmic N- and C-terminal regions. Northern blot analysis revealed a ubiquitously expressed 3. 8-kilobase transcript. Much of the genomic sequence of hKCC1 is in the data base, and the gene has been previously localized to 16q22.1 (Larsen, F., Solhein, J., Kristensen, T., Kolsto, A. B., and Prydz, H.(1993) Hum. Mol. Genet. 2, 1589-1595). Epitope-tagged rbKCC1 was stably expressed in human embryonic kidney (HEK 293) cells, resulting in production of a approximately150-kDa glycoprotein. The initial rate of 86Rb efflux from cells expressing rbKCC1 was more than 7 times greater than efflux from control cells and was inhibited by 2 mM furosemide; 86Rb efflux was stimulated by cell swelling. Uptake of 86Rb into rbKCC1 cells after a 15-min pretreatment with 1 mM N-ethylmaleimide was dependent on external chloride but not on external sodium, and was inhibited by furosemide with a Ki of approximately 40 microM and by bumetanide with a Ki of approximately 60 microM. These data demonstrate that the KCC1 cDNAs encode a widely expressed K-Cl cotransporter with the characteristics of the K-Cl transporter that has been characterized in red cells.

Molecular characterization of the epithelial Na-K-Cl cotransporter isoforms

Recent advances in the molecular characterization of specific isoforms of the Na-K-Cl cotransporter have allowed rapid progress in the study of the structure, function, and regulation of these members of a family of Cl-dependent cation cotransporters. Two distinct isoforms have been identified, one from Cl(-)-secretory epithelia and another found specifically in the diluting segment of the vertebrate kidney, a Cl(-)-absorptive epithelium. The discovery of three alternatively spliced variants of the absorptive isoform, which differ only by 31 amino acids and which appear to be differentially distributed within the mammalian thick ascending limb of the loop of Henle, highlight this spliced region as an important functional component of the protein.

Effects of ionic strength on the regulation of Na/H exchange and K-Cl cotransport in dog red blood cells

Dog red cell membranes contain two distinct volume-sensitive transporters: swelling-activated K-Cl cotransport and shrinkage-activated Na/H exchange. Cells were prepared with intracellular salt concentration and weight percentage of cell water (%cw) varied independently by transient permeabilization of the cell membrane to cations. The dependence of transporter-mediated Na and K influxes upon %cw and upon extracellular salt concentration (c(ext)) was measured in cells so prepared. It was found that the critical value of %cw at which transporters are activated, called the set point, is similar for the two transporters, and that the set points for the two transporters decrease similarly with increasing extracellular salt concentration. These findings suggest a common mechanism of regulation of these two transporters. Cellular Na, K, and Cl concentrations were measured as functions of %cw and c(ext). Using these data together with data from the literature for other solute concentrations, empirical expressions were developed to describe the dependence of the intracellular concentrations of all significant small molecule electrolytes, and therefore the intracellular ionic strength, upon %cw and c(ext). A mechanistic model for the dependence of the set point of an individual transporter upon intracellular ionic strength is proposed. According to this model, the set point represents a critical extent of association between the transporter and a postulated soluble regulatory protein, called regulator. Model functions are presented for the calculation of the thermodynamic activity of regulator, and hence extent of regulator-transporter association, as a function of total intracellular protein concentration (or %cw) and ionic strength. The experimentally observed dependence of set point %cw on c(ext) are simulated using these functions and the empirical expressions described above, together with reasonable but not uniquely determined values of model parameters.

Membrane mechanisms and intracellular signalling in cell volume regulation

Recent work on selected aspects of the cellular and molecular physiology of cell volume regulation is reviewed. First, the physiological significance of the regulation of cell volume is discussed. Membrane transporters involved in cell volume regulation are reviewed, including volume-sensitive K+ and Cl- channels, K+, Cl- and Na+, K+, 2Cl- cotransporters, and the Na+, H+, Cl-, HCO3-, and K+, H+ exchangers. The role of amino acids, particularly taurine, as cellular osmolytes is discussed. Possible mechanisms by which cells sense their volumes, along with the sensors of these signals, are discussed. The signals are mechanical changes in the membrane and changes in macromolecular crowding. Sensors of these signals include stretch-activated channels, the cytoskeleton, and specific membrane or cytoplasmic enzymes. Mechanisms for transduction of the signal from sensors to transporters are reviewed. These include the Ca(2+)-calmodulin system, phospholipases, polyphosphoinositide metabolism, eicosanoid metabolism, and protein kinases and phosphatases. A detailed model is presented for the swelling-initiated signal transduction pathway in Ehrlich ascites tumor cells. Finally, the coordinated control of volume-regulatory transport processes and changes in the expression of organic osmolyte transporters with long-term adaptation to osmotic stress are reviewed briefly.

Regulatory volume decrease in frog retinal pigment epithelium

To measure changes in cell water during cell volume regulation, retinal pigment epithelial cells were loaded with tetramethylammonium (TMA). Regulatory volume decrease (RVD) in TMA-loaded retinal pigment epithelial (RPE) cells was measured using double-barreled K(+)-specific microelectrodes. Hyposmotic removal of 12.5 mM NaCl from the apical bath caused bullfrog RPE cells to rapidly swell by approximately 10% and to recover to control level within 10-15 min. Hyposmotic RVD was inhibited by 5 mM basal but not apical BaCl2. Raising K+ in the basal bath from 2 to 12 mM also inhibited RVD. Hyposmotic swelling was accompanied by an increase in the ratio of apical to basolateral membrane resistance (Ra/Rb). The swelling-induced increase in Ra/Rb was inhibited by 5 mM BaCl2. Together, the above findings suggest that hyposmotic swelling enhances basolateral K+ conductance such that K+ and presumably anion efflux mediate net solute and water loss during RVD. RPE cells can also regulate their volume when swollen in isosmotic Ringer solution under certain conditions. When urea or apical HCO3- was used to induce cell swelling, RPE cells underwent an RVD. In contrast, isosmotic elevation of apical K+ from 2 to 5 mM resulted in an increase in RPE cell volume with no subsequent RVD. Thus the method used to swell RPE cells is an important determinant of RVD. Because changes in RPE cell volume in vivo may alter the volume and composition of the extracellular (subretinal) space surrounding the photoreceptors, isosmotic volume regulation may play an important physiological role in maintaining the integrity and health of the neural retina under normal and pathophysiological conditions.

Staurosporine, a protein kinase inhibitor, activates K-Cl cotransport in LK sheep erythrocytes

K-Cl cotransport can participate in volume regulation in a number of cell types. Swelling activation of K-Cl cotransport in sheep erythrocytes proceeds by a two-step process, A<-->B<-->C (Dunham et al., J. Gen. Physiol. 101: 733-765, 1993). The A state, with a low flux, predominates at physiological volume. A-->B is rate limiting and can be activated by reducing cell Mg concentration ([Mg]c); complete activation (B-->C) requires cell swelling. Inhibitors of protein kinases and phosphatases were employed in an attempt to identify enzymatic reactions in the activation process. Staurosporine, a kinase inhibitor, activated K-Cl cotransport by approximately sixfold. Swelling of staurosporine-treated cells caused further activation that proceeded without delay. The effects of staurosporine and reducing [Mg]c were not additive. These two results indicate that staurosporine, like reducing [Mg]c, promotes the rate-limiting A-->B conversion. Unlike swelling, staurosporine activated cotransport without delay. Therefore staurosporine activates by promoting the forward reaction in the A<-->B conversions, in contrast to swelling, which activates by inhibiting the reverse reaction. Calyculin A, a phosphatase inhibitor, inhibited K-Cl cotransport but did not inhibit after activation by reducing [Mg]c, confirming earlier proposals that A-->B is promoted by a phosphatase. Calyculin A, added before or after staurosporine, abolished activation by staurosporine, confirming that staurosporine promotes A-->B. It is proposed that the phosphatase promoting this reaction is regulated by an inhibitory kinase, the staurosporine target.

Swelling-stimulated passive potassium transport in camel erythrocytes: inhibitory effects of furosemide and sodium fluoride

The inhibitory effects of furosemide, sodium fluoride, and age on volume-dependent, ouabain-resistant K+ influx were investigated in camel red blood cells. Swelling of young camel erythrocytes hypotonically stimulates ouabain-resistant potassium influx, a response that was lacking in old camel erythrocytes. The swelling-stimulated influx was partially inhibited by 1 mM furosemide and by 10 and 20 mM sodium fluoride. The inhibitory effect of furosemide was significantly increased if rubidium was added to the flux media. There was a significant correlation between potassium influx in normo- and hypotonic media which might indicate that the anion-dependent transport system operates, to some extent, to regulate cell volume.

Na+, K+, Cl- cotransport and its regulation in Ehrlich ascites tumor cells. Ca2+/calmodulin and protein kinase C dependent pathways

Net Cl- uptake as well as unidirectional 36Cl influx during regulatory volume increase (RVI) require external K+. Half-maximal rate of bumetanide-sensitive 36Cl uptake is attained at about 3.3 mM external K+. The bumetanide-sensitive K+ influx found during RVI is strongly dependent on both Na+ and Cl-. The bumetanide-sensitive unidirectional Na+ influx during RVI is dependent on K+ as well as on Cl-. The cotransporter activated during RVI in Ehrlich cells, therefore, seems to transport Na+, K+ and Cl-. In the presence of ouabain and Ba+ the stoichiometry of the bumetanide-sensitive net fluxes can be measured at 1.0 Na+, 0.8 K+, 2.0 Cl- or approximately 1:Na, 1:K, 2:Cl. Under these circumstances the K+ and Cl- flux ratios (influx/efflux) for the bumetanide-sensitive component were estimated at 1.34 +/- 0.08 and 1.82 +/- 0.15 which should be compared to the gradient for the Na+, K+, 2Cl- cotransport system at 1.75 +/- 0.24. Addition of sucrose to hypertonicity causes the Ehrlich cells to shrink with no signs of RVI, whereas shrinkage with hypertonic standard medium (all extracellular ion concentrations increased) results in a RVI response towards the original cell volume. Under both conditions a bumetanide-sensitive unidirectional K+ influx is activated. During hypotonic conditions a small bumetanide-sensitive K+ influx is observed, indicating that the cotransport system is already activated. The cotransport is activated 10-15 fold by bradykinin, an agonist which stimulates phospholipase C resulting in release of internal Ca2+ and activation of protein kinase C. The anti-calmodulin drug pimozide inhibits most of the bumetanide-sensitive K+ influx during RVI. The cotransporter can be activated by the phorbol ester TPA. These results indicate that the stimulation of the Na+, K+, Cl- cotransport involves both Ca2+/calmodulin and protein kinase C.

Erythrocyte K-Cl cotransport: properties and regulation

Erythrocytes possess a Cl-dependent, Na-independent K transport system cotransporting K and Cl in a 1:1 stoichiometry that is membrane potential independent. This K-Cl cotransporter is stimulated by cell swelling, acidification, Mg depletion, and thiol modification. Cell shrinkage, elevation of cellular divalent ions, thiol alkylation, phosphatase inhibitors, and derivatives of certain loop diuretics and stilbenes are inhibitory. Thus regulation of K-Cl cotransport at the membrane and cytoplasmic levels is highly complex. Basal K-Cl cotransport decreases with cellular maturation, whereas its modes of stimulation and inhibition are variable between species. The physiological inactivation appears to be prevented in low-K animal erythrocytes. In certain human hemoglobinopathies, K-Cl cotransport may be the cause of cellular dehydration and volume decrease. K-Cl cotransport occurs also in nonerythroid cells, such as in epithelial and liver cells of other species. At the threshold of molecular characterization, this comprehensive review places our present understanding of the mechanisms modulating K-Cl cotransport physiologically and pathophysiologically into kinetic and thermodynamic perspectives.

Volume-activated cation transport in dog red cells: detection and transduction of the volume stimulus

1. Carnivore red cells lose their Na/K pump capability as they develop from erythroblasts to reticulocytes to mature cells. They defend their fluid volume by utilizing the Ca/Na exchanger as a Na extrusion pump, the energy for which is ultimately derived from active Ca transport. 2. Swelling-induced [K-Cl] cotransport and shrinkage-induced Na/H exchange are regulated in a coordinated fashion in dog red cells. Circumstantial evidence points to a regulatory protein kinase-phosphatase system. 3. Dog red cells detect changes in their fluid volume, not by virtue of membrane distortion, but by alterations in the concentrations of cytoplasmic macromolecules induced by swelling or shrinkage.

Actions of thiocyanate and N-phenylmaleimide on volume-responsive Na and K transport in dog red cells

Two sets of observations suggest a linkage between volume-responsive Na and K transport systems in dog red blood cells. 1) The lyotropic anion thiocyanate inhibits shrinkage-induced Na-H exchange and stimulates swelling-induced K-Cl cotransport. 2) The effect of a brief incubation with N-phenylmaleimide (NPM) on Na and K transport depends on the volume of the cells at the time of exposure to the sulfhydryl reagent. Cells shrunken during the NPM incubation and then brought back to normal volume behave as though they were still shrunken, i.e., they show an increased Na flux and a decreased K flux. Cells incubated with NPM in a swollen state retain fluxes characteristic of swollen cells when returned to a normal volume. The electrophoretic mobility of the membrane-associated enzyme glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate dehydrogenase is influenced by the cell volume at the time of NPM exposure. These findings point to the existence of a system in cells that perceives volume changes and coordinates the responses of membrane transporters.

Activation of ion transport pathways by changes in cell volume

Swelling-activated K+ and Cl- channels, which mediate RVD, are found in most cell types. Prominent exceptions to this rule include red cells, which together with some types of epithelia, utilize electroneutral [K(+)-Cl-] cotransport for down-regulation of volume. Shrinkage-activated Na+/H+ exchange and [Na(+)-K(+)-2 Cl-] cotransport mediate RVI in many cell types, although the activation of these systems may require special conditions, such as previous RVD. Swelling-activated K+/H+ exchange and Ca2+/Na+ exchange seem to be restricted to certain species of red cells. Swelling-activated calcium channels, although not carrying sufficient ion flux to contribute to volume changes may play an important role in the activation of transport pathways. In this review of volume-activated ion transport pathways we have concentrated on regulatory phenomena. We have listed known secondary messenger pathways that modulate volume-activated transporters, although the evidence that volume signals are transduced via these systems is preliminary. We have focused on several mechanisms that might function as volume sensors. In our view, the most important candidates for this role are the structures which detect deformation or stretching of the membrane and the skeletal filaments attached to it, and the extraordinary effects that small changes in concentration of cytoplasmic macromolecules may exert on the activities of cytoplasmic and membrane enzymes (macromolecular crowding). It is noteworthy that volume-activated ion transporters are intercalated into the cellular signaling network as receptors, messengers and effectors. Stretch-activated ion channels may serve as receptors for cell volume itself. Cell swelling or shrinkage may serve a messenger function in the communication between opposing surfaces of epithelia, or in the regulation of metabolic pathways in the liver. Finally, these transporters may act as effector systems when they perform regulatory volume increase or decrease. This review discusses several examples in which relatively simple methods of examining volume regulation led to the discovery of transporters ultimately found to play key roles in the transmission of information within the cell. So, why volume? Because it's functionally important, it's relatively cheap (if you happened to have everything else, you only need some distilled water or concentrated salt solution), and since it involves many disciplines of experimental biology, it's fun to do.

Swelling-activated K-Cl cotransport: metabolic dependence and inhibition by vanadate and fluoride

Activation of K-Cl cotransport by cell swelling was studied by measuring K influx in isotonic and hypotonic media in human red blood cells after depletion of cellular ATP and after exposure to vanadate or fluoride. Preincubation of red blood cells with 2-deoxyglucose resulted in an inhibition of swelling-activated K-Cl cotransport that paralleled the decline in cellular ATP. Subsequent repletion of ATP by incubation in glucose, phosphate, and guanosine partially restored swelling-activated K-Cl cotransport. Swelling-activated K-Cl cotransport was also inhibited by 200 microM vanadate. This inhibition was partially blocked by DIDS, indicating an intracellular action, and required a 40-min preincubation, suggesting that inhibition was due to vanadyl rather than vanadate. Activation of K-Cl cotransport in swollen cells was also blocked by 16 mM fluoride, an effect that was immediate and independent of Cl concentration. Incubation of cells with 1 mM adenosine 3',5'-cyclic monophosphate (cAMP) to raise intracellular cAMP levels did not inhibit swelling-activated K-Cl cotransport, indicating that fluoride was not acting through adenyl cyclase. No inhibition of Cl-dependent or bumetanide-sensitive K influx in isotonic medium (Na-K-2Cl cotransport) was observed with ATP depletion, vanadate, fluoride, or cAMP. Activation of K-Cl cotransport by N-ethylmaleimide (NEM) was inhibited by ATP depletion but only partially inhibited by fluoride and not inhibited by vanadate. Fluoride inhibited K-Cl cotransport only when added before NEM treatment. These results suggest that activation of K-Cl cotransport by cell swelling requires ATP and involves a phosphohydrolase or phosphotransferase reaction that is inhibited by vanadyl and fluoride.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 250 WORDS)

Cell volume regulation by trout erythrocytes: characteristics of the transport systems activated by hypotonic swelling

1. An osmolality reduction of the suspending medium leads to osmotic swelling of trout erythrocytes, which is followed by a volume readjustment towards the original level. The regulatory volume decrease (RVD) was not complete after 1 h. 2. During RVD the cells lost K+ and Cl- but gained Na+. This entry of Na+, which is about half the K+ loss, explains the incomplete volume recovery (it was complete when Na+ was replaced by impermeant N-methyl-D-glucamine). The cells also lose large quantities of taurine, which accounts for about 53% of the volume recovery. In addition RVD is accompanied by the activation of a pathway allowing some large organic cations which are normally impermeant, such as choline or tetramethyl-ammonium, to rapidly penetrate the cells. 3. The swelling-activated K+ loss is not significantly affected by replacement of Cl- by NO3-, indicating that K+ moves through a Cl(-)-independent K+ pathway. Furosemide, DIDS (4,4'-diisothiocyanatostilbene-2,2'-disulphonic acid) and niflumic acid inhibit the K+ loss. From experiments performed in high-K(+)-containing media, it appears that these compounds block the K+ flux, not by inhibiting Cl- movements but by interfering with the K+ pathway. 4. All the volume-activated pathways (K+, Na+, taurine, choline) are fully inhibited by furosemide and by inhibitors of the anion exchanger such as DIDS and niflumic acid. The concentration required for 50% inhibition (IC50) of both inorganic cations and taurine appears to be similar. It is proposed that DIDS interacts with a unique target which controls all the volume-sensitive transport systems.

A mathematical model of the volume, pH, and ion content regulation in reticulocytes. Application to the pathophysiology of sickle cell dehydration

We developed a mathematical model of the reticulocyte, seeking to explain how a cell with similar volume but much higher ionic traffic than the mature red cell (RBC) regulates its volume, pH, and ion content in physiological and abnormal conditions. Analysis of the fluxbalance required by reticulocytes to conserve volume and composition predicted the existence of previously unsuspected Na(+)-dependent Cl- entry mechanisms. Unlike mature RBCs, reticulocytes did not tend to return to their original state after brief perturbations. The model predicted hysteresis and drift in cell pH, volume, and ion contents after transient alterations in membrane permeability or medium composition; irreversible cell dehydration could thus occur by brief K+ permeabilization, transient medium acidification, or the replacement of external Na+ with an impermeant cation. Both the hysteresis and drift after perturbations were shown to depend on the pHi dependence of the K:Cl cotransport, a major reticulocyte transporter. This behavior suggested a novel mechanism for the generation of irreversibly sickled cells directly from reticulocytes, rather than in a stepwise, progressive manner from discocytes. Experimental tests of the model's predictions and the hypothesis are described in the following paper.

Volume regulation of nerve terminals

Pinched-off presynaptic nerve terminals (synaptosomes) possess significant regulatory volume increase (RVI) and regulatory volume decrease (RVD) capabilities. Following a swelling induced by a hypotonic challenge, the synaptosomes regulate their volume and adjust it, in 2 min, to within 5% of its initial value (RVD) at an initial rate of -0.77 +/- 0.10%/s (mean +/- SEM). Following a shrinking induced by a hypertonic challenge, the synaptosomes also regulate their volume at an initial rate of 0.18 +/- 0.02%/s (RVI), resulting in a new steady state, reached within 5-10 min, with a synaptosomal volume below the original volume. The omission of Na+ or K+ ions from the extrasynaptosomal medium reduces the initial rate of RVI by 72.5 and 66.5%, respectively. The "loop diuretics" bumetanide and furosemide significantly inhibited the RVI of the synaptosomes. In contrast, ouabain, amiloride, or 4,4'-diisothiocyanatostilbene-2,2'-disulfonic acid did not have any significant effect on RVI parameters. Furthermore, bumetanide-sensitive 86Rb uptake by rat brain synaptosomes was stimulated threefold by a hypertonic perturbation of 30%. Thus we conclude that the RVI of synaptosomes is mainly due to a stimulation of the Na+, K+, Cl- co-transport system induced by the synaptosomal shrinking following the hypertonic challenge.

The Na+,K+,2Cl-cotransport system in HeLa cells: aspects of its physiological regulation

We have previously reported on the biochemical properties of a Na+,K+,2Cl-cotransport system in HeLa cells and here we deal with aspects of its physiological regulation. Na+,K+,2Cl-cotransport in HeLa cells was studied by 86Rb+ influx and 86Rb+/22Na+ efflux measurements. The effects of rat atrial natriuretic peptide (ANP), isoproterenol, and amino acids on 86Rb+ flux, mediated by the bumetanide-sensitive Na+,K+,2Cl-cotransport system and the ouabain-sensitive Na+/K(+)-pump, were investigated. ANP reduced bumetanide-sensitive 86Rb+ influx under isotonic as well as under hypertonic conditions. Similar decrease of bumetanide-sensitive 86Rb+ influx was observed in the presence of 8-bromo-cGMP, while neither isoproterenol as a beta-receptor agonist nor 8-bromo-cAMP-could alter bumetanide-sensitive 86Rb+ influx. Furthermore, efflux of 86Rb+ and 22Na+ was greatly reduced in the presence of bumetanide and ANP. Together with our recent findings, showing functionally active, high affinity receptors for ANP on HeLa cells (Kort and Koch, Biochim. Biophys. Res. Commun. 168: 148-154, 1990), this study indicates that ANP participates in the regulation of the Na+,K+,2Cl-cotransport system in HeLa cells. Further measurements revealed that amino acids as present in the growth medium (Joklik's minimal essential medium) and the amino acid derivative alpha-methyl-aminoisobutyric acid (metAIB, 1 and 5 mM, respectively) also reduced Na+,K+,2Cl-cotransport-mediated 86Rb+ uptake and diminished the stimulatory effect of hypertonicity on the contransporter. In addition, the Na+/K(+)-pump was markedly stimulated in the presence of amino acids, while neither ANP and 8-Br-GMP nor isoproterenol and 8-Br-cAMP had a significant effect on the activity of the Na+/K(+)-pump.

Volume-sensitive K-Cl cotransport in inside-out vesicles made from erythrocyte membranes from sheep of low-K phenotype

Unidirectional K ion effluxes were measured from inside-out vesicles prepared from erythrocyte membranes from sheep of the low-K phenotype. Total K efflux was 150 nmol per mg of protein per hr in a Cl medium of 295 mosmol/kg (with the Na/K pump inhibited). Cl-dependent K efflux (determined with methanesulfonate replacing Cl) was 54 nmol/(mg.hr). Cl-dependent K efflux (K-Cl cotransport) increased to 77 nmol/(mg.hr) with osmotic swelling of approximately 30% in 230-mosmol/kg medium and decreased to 13 nmol/(mg.hr) after shrinkage of approximately 60% in 430-mosmol/kg medium. Osmotically induced changes in transport and vesicle volume were reversible. K-Cl cotransport was enhanced by ATP. Nonhydrolyzable ATP analogues failed to substitute for ATP, indicating that phosphorylation is involved. However, in the absence of added ATP there was significant K-Cl cotransport, suggesting that phosphorylation is not essential for function. The results provide clues about the nature of the signals detected by the sensor of cell volume changes and demonstrate that inside-out vesicles from sheep erythrocyte membranes provide an advantageous experimental system for investigation of the volume sensor.

K-Cl cotransport in LK sheep erythrocytes: kinetics of stimulation by cell swelling

The effects of osmotic cell swelling were studied on the kinetics of Cl-dependent K+ influx, K-Cl cotransport, in erythrocytes from sheep of the low K+ (LK) phenotype. Swelling approximately 25% stimulated transport by increasing maximum velocity (Jmax) approximately 1.5-fold and by increasing apparent affinity for external K (Ko) nearly twofold. Dithiothreitol (DTT) was shown to be a partial, reversible inhibitor of K-Cl cotransport. It inhibited in cells of normal volume by reducing Jmax more than twofold; apparent affinity for Ko was increased by DTT, suggesting that DTT stabilizes the transporter-Ko complex. Cell swelling reduced the extent of inhibition by DTT: Jmax was inhibited by only about one-third in swollen cells, and apparent affinity was only slightly affected. This result suggested that DTT does not act directly on the transporter, but on a hypothetical regulator, an endogenous inhibitor. Swelling relieves inhibition by the regulator, and reduces the effect of DTT. Reducing intracellular Mg2+, Mgc, stimulated cotransport. Swelling of low-Mg2+ cells stimulated transport further, but only by raising apparent affinity for Ko nearly threefold: Jmax was unaffected. Thus effects of swelling on Jmax and apparent affinity are separable processes. The inhibitory effects of Mgc and DTT were shown to be additive, indicating separate modes of action. There appear to be two endogenous inhibitors: the hypothetical regulator, which holds affinity for Ko, low; and Mgc, which affects Jmax, perhaps by holding some transporters in an inactive form. Swelling stimulates transport by relieving both types of inhibition.

Kinetics of activation and inactivation of swelling-stimulated K+/Cl- transport. The volume-sensitive parameter is the rate constant for inactivation

Red blood cells of several species are known to exhibit a ouabain-insensitive, anion-dependent K+ (Rb+) flux that is stimulated by cell swelling. We have used rabbit red cells to study the kinetics of activation and inactivation of the flux upon step changes in tonicity. Sudden hypotonic swelling (210 mosmol) activates the flux after a lag period of 10 min at 37 degrees C and 30-50 min at 25 degrees C. In cells that were preswollen to activate the transporter, sudden shrinkage (by addition of hypertonic NaCl) causes a rapid inactivation of the flux; the time lag for inactivation is less than 2 min at 37 degrees C. A minimal model of the volume-sensitive KCl transport system requires two states of the transporter. The activated (A) state catalyzes transport at some finite rate (turnover number unknown because the number of transporters is unknown). The resting (R) state has a much lower or possibly zero transport rate. The interconversion between the states is characterized by unimolecular rate constants R k12 in equilibrium with k21 A. The rate of relaxation to any new steady state is equal to the sum of the rate constants k12 + k21. Because the rate of transport activation in a hypotonic medium is lower than the rate of inactivation in an isotonic medium, we conclude that the volume-sensitive rate process is inactivation (the A to R transition); that is, cell swelling activates transport by lowering k21. Three phosphatase inhibitors (fluoride, orthovanadate, and inorganic phosphate) all inhibit the swelling-activated flux and also slow down the rate of approach to the swollen steady state. This finding suggests that a net dephosphorylation is necessary for activation of the flux and that the net dephosphorylation takes place as a result of swelling-induced inhibition of a kinase rather than stimulation of a phosphatase.

Characteristics of the volume- and chloride-dependent K transport in human erythrocytes homozygous for hemoglobin C

In human red cells homozygous for hemoglobin C (CC), cell swelling and acid pH increase K efflux and net K loss in the presence of ouabain (0.1 mM) and bumetanide. We report herein, that K influx is also dependent on cell volume in CC cells: cell swelling induces a marked increase in the maximal rate (from 6 to 18 mmol/liter cell X hr) and in the affinity for external K (from 77 +/- 16 mM to 28 +/- 3 mM) of K influx. When the external K concentration is varied from 0 to 140 mM. K efflux from CC and normal control cells is unaffected. Thus, K/K exchange is not a major component of this K movement. K transport through the pathway of CC cells is dependent on the presence of chloride or bromide; substitution with nitrate, acetate or thiocyanate inhibits the volume- and pH-dependent K efflux. When CC cells are separated according to density, a sizable volume-dependent component of K efflux can be identified in all the fractions and is the most active in the least dense fraction. N-ethylmaleimide (NEM) markedly stimulates K efflux from CC cells in chloride but not in nitrate media, and this effect is present in all the fractions of CC cells separated according to density. The persistence of this transport system in denser CC cells suggests that not only cell age, but also the presence of the positively charged C hemoglobin is an important determinant of the activity of this system. These data also indicate that the K transport pathway of CC cells is not an electrodiffusional process and is coupled to chloride.

Volume-dependent K+ transport in rabbit red blood cells comparison with oxygenated human SS cells

In this study the volume-dependent or N-ethylmaleimide (NEM)-stimulated, ouabain-insensitive K+ influx and efflux were measured with the tracer 86Rb+ in rabbit red blood cells. The purpose of the work was to examine the rabbit as a potential model for cell volume regulation in human SS red blood cells and also to investigate the relationship between the NEM-reactive sulfhydryl group(s) and the signal by which cell swelling activates the transport. Ouabain-resistant K+ efflux and influx increase nearly threefold in cells swollen hypotonically by 15%. Pretreatment with 2 mM NEM stimulates efflux 5-fold and influx 10-fold (each measured in an isotonic medium). The ouabain-resistant K+ efflux was dependent on the major anion in the medium. The anion dependence of K+ efflux in swollen or NEM-stimulated cells was as follows: Br- greater than Cl- much greater than NO3- = acetate. The magnitudes of both the swelling- and the NEM-stimulated fluxes are much higher in young cells (density separated but excluding reticulocytes) than in older cells. Swelling- or NEM-stimulated K+ efflux in rabbit red blood cells was inhibited 50% by 1 mM furosemide, and the inhibitory potency of furosemide was enhanced by extracellular K+, as is known to be true for human AA and low-K+ sheep red blood cells. The swelling-stimulated flux in both rabbit and human SS cells has a pH optimum at approximately 7.4. We conclude that rabbit red blood cells are a good model for swelling-stimulated K+ transport in human SS cells.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 250 WORDS)

Isolation and reconstitution of furosemide-binding proteins from Ehrlich ascites tumor cells

Furosemide-binding proteins were isolated from cholate-solubilized membranes of Ehrlich ascites tumor cells by affinity chromatography, using furosemide as ligand. Solubilized proteins retarded by the affinity material were eluted by furosemide. In reducing and denaturing gels, the major proteins eluted by furosemide were 100 and 45 kDa. In nonreducing, non-denaturing gels, homodimers of both polypeptides were found, whereas no oligomeric proteins containing both polypeptides were seen. It is concluded that the furosemide gel binds two distinct dimeric proteins. The isolated proteins were reconstituted into phospholipid vesicles and the K+ transport activity of these vesicles was assayed by measurement of 86Rb+ uptake against a large opposing K+ gradient. The reconstituted system was found to contain a K+ transporting protein, which is sensitive to Ba2+ like the K+ channel previously demonstrated to be activated in intact cells after cell swelling.

Cation-anion cotransport

Two methods have been described for the study of cation-chloride cotransport systems. The zero-trans efflux method is designed to determine stoichiometric relationships between cotransported ions under conditions where ion exchanges cannot occur. These exchanges (e.g., Na+/Na+, K+/K+) may occur as partial or incomplete reactions of a cotransport process and can lead to erroneous determinations of the stoichiometry of the cotransport process. The zero-trans efflux method can also be used to study the effects of cell volume, pH, and intracellular ion concentrations on cotransport processes. The valinomycin method is used to determine the electrogenicity or electroneutrality of transport, and in this regard can be used in conjunction with other methods such as those employing potential-sensitive dyes or microelectrodes. Other, more recently developed ionophores with specificity for lithium rather than potassium have now been used to study the effect of Em on the ATP-dependent Na+/K+ pump. It may be possible to use such ionophores to confirm the suspected electroneutrality of (K+ + Cl-) cotransport systems, as well as for other studies of specific potassium transport processes in which valinomycin obviously cannot be used. Both methods discussed in detail in this chapter, and particularly the valinomycin method, were originally devised for use in red blood cells in order to take advantage of (or circumvent) properties of the red cell membrane, such as its low permeability to sodium and potassium and relatively high permeability to chloride. However, valinomycin has been used successfully to demonstrate the electroneutrality of (Na+ + K+ + 2Cl-) cotransport in MDCK cells, and the zero-trans efflux method should be applicable to the study of transport processes in other types of cells in suspension, so long as the transport system being studied can be accurately defined (e.g., as an inhibitor-sensitive or chloride-dependent cation flux) and comprises a significant fraction of the total salt efflux.

Volume-sensitive K influx in human red cell ghosts

K influx into resealed human red cell ghosts increases when the ghosts are swollen. The influx demonstrates properties similar to volume-sensitive K fluxes present in other cells. The influx is, for the most part, insensitive to the nature of the major intracellular cation and therefore is not a K-K exchange. The influx is much greater when the major anion is Cl than when the major anion is NO3; Cl stimulates the flux and, at constant Cl, NO3 inhibits it. Increase in the influx rate is rapid when shrunken ghosts are swollen or when NO3 is replaced by Cl. The volume-sensitive K influx requires intracellular MgATP at low concentrations, and ATP cannot be replaced by nonhydrolyzable ATP analogues. The volume-sensitive influx is inhibited by Mg2+ and by high concentrations of vanadate, but is stimulated by low concentrations of vanadate. It is not modified by cAMP, the removal of Ca2+ by EGTA, substances that activate protein kinase C, or by inhibition of phosphatidylinositol kinase. The influx is inhibited by neomycin and by trifluoperazine.