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Cui J, Meshesha M, Churgulia N, Merlo C, Fuchs E, Breakey J, Jones J, Stivers JT. Replication-competent HIV-1 in human alveolar macrophages and monocytes despite nucleotide pools with elevated dUTP. Retrovirology 2022; 19:21. [PMID: 36114511 PMCID: PMC9482235 DOI: 10.1186/s12977-022-00607-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/04/2022] [Accepted: 08/23/2022] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Although CD4+ memory T cells are considered the primary latent reservoir for HIV-1, replication competent HIV has been detected in tissue macrophages in both animal and human studies. During in vitro HIV infection, the depleted nucleotide pool and high dUTP levels in monocyte derived macrophages (MDM) leads to proviruses with high levels of dUMP, which has been implicated in viral restriction or reduced transcription depending on the uracil base excision repair (UBER) competence of the macrophage. Incorporated dUMP has also been detected in viral DNA from circulating monocytes (MC) and alveolar macrophages (AM) of HIV infected patients on antiretroviral therapy (ART), establishing the biological relevance of this phenotype but not the replicative capacity of dUMP-containing proviruses. RESULTS As compared to in vitro differentiated MDM, AM from normal donors had sixfold lower levels of dTTP and a sixfold increased dUTP/dTTP, indicating a highly restrictive dNTP pool for reverse transcription. Expression of uracil DNA glycosylase (UNG) was eightfold lower in AM compared to the already low levels in MDM. Accordingly, ~ 80% of HIV proviruses contained dUMP, which persisted for at least 14-days due to low UNG excision activity. Unlike MDM, AM expression levels of UNG and SAM and HD domain containing deoxynucleoside triphosphate triphosphohydrolase 1 (SAMHD1) increased over 14 days post-HIV infection, while dUTP nucleotidohydrolase (DUT) expression decreased. These AM-specific effects suggest a restriction response centered on excising uracil from viral DNA copies and increasing relative dUTP levels. Despite the restrictive nucleotide pools, we detected rare replication competent HIV in AM, peripheral MC, and CD4+ T cells from ART-treated donors. CONCLUSIONS These findings indicate that the potential integration block of incorporated dUMP is not realized during in vivo infection of AM and MC due to the near absence of UBER activity. In addition, the increased expression of UNG and SAMHD1 in AM post-infection is too slow to prevent integration. Accordingly, dUMP persists in integrated viruses, which based on in vitro studies, can lead to transcriptional silencing. This possible silencing outcome of persistent dUMP could promote viral latency until the repressive effects of viral dUMP are reversed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Junru Cui
- grid.21107.350000 0001 2171 9311Department of Pharmacology and Molecular Sciences, The Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, 725 North Wolfe Street, Baltimore, MD 21205-2185 USA
| | - Mesfin Meshesha
- grid.21107.350000 0001 2171 9311Department of Pharmacology and Molecular Sciences, The Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, 725 North Wolfe Street, Baltimore, MD 21205-2185 USA
| | - Natela Churgulia
- grid.21107.350000 0001 2171 9311Department of Pharmacology and Molecular Sciences, The Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, 725 North Wolfe Street, Baltimore, MD 21205-2185 USA
| | - Christian Merlo
- grid.21107.350000 0001 2171 9311Division of Pulmonary and Critical Care, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, 1830 E. Monument Street/5th Floor, Baltimore, MD 21205 USA
| | - Edward Fuchs
- grid.21107.350000 0001 2171 9311Division of Clinical Pharmacology, Drug Development Unit, The Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, 600 N. Wolfe Street, Blalock 569, Baltimore, MD 21287 USA
| | - Jennifer Breakey
- grid.21107.350000 0001 2171 9311Division of Clinical Pharmacology, Drug Development Unit, The Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, 600 N. Wolfe Street, Blalock 569, Baltimore, MD 21287 USA
| | - Joyce Jones
- grid.21107.350000 0001 2171 9311Division of Infectious Diseases, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, 1830 E. Monument Street, Baltimore, MD 21205 USA
| | - James T. Stivers
- grid.21107.350000 0001 2171 9311Department of Pharmacology and Molecular Sciences, The Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, 725 North Wolfe Street, Baltimore, MD 21205-2185 USA
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Rife Magalis B, Autissier P, Williams KC, Chen X, Browne C, Salemi M. Predator-Prey Dynamics of Intra-Host Simian Immunodeficiency Virus Evolution Within the Untreated Host. Front Immunol 2021; 12:709962. [PMID: 34691023 PMCID: PMC8527182 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2021.709962] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/14/2021] [Accepted: 09/21/2021] [Indexed: 01/18/2023] Open
Abstract
The dynamic nature of the SIV population during disease progression in the SIV/macaque model of AIDS and the factors responsible for its behavior have not been documented, largely owing to the lack of sufficient spatial and temporal sampling of both viral and host data from SIV-infected animals. In this study, we detail Bayesian coalescent inference of the changing collective intra-host viral effective population size (Ne ) from various tissues over the course of infection and its relationship with what we demonstrate is a continuously changing immune cell repertoire within the blood. Although the relative contribution of these factors varied among hosts and time points, the adaptive immune response best explained the overall periodic dynamic behavior of the effective virus population. Data exposing the nature of the relationship between the virus and immune cell populations revealed the plausibility of an eco-evolutionary mathematical model, which was able to mimic the large-scale oscillations in Ne through virus escape from relatively few, early immunodominant responses, followed by slower escape from several subdominant and weakened immune populations. The results of this study suggest that SIV diversity within the untreated host is governed by a predator-prey relationship, wherein differing phases of infection are the result of adaptation in response to varying immune responses. Previous investigations into viral population dynamics using sequence data have focused on single estimates of the effective viral population size (Ne ) or point estimates over sparse sampling data to provide insight into the precise impact of immune selection on virus adaptive behavior. Herein, we describe the use of the coalescent phylogenetic frame- work to estimate the relative changes in Ne over time in order to quantify the relationship with empirical data on the dynamic immune composition of the host. This relationship has allowed us to expand on earlier simulations to build a predator-prey model that explains the deterministic behavior of the virus over the course of disease progression. We show that sequential viral adaptation can occur in response to phases of varying immune pressure, providing a broader picture of the viral response throughout the entire course of progression to AIDS.
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Affiliation(s)
- Brittany Rife Magalis
- Department of Pathology, Immunology, and Laboratory Medicine, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, United States.,Emerging Pathogens Institute, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, United States
| | - Patrick Autissier
- Department of Biology, Boston College, Chestnut Hill, MA, United States
| | | | - Xinguang Chen
- Department of Epidemiology, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, United States
| | - Cameron Browne
- Department of Mathematics, University of Louisiana at Lafayette, Lafayette, LA, United States
| | - Marco Salemi
- Department of Pathology, Immunology, and Laboratory Medicine, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, United States.,Emerging Pathogens Institute, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, United States
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RifeMagalis B, Strickland SL, Shank SD, Autissier P, Schuetz A, Sithinamsuwan P, Lerdlum S, Fletcher JLK, de Souza M, Ananworanich J, Valcour V, Williams KC, Kosakovsky Pond SL, RattoKim S, Salemi M. Phyloanatomic characterization of the distinct T cell and monocyte contributions to the peripheral blood HIV population within the host. Virus Evol 2020; 6:veaa005. [PMID: 32355568 PMCID: PMC7185683 DOI: 10.1093/ve/veaa005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/02/2023] Open
Abstract
Human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) is a rapidly evolving virus, allowing its genetic sequence to act as a fingerprint for epidemiological processes among, as well as within, individual infected hosts. Though primarily infecting the CD4+ T-cell population, HIV can also be found in monocytes, an immune cell population that differs in several aspects from the canonical T-cell viral target. Using single genome viral sequencing and statistical phylogenetic inference, we investigated the viral RNA diversity and relative contribution of each of these immune cell types to the viral population within the peripheral blood. Results provide evidence of an increased prevalence of circulating monocytes harboring virus in individuals with high viral load in the absence of suppressive antiretroviral therapy. Bayesian phyloanatomic analysis of three of these individuals demonstrated a measurable role for these cells, but not the circulating T-cell population, as a source of cell-free virus in the plasma, supporting the hypothesis that these cells can act as an additional conduit of virus spread.
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Affiliation(s)
- Brittany RifeMagalis
- Department of Pathology, Immunology, and Laboratory Medicine, Emerging Pathogens Institute, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL 32601, USA
| | - Samantha L Strickland
- Department of Pathology, Immunology, and Laboratory Medicine, Emerging Pathogens Institute, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL 32601, USA
| | - Stephen D Shank
- Department of Biology, Temple University, Philadelphia, PA 19122, USA
| | | | - Alexandra Schuetz
- Department of Retrovirology, Armed Forces Research Institute of Medical Sciences - United States Component, Bangkok 10400, Thailand
- SEARCH, Thai Red Cross AIDS Research Center, Bangkok 10330, Thailand
| | - Pasiri Sithinamsuwan
- U.S. Military HIV Research Program, Walter Reed Army Institute of Research, Rockville, MD 20850, USA
| | - Sukalaya Lerdlum
- Division of Neurology, Department of Medicine, Phramongkutklao Hospital, Bangkok 10400, Thailand
| | - James L K Fletcher
- Faculty of Medicine, Department of Radiology, Chulalongkorn University, Bangkok 10330, Thailand
| | - Mark de Souza
- Faculty of Medicine, Department of Radiology, Chulalongkorn University, Bangkok 10330, Thailand
| | - Jintanat Ananworanich
- Department of Retrovirology, Armed Forces Research Institute of Medical Sciences - United States Component, Bangkok 10400, Thailand
- SEARCH, Thai Red Cross AIDS Research Center, Bangkok 10330, Thailand
- Faculty of Medicine, Department of Radiology, Chulalongkorn University, Bangkok 10330, Thailand
| | - Victor Valcour
- Department of Neurology, University of California San Francisco, San Francisco, CA 94143, USA
| | | | | | | | - Silvia RattoKim
- Department of Retrovirology, Armed Forces Research Institute of Medical Sciences - United States Component, Bangkok 10400, Thailand
- SEARCH, Thai Red Cross AIDS Research Center, Bangkok 10330, Thailand
| | - Marco Salemi
- Department of Pathology, Immunology, and Laboratory Medicine, Emerging Pathogens Institute, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL 32601, USA
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Infrequent HIV Infection of Circulating Monocytes during Antiretroviral Therapy. J Virol 2019; 94:JVI.01174-19. [PMID: 31597764 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.01174-19] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/15/2019] [Accepted: 09/27/2019] [Indexed: 12/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Whereas human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) persists in tissue macrophages during antiretroviral therapy (ART), the role of circulating monocytes as HIV reservoirs remains controversial. Three magnetic bead selection methods and flow cytometry cell sorting were compared for their capacity to yield pure CD14+ monocyte populations. Cell sorting by flow cytometry provided the purest population of monocytes (median CD4+ T-cell contamination, 0.06%), and the levels of CD4+ T-cell contamination were positively correlated with the levels of integrated HIV DNA in the monocyte populations. Using cell sorting by flow cytometry, we assessed longitudinally the infection of monocytes and other cell subsets in a cohort of 29 Thai HIV-infected individuals. Low levels of HIV DNA were detected in a minority of monocyte fractions obtained before and after 1 year of ART (27% and 33%, respectively), whereas HIV DNA was readily detected in CD4+ T cells from all samples. Additional samples (2 to 5 years of ART) were obtained from 5 individuals in whom monocyte infection was previously detected. Whereas CD4+ T cells were infected at high levels at all time points, monocyte infection was inconsistent and absent in at least one longitudinal sample from 4/5 individuals. Our results indicate that infection of monocytes is infrequent and highlight the importance of using flow cytometry cell sorting to minimize contamination by CD4+ T cells.IMPORTANCE The role of circulating monocytes as persistent HIV reservoirs during ART is still controversial. Several studies have reported persistent infection of monocytes in virally suppressed individuals; however, others failed to detect HIV in this subset. These discrepancies are likely explained by the diversity of the methods used to isolate monocytes and to detect HIV infection. In this study, we show that only flow cytometry cell sorting yields a highly pure population of monocytes largely devoid of CD4 contaminants. Using this approach in a longitudinal cohort of HIV-infected individuals before and during ART, we demonstrate that HIV is rarely found in monocytes from untreated and treated HIV-infected individuals. This study highlights the importance of using methods that yield highly pure populations of cells as flow cytometry cell sorting to minimize and control for CD4+ T-cell contamination.
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Read SA, Obeid S, Ahlenstiel C, Ahlenstiel G. The Role of Zinc in Antiviral Immunity. Adv Nutr 2019; 10:696-710. [PMID: 31305906 PMCID: PMC6628855 DOI: 10.1093/advances/nmz013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 385] [Impact Index Per Article: 77.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/20/2018] [Revised: 01/17/2019] [Accepted: 01/22/2019] [Indexed: 12/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Zinc is an essential trace element that is crucial for growth, development, and the maintenance of immune function. Its influence reaches all organs and cell types, representing an integral component of approximately 10% of the human proteome, and encompassing hundreds of key enzymes and transcription factors. Zinc deficiency is strikingly common, affecting up to a quarter of the population in developing countries, but also affecting distinct populations in the developed world as a result of lifestyle, age, and disease-mediated factors. Consequently, zinc status is a critical factor that can influence antiviral immunity, particularly as zinc-deficient populations are often most at risk of acquiring viral infections such as HIV or hepatitis C virus. This review summarizes current basic science and clinical evidence examining zinc as a direct antiviral, as well as a stimulant of antiviral immunity. An abundance of evidence has accumulated over the past 50 y to demonstrate the antiviral activity of zinc against a variety of viruses, and via numerous mechanisms. The therapeutic use of zinc for viral infections such as herpes simplex virus and the common cold has stemmed from these findings; however, there remains much to be learned regarding the antiviral mechanisms and clinical benefit of zinc supplementation as a preventative and therapeutic treatment for viral infections.
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Affiliation(s)
- Scott A Read
- Blacktown Medical School, Western Sydney University, Blacktown, New South Wales, Australia
- Storr Liver Centre, The Westmead Institute for Medical Research, The University of Sydney and Westmead Hospital, Westmead, New South Wales, Australia
| | - Stephanie Obeid
- The Kirby Institute, University of New South Wales, Sydney, New South Wales, Australia
| | - Chantelle Ahlenstiel
- The Kirby Institute, University of New South Wales, Sydney, New South Wales, Australia
| | - Golo Ahlenstiel
- Blacktown Medical School, Western Sydney University, Blacktown, New South Wales, Australia
- Storr Liver Centre, The Westmead Institute for Medical Research, The University of Sydney and Westmead Hospital, Westmead, New South Wales, Australia
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Khan S, Telwatte S, Trapecar M, Yukl S, Sanjabi S. Differentiating Immune Cell Targets in Gut-Associated Lymphoid Tissue for HIV Cure. AIDS Res Hum Retroviruses 2017; 33:S40-S58. [PMID: 28882067 PMCID: PMC5685216 DOI: 10.1089/aid.2017.0153] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
The single greatest challenge to an HIV cure is the persistence of latently infected cells containing inducible, replication-competent proviral genomes, which constitute only a small fraction of total or infected cells in the body. Although resting CD4+ T cells in the blood are a well-known source of viral rebound, more than 90% of the body's lymphocytes reside elsewhere. Many are in gut tissue, where HIV DNA levels per million CD4+ T cells are considerably higher than in the blood. Despite the significant contribution of gut tissue to viral replication and persistence, little is known about the cell types that support persistence of HIV in the gut; importantly, T cells in the gut have phenotypic, functional, and survival properties that are distinct from T cells in other tissues. The mechanisms by which latency is established and maintained will likely depend on the location and cytokine milieu surrounding the latently infected cells in each compartment. Therefore, successful HIV cure strategies require identification and characterization of the exact cell types that support viral persistence, particularly in the gut. In this review, we describe the seeding of the latent HIV reservoir in the gut mucosa; highlight the evidence for compartmentalization and depletion of T cells; summarize the immunologic consequences of HIV infection within the gut milieu; propose how the damaged gut environment may promote the latent HIV reservoir; and explore several immune cell targets in the gut and their place on the path toward HIV cure.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shahzada Khan
- Gladstone Institute of Virology and Immunology, Gladstone Institutes, San Francisco, California
| | - Sushama Telwatte
- San Francisco VA Health Care System and University of California, San Francisco (UCSF), San Francisco, California
| | - Martin Trapecar
- Gladstone Institute of Virology and Immunology, Gladstone Institutes, San Francisco, California
| | - Steven Yukl
- San Francisco VA Health Care System and University of California, San Francisco (UCSF), San Francisco, California
| | - Shomyseh Sanjabi
- Gladstone Institute of Virology and Immunology, Gladstone Institutes, San Francisco, California
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, California
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7
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Identification of Emerging Macrophage-Tropic HIV-1 R5 Variants in Brain Tissue of AIDS Patients without Severe Neurological Complications. J Virol 2017; 91:JVI.00755-17. [PMID: 28768859 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.00755-17] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/04/2017] [Accepted: 07/19/2017] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Untreated HIV-positive (HIV-1+) individuals frequently suffer from HIV-associated neurocognitive disorders (HAND), with about 30% of AIDS patients suffering severe HIV-associated dementias (HADs). Antiretroviral therapy has greatly reduced the incidence of HAND and HAD. However, there is a continuing problem of milder neurocognitive impairments in treated HIV+ patients that may be increasing with long-term therapy. In the present study, we investigated whether envelope (env) genes could be amplified from proviral DNA or RNA derived from brain tissue of 12 individuals with normal neurology or minor neurological conditions (N/MC individuals). The tropism and characteristics of the brain-derived Envs were then investigated and compared to those of Envs derived from immune tissue. We showed that (i) macrophage-tropic R5 Envs could be detected in the brain tissue of 4/12 N/MC individuals, (ii) macrophage-tropic Envs in brain tissue formed compartmentalized clusters distinct from non-macrophage-tropic (non-mac-tropic) Envs recovered from the spleen or brain, (iii) the evidence was consistent with active viral expression by macrophage-tropic variants in the brain tissue of some individuals, and (iv) Envs from immune tissue of the N/MC individuals were nearly all tightly non-mac-tropic, contrasting with previous data for neuro-AIDS patients where immune tissue Envs mediated a range of macrophage infectivities, from background levels to modest infection, with a small number of Envs from some patients mediating high macrophage infection levels. In summary, the data presented here show that compartmentalized and active macrophage-tropic HIV-1 variants are present in the brain tissue of individuals before neurological disease becomes overt or serious.IMPORTANCE The detection of highly compartmentalized macrophage-tropic R5 Envs in the brain tissue of HIV patients without serious neurological disease is consistent with their emergence from a viral population already established there, perhaps from early disease. The detection of active macrophage-tropic virus expression, and probably replication, indicates that antiretroviral drugs with optimal penetration through the blood-brain barrier should be considered even for patients without neurological disease (neuro-disease). Finally, our data are consistent with the brain forming a sanctuary site for latent virus and low-level viral replication in the absence of neuro-disease.
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8
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Graziano F, Vicenzi E, Poli G. Immuno-Pharmacological Targeting of Virus-Containing Compartments in HIV-1-Infected Macrophages. Trends Microbiol 2016; 24:558-567. [PMID: 27012511 DOI: 10.1016/j.tim.2016.02.018] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/20/2016] [Revised: 02/23/2016] [Accepted: 02/26/2016] [Indexed: 01/26/2023]
Abstract
In addition to CD4 T lymphocytes, HIV-1 infects tissue macrophages that can actively accumulate infectious virions in vacuolar subcellular structures mostly connected to the plasma membrane and recently termed virus-containing compartments (VCCs). The VCC-associated HIV-1 reservoir of infected macrophages can be either increased or depleted by immunologic and pharmacologic agents, at least in vitro, thus suggesting that these factors (or related molecules) could be effective in curtailing the macrophage-associated HIV-1 reservoir in infected individuals receiving combination antiretroviral therapy (cART). Here we review evidence on the pathogenic role of tissue macrophages as long-term viral reservoirs in vivo and upon in vitro infection with a particular emphasis on the immuno-pharmacological modulation of VCCs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Francesca Graziano
- AIDS Immunopathogenesis Unit, San Raffaele Scientific Institute, Milano, Italy
| | - Elisa Vicenzi
- Viral Pathogens and Biosafety Unit, San Raffaele Scientific Institute, Milano, Italy
| | - Guido Poli
- AIDS Immunopathogenesis Unit, San Raffaele Scientific Institute, Milano, Italy; Vita-Salute San Raffaele University, School of Medicine, Milano, Italy; Institute of Human Virology, University of Maryland, Baltimore, MD, USA.
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9
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Joseph SB, Arrildt KT, Sturdevant CB, Swanstrom R. HIV-1 target cells in the CNS. J Neurovirol 2015; 21:276-89. [PMID: 25236812 PMCID: PMC4366351 DOI: 10.1007/s13365-014-0287-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 118] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/01/2014] [Revised: 08/23/2014] [Accepted: 08/27/2014] [Indexed: 10/24/2022]
Abstract
HIV-1 replication in the central nervous system (CNS) is typically limited by the availability of target cells. HIV-1 variants that are transmitted and dominate the early stages of infection almost exclusively use the CCR5 coreceptor and are well adapted to entering, and thus infecting, cells expressing high CD4 densities similar to those found on CD4+ T cells. While the "immune privileged" CNS is largely devoid of CD4+ T cells, macrophage and microglia are abundant throughout the CNS. These cells likely express CD4 densities that are too low to facilitate efficient entry or allow sustained replication by most HIV-1 isolates. Examination of CNS viral populations reveals that late in disease the CNS of some individuals contains HIV-1 lineages that have evolved the ability to enter cells expressing low levels of CD4 and are well-adapted to entering macrophages. These macrophage-tropic (M-tropic) viruses are able to maintain sustained replication in the CNS for many generations, and their presence is associated with severe neurocognitive impairment. Whether conditions such as pleocytosis are necessary for macrophage-tropic viruses to emerge in the CNS is unknown, and extensive examinations of macrophage-tropic variants have not revealed a genetic signature of this phenotype. It is clear, however, that macrophage tropism is rare among HIV-1 isolates and is not transmitted, but is important due to its pathogenic effects on hosts. Prior to the evolution of macrophage-tropic variants, the viruses that are predominately infecting T cells (R5 T cell-tropic) may infect macrophages at a low level and inefficiently, but this could contribute to the reservoir.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sarah B Joseph
- Lineberger Comprehensive Cancer Center, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, NC, 27599, USA,
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10
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Eradication of HIV-1 from the macrophage reservoir: an uncertain goal? Viruses 2015; 7:1578-98. [PMID: 25835530 PMCID: PMC4411666 DOI: 10.3390/v7041578] [Citation(s) in RCA: 70] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/04/2015] [Revised: 03/16/2015] [Accepted: 03/24/2015] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1) establishes latency in resting memory CD4+ T cells and cells of myeloid lineage. In contrast to the T cells, cells of myeloid lineage are resistant to the HIV-1 induced cytopathic effect. Cells of myeloid lineage including macrophages are present in anatomical sanctuaries making them a difficult drug target. In addition, the long life span of macrophages as compared to the CD4+ T cells make them important viral reservoirs in infected individuals especially in the late stage of viral infection where CD4+ T cells are largely depleted. In the past decade, HIV-1 persistence in resting CD4+ T cells has gained considerable attention. It is currently believed that rebound viremia following cessation of combination anti-retroviral therapy (cART) originates from this source. However, the clinical relevance of this reservoir has been questioned. It is suggested that the resting CD4+ T cells are only one source of residual viremia and other viral reservoirs such as tissue macrophages should be seriously considered. In the present review we will discuss how macrophages contribute to the development of long-lived latent reservoirs and how macrophages can be used as a therapeutic target in eradicating latent reservoir.
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11
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Henrich TJ, McLaren PJ, Rao SSP, Lin NH, Hanhauser E, Giguel F, Gulick RM, Ribaudo H, de Bakker PIW, Kuritzkes DR. Genome-Wide Association Study of Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV)-1 Coreceptor Usage in Treatment-Naive Patients from An AIDS Clinical Trials Group Study. Open Forum Infect Dis 2014; 1:ofu018. [PMID: 25734091 PMCID: PMC4324186 DOI: 10.1093/ofid/ofu018] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/13/2014] [Accepted: 04/03/2014] [Indexed: 01/17/2023] Open
Abstract
Phenotypic determination of HIV-1 coreceptor usage was performed on 593 pre-treatment plasma HIV-1 samples from treatment-naive participants in ACTG A5095. No human genetic variants were significantly associated with virus able to use CXCR4 for entry at the genome-wide level. Objectives. We conducted a genome-wide association study to explore whether common host genetic variants (>5% frequency) were associated with presence of virus able to use CXCR4 for entry. Methods. Phenotypic determination of human immunodeficiency virus (HIV)-1 coreceptor usage was performed on pretreatment plasma HIV-1 samples from treatment-naive participants in AIDS Clinical Trials Group A5095, a study of initial antiretroviral regimens. Associations between genome-wide single-nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs), CCR5 Δ32 genotype, and human leukocyte antigen (HLA) class I alleles and viral coreceptor usage were explored. Results. Viral phenotypes were obtained from 593 patients with available genome-wide SNP data. Forty-four percent of subjects had virus capable of using CXCR4 for entry as determined by phenotyping. Overall, no associations, including those between polymorphisms in genes encoding viral coreceptors and their promoter regions or in HLA genes previously associated with HIV-1 disease progression, passed the statistical threshold for genome-wide significance (P < 5.0 × 10−8) in any comparison. However, the presence of viruses able to use CXCR4 for entry was marginally associated with the CCR5 Δ32 genotype in the nongenome-wide analysis. Conclusions. No human genetic variants were significantly associated with virus able to use CXCR4 for entry at the genome-wide level. Although the sample size had limited power to definitively exclude genetic associations, these results suggest that host genetic factors, including those that influence coreceptor expression or the immune pressures leading to viral envelope diversity, are either rare or have only modest effects in determining HIV-1 coreceptor usage.
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Affiliation(s)
- Timothy J Henrich
- Division of Infectious Diseases , Brigham and Women's Hospital , Boston, Massachusetts ; Harvard Medical School , Boston, Massachusetts
| | - Paul J McLaren
- École Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne and University of Lausanne , Switzerland ; University Hospital and University of Lausanne , Switzerland ; Swiss Institute of Bioinformatics , Switzerland
| | | | - Nina H Lin
- Massachusetts General Hospital , Boston, Massachusetts ; Harvard Medical School , Boston, Massachusetts
| | - Emily Hanhauser
- Division of Infectious Diseases , Brigham and Women's Hospital , Boston, Massachusetts
| | | | - Roy M Gulick
- Weill Medical College of Cornell University, New York, New York
| | - Heather Ribaudo
- Harvard Medical School , Boston, Massachusetts ; Harvard School of Public Health
| | - Paul I W de Bakker
- Harvard Medical School , Boston, Massachusetts ; Program in Medical and Population Genetics , Broad Institute of Harvard and MIT , Boston, Massachusetts ; Department of Medical Genetics and Department of Epidemiology , University Medical Center Utrecht , Utrecht , The Netherlands ; Divison of Genetics , Brigham and Women's Hospital , Boston, Massachusetts
| | - Daniel R Kuritzkes
- Division of Infectious Diseases , Brigham and Women's Hospital , Boston, Massachusetts ; Harvard Medical School , Boston, Massachusetts
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13
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M1 polarization of human monocyte-derived macrophages restricts pre and postintegration steps of HIV-1 replication. AIDS 2013; 27:1847-56. [PMID: 23612004 DOI: 10.1097/qad.0b013e328361d059] [Citation(s) in RCA: 48] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE Functional polarization of human monocyte-derived macrophages (MDMs) into M1 cells leads to inhibition of R5 HIV-1 replication and viral DNA synthesis in comparison to control, unpolarized cells together with CD4 downregulation from the cell surface and upregulation of CCR5-binding chemokine secretion. We here investigated whether a postentry restriction of virus replication is also induced by M1 polarization of MDM. DESIGN MDM were first polarized to M1 cells by 18 h stimulation with interferon-[gamma] and tumor necrosis factor-[alpha]; the cytokines were then removed and the cells were infected with vesicular stomatitis virus G-protein pseudotyped enhanced green fluorescence protein HIV-1 (HIV-GFP) generating a single-round infection cycle. METHODS HIV-1 expression was monitored in terms of eGFP expression by fluorescence activated cell sorter (FACS) analysis and real-time PCR analysis of total HIV-1 gag DNA, 2-long terminal repeat DNA, proviral DNA, and multiply spliced RNA transcripts. Expression of apolipopoprotein B mRNA-editing, enzyme-catalytic, polypeptide-like 3G (APOBEC3G), and APOBEC3A was tested by western blotting and FACS analysis. RESULTS Inhibition of HIV-GFP expression was observed in M1-MDM along with impaired viral DNA synthesis, delayed proviral integration, and reduced proviral transcription. Although APOBEC3G levels were similar in M1 and unpolarized MDM, APOBEC 3A was selectively expressed only by M1 cells. CONCLUSION M1 polarization of in-vitro differentiated primary MDM determines a transient, but profound restriction of HIV-1 replication affecting multiple (entry and postentry) steps in the virus life cycle likely involving the upregulated expression of APOBEC3A.
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Wang T, Xu Y, Zhu H, Andrus T, Ivanov SB, Pan C, Dolores J, Dann GC, Zhou M, Forte D, Yang Z, Holte S, Corey L, Zhu T. Successful isolation of infectious and high titer human monocyte-derived HIV-1 from two subjects with discontinued therapy. PLoS One 2013; 8:e65071. [PMID: 23741458 PMCID: PMC3669022 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0065071] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/15/2012] [Accepted: 04/20/2013] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Background HIV-1 DNA in blood monocytes is considered a viral source of various HIV-1 infected tissue macrophages, which is also known as “Trojan horse” hypothesis. However, whether these DNA can produce virions has been an open question for years, due to the inability of isolating high titer and infectious HIV-1 directly from monocytes. Results In this study, we demonstrated successful isolation of two strains of M-HIV-1 (1690 M and 1175 M) from two out of four study subjects, together with their in vivo controls, HIV-1 isolated from CD4+ T-cells (T-HIV-1), 1690 T and 1175 T. All M- and T- HIV-1 isolates were detected CCR5-tropic. Both M- HIV-1 exhibited higher levels of replication in monocyte-derived macrophages (MDM) than the two T- HIV-1. Consistent with our previous reports on the subject 1175 with late infection, compartmentalized env C2-V3-C3 sequences were identified between 1175 M and 1175 T. In contrast, 1690 M and 1690 T, which were isolated from subject 1690 with relatively earlier infection, showed homogenous env C2-V3-C3 sequences. However, multiple reverse transcriptase (RT) inhibitor resistance-associated variations were detected in the Gag-Pol region of 1690 M, but not of 1690 T. By further measuring HIV DNA intracellular copy numbers post-MDM infection, 1690 M was found to have significantly higher DNA synthesis efficiency than 1690 T in macrophages, indicating a higher RT activity, which was confirmed by AZT inhibitory assays. Conclusions These results suggested that the M- and T- HIV-1 are compartmentalized in the two study subjects, respectively. Therefore, we demonstrated that under in vitro conditions, HIV-1 infected human monocytes can productively release live viruses while differentiating into macrophages.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tong Wang
- Department of Laboratory Medicine, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington, United States of America
- Key Laboratory of Functional Protein Research of Guangdong Higher Education Institutes, Guangzhou, Guangdong, China
- Institute of Life and Health Engineering, College of Life Science and Technology, Jinan University, Guangzhou, Guangdong, China
| | - Younong Xu
- Department of Laboratory Medicine, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington, United States of America
| | - Haiying Zhu
- Department of Laboratory Medicine, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington, United States of America
| | - Thomas Andrus
- Department of Laboratory Medicine, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington, United States of America
| | - Sergei B. Ivanov
- Department of Laboratory Medicine, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington, United States of America
| | - Charlotte Pan
- Department of Laboratory Medicine, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington, United States of America
| | - Jazel Dolores
- Department of Laboratory Medicine, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington, United States of America
| | - Gregory C. Dann
- Department of Laboratory Medicine, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington, United States of America
| | - Michael Zhou
- Department of Laboratory Medicine, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington, United States of America
| | - Dominic Forte
- Department of Laboratory Medicine, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington, United States of America
| | - Zihuan Yang
- Department of Laboratory Medicine, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington, United States of America
| | - Sarah Holte
- Department of Biostatistics, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington, United States of America
- Division of Public Health Sciences, Fred Hutchinson Cancer Research Center, Seattle, Washington, United States of America
| | - Lawrence Corey
- Department of Laboratory Medicine, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington, United States of America
- Division of Vaccine and Infectious Disease Division, Fred Hutchinson Cancer Research Center, Seattle, Washington, United States of America
| | - Tuofu Zhu
- Department of Laboratory Medicine, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington, United States of America
- Division of Vaccine and Infectious Disease Division, Fred Hutchinson Cancer Research Center, Seattle, Washington, United States of America
- * E-mail:
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Rinaldo CR. HIV-1 Trans Infection of CD4(+) T Cells by Professional Antigen Presenting Cells. SCIENTIFICA 2013; 2013:164203. [PMID: 24278768 PMCID: PMC3820354 DOI: 10.1155/2013/164203] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/28/2013] [Accepted: 04/09/2013] [Indexed: 06/02/2023]
Abstract
Since the 1990s we have known of the fascinating ability of a complex set of professional antigen presenting cells (APCs; dendritic cells, monocytes/macrophages, and B lymphocytes) to mediate HIV-1 trans infection of CD4(+) T cells. This results in a burst of virus replication in the T cells that is much greater than that resulting from direct, cis infection of either APC or T cells, or trans infection between T cells. Such APC-to-T cell trans infection first involves a complex set of virus subtype, attachment, entry, and replication patterns that have many similarities among APC, as well as distinct differences related to virus receptors, intracellular trafficking, and productive and nonproductive replication pathways. The end result is that HIV-1 can sequester within the APC for several days and be transmitted via membrane extensions intracellularly and extracellularly to T cells across the virologic synapse. Virus replication requires activated T cells that can develop concurrently with the events of virus transmission. Further research is essential to fill the many gaps in our understanding of these trans infection processes and their role in natural HIV-1 infection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Charles R. Rinaldo
- Department of Infectious Diseases and Microbiology, University of Pittsburgh Graduate School of Public Health, Pittsburgh, PA 15261, USA
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Abstract
Transmission of HIV-1 results in the establishment of a new infection, typically starting from a single virus particle. That virion replicates to generate viremia and persistent infection in all of the lymphoid tissue in the body. HIV-1 preferentially infects T cells with high levels of CD4 and those subsets of T cells that express CCR5, particularly memory T cells. Most of the replicating virus is in the lymphoid tissue, yet most of samples studied are from blood. For the most part the tissue and blood viruses represent a well-mixed population. With the onset of immunodeficiency, the virus evolves to infect new cell types. The tropism switch involves switching from using CCR5 to CXCR4 and corresponds to an expansion of infected cells to include naïve CD4(+) T cells. Similarly, the virus evolves the ability to enter cells with low levels of CD4 on the surface and this potentiates the ability to infect macrophages, although the scope of sites where infection of macrophages occurs and the link to pathogenesis is only partly known and is clear only for infection of the central nervous system. A model linking viral evolution to these two pathways has been proposed. Finally, other disease states related to immunodeficiency may be the result of viral infection of additional tissues, although the evidence for a direct role for the virus is less strong. Advancing immunodeficiency creates an environment in which viral evolution results in viral variants that can target new cell types to generate yet another class of opportunistic infections (i.e., HIV-1 with altered tropism).
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Affiliation(s)
- Ronald Swanstrom
- Department of Biochemistry and Biophysics, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, NC 27599, USA.
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Abstract
HIV-1 is completely dependent upon the Env protein to enter cells. The virus typically replicates in activated CD4+ T cells due to viral entry requirements for the CCR5 coreceptor and for high surface levels of the CD4 receptor. This is the case for the transmitted virus and for most of the virus sampled in the blood. Over the course of infection, the env gene can evolve to encode a protein with altered receptor and coreceptor usage allowing the virus to enter alternative host cells. In about 50% of HIV-1 infections, the viral population undergoes coreceptor switching, usually late in disease, allowing the virus to use CXCR4 to enter a different subset of CD4+ T cells. Neurocognitive disorders occur in about 10% of infections, also usually late in disease, but caused (ultimately) by viral replication in the brain either in CD4+ T cells or macrophage and/or microglia. Expanded host range is significantly intertwined with pathogenesis. Identification and characterization of such HIV-1 variants may be useful for early detection which would allow intervention to reduce viral pathogenesis in these alternative cell types.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kathryn Twigg Arrildt
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, NC, USA.
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Duncan CJA, Sattentau QJ. Viral determinants of HIV-1 macrophage tropism. Viruses 2011; 3:2255-79. [PMID: 22163344 PMCID: PMC3230851 DOI: 10.3390/v3112255] [Citation(s) in RCA: 44] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/16/2011] [Revised: 11/04/2011] [Accepted: 11/04/2011] [Indexed: 01/23/2023] Open
Abstract
Macrophages are important target cells for HIV-1 infection that play significant roles in the maintenance of viral reservoirs and other aspects of pathogenesis. Understanding the determinants of HIV-1 tropism for macrophages will inform HIV-1 control and eradication strategies. Tropism for macrophages is both qualitative (infection or not) and quantitative (replication capacity). For example many R5 HIV-1 isolates cannot infect macrophages, but for those that can the macrophage replication capacity can vary by up to 1000-fold. Some X4 viruses are also capable of replication in macrophages, indicating that cellular tropism is partially independent of co-receptor preference. Preliminary data obtained with a small number of transmitted/founder viruses indicate inefficient macrophage infection, whereas isolates from later in disease are more frequently tropic for macrophages. Thus tropism may evolve over time, and more macrophage tropic viruses may be implicated in the pathogenesis of advanced HIV-1 infection. Compartmentalization of macrophage-tropic brain-derived envelope glycoproteins (Envs), and non-macrophage tropic non-neural tissue-derived Envs points to adaptation of HIV-1 quasi-species in distinct tissue microenvironments. Mutations within and adjacent to the Env-CD4 binding site have been identified that determine macrophage tropism at the entry level, but post-entry molecular determinants of macrophage replication capacity involving HIV-1 accessory proteins need further definition.
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Abstract
Macrophages and CD4+ T cells are natural target cells for HIV-1, and both cell types contribute to the establishment of the viral reservoir that is responsible for continuous residual virus replication during antiretroviral therapy and viral load rebound upon treatment interruption. Scientific findings that support a critical role for the infected monocyte/macrophage in HIV-1-associated diseases, such as neurological disorders and cardiovascular disease, are accumulating. To prevent or treat these HIV-1-related diseases, we need to halt HIV-1 replication in the macrophage reservoir. This article describes our current knowledge of how monocytes and certain macrophage subsets are able to restrict HIV-1 infection, in addition to what makes macrophages respond less well to current antiretroviral drugs as compared with CD4+ T cells. These insights will help to find novel approaches that can be used to meet this challenge.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sebastiaan M Bol
- Department of Experimental Immunology, Sanquin Research, Landsteiner Laboratory, and Center for Infectious Diseases and Immunity Amsterdam (CINIMA) at the Academic Medical Center of the University of Amsterdam, Meibergdreef 15, 1105 AZ Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Viviana Cobos-Jiménez
- Department of Experimental Immunology, Sanquin Research, Landsteiner Laboratory, and Center for Infectious Diseases and Immunity Amsterdam (CINIMA) at the Academic Medical Center of the University of Amsterdam, Meibergdreef 15, 1105 AZ Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Neeltje A Kootstra
- Department of Experimental Immunology, Sanquin Research, Landsteiner Laboratory, and Center for Infectious Diseases and Immunity Amsterdam (CINIMA) at the Academic Medical Center of the University of Amsterdam, Meibergdreef 15, 1105 AZ Amsterdam, The Netherlands
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Turriziani O, Boni A, Falasca F, Graziano F, Bucci M, D'Ettorre G, Fantauzzi A, Paoletti F, Massetti AP, Mezzaroma I, Antonelli G. Mutational resistance pattern of HIV type 1 in CD14+ monocytes, CD4+ T cells, and plasma from treated patients. AIDS Res Hum Retroviruses 2010; 26:625-34. [PMID: 20507206 DOI: 10.1089/aid.2009.0183] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
It is necessary to understand the molecular nature of the virus population that persists in cellular reservoirs. To achieve this we planned to characterize the patterns of resistance of HIV-1 in CD14(+) monocytes, CD4(+) T cells, and plasma. Blood samples were collected from 42 patients treated for HIV: 32 were in virological failure and in 10 viremia was undetectable. CD14(+) and CD4(+) T cells were isolated using magnetic beads. Genotyping of the reverse transcriptase and protease gene of HIV-1 was undertaken using the fluorescent dideoxy-terminator method. Of the 32 patients in virological failure, 24 (75%) had resistance mutations in at least one compartment. The numbers and types of mutations from monocytes were the same as those detected in both CD4(+) T cell-associated virus and plasma in only 8% whereas in 71% monocytes exhibited a different mutation pattern. In 21% of patients, the profile of drug-resistant mutations in the virus from blood monocytes was identical to that in plasma but differed from that in CD4. In the 71% of patients with virological suppression, the genotypic resistance pattern differed between monocytes and CD4(+) T cells. Circulating monocytes may harbor a viral dominant population different from those viruses circulating in blood and archived in CD4(+) T cells. Hence, monocytes and other cellular reservoirs might serve as an indirect source of a drug-resistant viral variant.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ombretta Turriziani
- Department of Experimental Medicine, Virology Section, “Sapienza” University of Rome and Policlinico Umberto I, Rome, Italy
| | - Arianna Boni
- Department of Experimental Medicine, Virology Section, “Sapienza” University of Rome and Policlinico Umberto I, Rome, Italy
| | - Francesca Falasca
- Department of Experimental Medicine, Virology Section, “Sapienza” University of Rome and Policlinico Umberto I, Rome, Italy
| | - Francesca Graziano
- Department of Experimental Medicine, Virology Section, “Sapienza” University of Rome and Policlinico Umberto I, Rome, Italy
| | - Mauro Bucci
- Department of Experimental Medicine, Virology Section, “Sapienza” University of Rome and Policlinico Umberto I, Rome, Italy
| | - Gabriella D'Ettorre
- Department of Infectious Diseases, “Sapienza” University of Rome and Policlinico Umberto I, Rome, Italy
| | | | - Francesca Paoletti
- Department of Infectious Diseases, “Sapienza” University of Rome and Policlinico Umberto I, Rome, Italy
| | - Anna Paola Massetti
- Department of Infectious Diseases, “Sapienza” University of Rome and Policlinico Umberto I, Rome, Italy
| | | | - Guido Antonelli
- Department of Experimental Medicine, Virology Section, “Sapienza” University of Rome and Policlinico Umberto I, Rome, Italy
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Bergamaschi A, Pancino G. Host hindrance to HIV-1 replication in monocytes and macrophages. Retrovirology 2010; 7:31. [PMID: 20374633 PMCID: PMC2868797 DOI: 10.1186/1742-4690-7-31] [Citation(s) in RCA: 82] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/25/2009] [Accepted: 04/07/2010] [Indexed: 11/29/2022] Open
Abstract
Monocytes and macrophages are targets of HIV-1 infection and play critical roles in multiple aspects of viral pathogenesis. HIV-1 can replicate in blood monocytes, although only a minor proportion of circulating monocytes harbor viral DNA. Resident macrophages in tissues can be infected and function as viral reservoirs. However, their susceptibility to infection, and their capacity to actively replicate the virus, varies greatly depending on the tissue localization and cytokine environment. The susceptibility of monocytes to HIV-1 infection in vitro depends on their differentiation status. Monocytes are refractory to infection and become permissive upon differentiation into macrophages. In addition, the capacity of monocyte-derived macrophages to sustain viral replication varies between individuals. Host determinants regulate HIV-1 replication in monocytes and macrophages, limiting several steps of the viral life-cycle, from viral entry to virus release. Some host factors responsible for HIV-1 restriction are shared with T lymphocytes, but several anti-viral mechanisms are specific to either monocytes or macrophages. Whilst a number of these mechanisms have been identified in monocytes or in monocyte-derived macrophages in vitro, some of them have also been implicated in the regulation of HIV-1 infection in vivo, in particular in the brain and the lung where macrophages are the main cell type infected by HIV-1. This review focuses on cellular factors that have been reported to interfere with HIV-1 infection in monocytes and macrophages, and examines the evidences supporting their role in vivo, highlighting unique aspects of HIV-1 restriction in these two cell types.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anna Bergamaschi
- Institut Pasteur, Unité de Régulation des Infections Rétrovirales, Paris, France.
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Huysentruyt LC, McGrath MS. The role of macrophages in the development and progression of AIDS-related non-Hodgkin lymphoma. J Leukoc Biol 2009; 87:627-32. [PMID: 20042471 PMCID: PMC2858304 DOI: 10.1189/jlb.0809564] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/27/2023] Open
Abstract
Despite HAART, patients infected with HIV develop NHL at a significantly higher level than the noninfected population. The primary difference between lymphoma in non-HIV-infected individuals and those with ARL is that ARL is consistently high-grade and metastatic. The emergence of ARL is associated with the presence of macrophage viral reservoirs, similar to what has been observed for HAD. HIV-infected macrophages, as seen by histology and HIV p24 staining, are present in approximately half of ARLs. Macrophage reservoirs recruit additional immune cells, including monocytes/macrophages, through the release of chemoattractants. Additionally, TAM are known to promote tumor progression for most cancer types, including lymphomas. This review will highlight and discuss the role of macrophage viral reservoirs in the development and progression of ARLs and hopefully, shed light on this new and interesting field.
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Affiliation(s)
- Leanne C Huysentruyt
- Department of Medicine, Hematology and Oncology, University of California, San Francisco, California, USA.
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Mavigner M, Delobel P, Cazabat M, Dubois M, L'Faqihi-Olive FE, Raymond S, Pasquier C, Marchou B, Massip P, Izopet J. HIV-1 residual viremia correlates with persistent T-cell activation in poor immunological responders to combination antiretroviral therapy. PLoS One 2009; 4:e7658. [PMID: 19876401 PMCID: PMC2765414 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0007658] [Citation(s) in RCA: 104] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/26/2009] [Accepted: 10/12/2009] [Indexed: 01/20/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND The clinical significance and cellular sources of residual human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1) production despite suppressive combination antiretroviral therapy (cART) remain unclear and the effect of low-level viremia on T-cell homeostasis is still debated. METHODOLOGY/PRINCIPAL FINDINGS We characterized the recently produced residual viruses in the plasma and short-lived blood monocytes of 23 patients with various immunological responses to sustained suppressive cART. We quantified the residual HIV-1 in the plasma below 50 copies/ml, and in the CD14(high) CD16(-) and CD16+ monocyte subsets sorted by flow cytometry, and predicted coreceptor usage by genotyping V3 env sequences. We detected residual viremia in the plasma of 8 of 10 patients with poor CD4+ T-cell reconstitution in response to cART and in only 5 of 13 patients with good CD4+ T-cell reconstitution. CXCR4-using viruses were frequent among the recently produced viruses in the plasma and in the main CD14(high) CD16(-) monocyte subset. Finally, the residual viremia was correlated with persistent CD4+ and CD8+ T-cell activation in patients with poor immune reconstitution. CONCLUSIONS Low-level viremia could result from the release of archived viruses from cellular reservoirs and/or from ongoing virus replication in some patients. The compartmentalization of the viruses between the plasma and the blood monocytes suggests at least two origins of residual virus production during effective cART. CXCR4-using viruses might be produced preferentially in patients on cART. Our results also suggest that low-level HIV-1 production in some patients may contribute to persistent immune dysfunction despite cART.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Pierre Delobel
- INSERM, U563, Toulouse, France
- Université Toulouse III Paul-Sabatier, Centre de Physiopathologie de Toulouse Purpan, Toulouse, France
- CHU Toulouse, Hôpital Purpan, Service des Maladies Infectieuses et Tropicales, Toulouse, France
| | - Michelle Cazabat
- INSERM, U563, Toulouse, France
- CHU Toulouse, Hôpital Purpan, Laboratoire de Virologie, Toulouse, France
| | - Martine Dubois
- INSERM, U563, Toulouse, France
- CHU Toulouse, Hôpital Purpan, Laboratoire de Virologie, Toulouse, France
| | | | - Stéphanie Raymond
- INSERM, U563, Toulouse, France
- Université Toulouse III Paul-Sabatier, Centre de Physiopathologie de Toulouse Purpan, Toulouse, France
- CHU Toulouse, Hôpital Purpan, Laboratoire de Virologie, Toulouse, France
| | - Christophe Pasquier
- INSERM, U563, Toulouse, France
- Université Toulouse III Paul-Sabatier, Centre de Physiopathologie de Toulouse Purpan, Toulouse, France
- CHU Toulouse, Hôpital Purpan, Laboratoire de Virologie, Toulouse, France
| | - Bruno Marchou
- Université Toulouse III Paul-Sabatier, Centre de Physiopathologie de Toulouse Purpan, Toulouse, France
- CHU Toulouse, Hôpital Purpan, Service des Maladies Infectieuses et Tropicales, Toulouse, France
| | - Patrice Massip
- Université Toulouse III Paul-Sabatier, Centre de Physiopathologie de Toulouse Purpan, Toulouse, France
- CHU Toulouse, Hôpital Purpan, Service des Maladies Infectieuses et Tropicales, Toulouse, France
| | - Jacques Izopet
- INSERM, U563, Toulouse, France
- Université Toulouse III Paul-Sabatier, Centre de Physiopathologie de Toulouse Purpan, Toulouse, France
- CHU Toulouse, Hôpital Purpan, Laboratoire de Virologie, Toulouse, France
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Virus entry via the alternative coreceptors CCR3 and FPRL1 differs by human immunodeficiency virus type 1 subtype. J Virol 2009; 83:8353-63. [PMID: 19553323 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.00780-09] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1) infects target cells by binding to CD4 and a chemokine receptor, most commonly CCR5. CXCR4 is a frequent alternative coreceptor (CoR) in subtype B and D HIV-1 infection, but the importance of many other alternative CoRs remains elusive. We have analyzed HIV-1 envelope (Env) proteins from 66 individuals infected with the major subtypes of HIV-1 to determine if virus entry into highly permissive NP-2 cell lines expressing most known alternative CoRs differed by HIV-1 subtype. We also performed linear regression analysis to determine if virus entry via the major CoR CCR5 correlated with use of any alternative CoR and if this correlation differed by subtype. Virus pseudotyped with subtype B Env showed robust entry via CCR3 that was highly correlated with CCR5 entry efficiency. By contrast, viruses pseudotyped with subtype A and C Env proteins were able to use the recently described alternative CoR FPRL1 more efficiently than CCR3, and use of FPRL1 was correlated with CCR5 entry. Subtype D Env was unable to use either CCR3 or FPRL1 efficiently, a unique pattern of alternative CoR use. These results suggest that each subtype of circulating HIV-1 may be subject to somewhat different selective pressures for Env-mediated entry into target cells and suggest that CCR3 may be used as a surrogate CoR by subtype B while FPRL1 may be used as a surrogate CoR by subtypes A and C. These data may provide insight into development of resistance to CCR5-targeted entry inhibitors and alternative entry pathways for each HIV-1 subtype.
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Salazar-Gonzalez JF, Salazar MG, Keele BF, Learn GH, Giorgi EE, Li H, Decker JM, Wang S, Baalwa J, Kraus MH, Parrish NF, Shaw KS, Guffey MB, Bar KJ, Davis KL, Ochsenbauer-Jambor C, Kappes JC, Saag MS, Cohen MS, Mulenga J, Derdeyn CA, Allen S, Hunter E, Markowitz M, Hraber P, Perelson AS, Bhattacharya T, Haynes BF, Korber BT, Hahn BH, Shaw GM. Genetic identity, biological phenotype, and evolutionary pathways of transmitted/founder viruses in acute and early HIV-1 infection. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2009; 206:1273-89. [PMID: 19487424 PMCID: PMC2715054 DOI: 10.1084/jem.20090378] [Citation(s) in RCA: 602] [Impact Index Per Article: 40.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/09/2023]
Abstract
Identification of full-length transmitted HIV-1 genomes could be instrumental in HIV-1 pathogenesis, microbicide, and vaccine research by enabling the direct analysis of those viruses actually responsible for productive clinical infection. We show in 12 acutely infected subjects (9 clade B and 3 clade C) that complete HIV-1 genomes of transmitted/founder viruses can be inferred by single genome amplification and sequencing of plasma virion RNA. This allowed for the molecular cloning and biological analysis of transmitted/founder viruses and a comprehensive genome-wide assessment of the genetic imprint left on the evolving virus quasispecies by a composite of host selection pressures. Transmitted viruses encoded intact canonical genes (gag-pol-vif-vpr-tat-rev-vpu-env-nef) and replicated efficiently in primary human CD4+ T lymphocytes but much less so in monocyte-derived macrophages. Transmitted viruses were CD4 and CCR5 tropic and demonstrated concealment of coreceptor binding surfaces of the envelope bridging sheet and variable loop 3. 2 mo after infection, transmitted/founder viruses in three subjects were nearly completely replaced by viruses differing at two to five highly selected genomic loci; by 12–20 mo, viruses exhibited concentrated mutations at 17–34 discrete locations. These findings reveal viral properties associated with mucosal HIV-1 transmission and a limited set of rapidly evolving adaptive mutations driven primarily, but not exclusively, by early cytotoxic T cell responses.
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Abstract
PURPOSE OF REVIEW To present recent information on the evolution of coreceptor use from CCR5 alone to CCR5 and CXCR4, the impact CCR5 inhibitors have on this process, and new insights into HIV-1 binding to CD4 and CCR5. RECENT FINDINGS The findings that are summarized include resistance to CCR5 inhibitors, genotypic predictors of coreceptor use, the link between coreceptor use and cell tropism, and new data on CCR5 structure and function. SUMMARY Resistance to CCR5 inhibitors is uncommon, and frequently involves selection of minor populations of R5X4 virus. Genotypic predictors of coreceptor use need to take into account the entire envelope sequence, not just V3. Genetic polymorphisms in humans that affect CCR5 or chemokines that bind CCR5 affect not only virus entry but also immune reconstitution.
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Giri MS, Nebozyhn M, Raymond A, Gekonge B, Hancock A, Creer S, Nicols C, Yousef M, Foulkes AS, Mounzer K, Shull J, Silvestri G, Kostman J, Collman RG, Showe L, Montaner LJ. Circulating monocytes in HIV-1-infected viremic subjects exhibit an antiapoptosis gene signature and virus- and host-mediated apoptosis resistance. THE JOURNAL OF IMMUNOLOGY 2009; 182:4459-70. [PMID: 19299747 DOI: 10.4049/jimmunol.0801450] [Citation(s) in RCA: 71] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/24/2023]
Abstract
Mechanisms that may allow circulating monocytes to persist as CD4 T cells diminish in HIV-1 infection have not been investigated. We have characterized steady-state gene expression signatures in circulating monocytes from HIV-infected subjects and have identified a stable antiapoptosis gene signature comprised of 38 genes associated with p53, CD40L, TNF, and MAPK signaling networks. The significance of this gene signature is indicated by our demonstration of cadmium chloride- or Fas ligand-induced apoptosis resistance in circulating monocytes in contrast to increasing apoptosis in CD4 T cells from the same infected subjects. As potential mechanisms in vivo, we show that monocyte CCR5 binding by HIV-1 virus or agonist chemokines serves as independent viral and host modulators resulting in increased monocyte apoptosis resistance in vitro. We also show evidence for concordance between circulating monocyte apoptosis-related gene expression in HIV-1 infection in vivo and available datasets following viral infection or envelope exposure in monocyte-derived macrophages in vitro. The identification of in vivo gene expression associated with monocyte resistance to apoptosis is of relevance to AIDS pathogenesis since it would contribute to: 1) maintaining viability of infection targets and long-term reservoirs of HIV-1 infection in the monocyte/macrophage populations, and 2) protecting a cell subset critical to host survival despite sustained high viral replication.
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Alexaki A, Liu Y, Wigdahl B. Cellular reservoirs of HIV-1 and their role in viral persistence. Curr HIV Res 2008; 6:388-400. [PMID: 18855649 DOI: 10.2174/157016208785861195] [Citation(s) in RCA: 242] [Impact Index Per Article: 15.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
A major obstacle in human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1) eradication is the ability of the virus to remain latent in a subpopulation of the cells it infects. Latently infected cells can escape the viral immune response and persist for long periods of time, despite the presence of successful highly active antiretroviral therapy (HAART). Given the appropriate stimulus, latently infected cells can reactivate and start producing infectious virions. The susceptibility of these cell populations to HIV-1, their life span, their proliferative capacity, and their ability to periodically produce infectious virus subsequent to alterations in cellular physiology and/or immunologic controls are critical issues which determine the contribution of these cells to viral persistence. Memory CD4+ T cells due to the long life span, which may be several years, and their ability to reactivate upon encounter with their cognate antigen or other stimulation, are considered a critical reservoir for maintenance of latent HIV-1 proviral DNA. Cells of the monocyte-macrophage lineage, which originate in the bone marrow (BM), are of particular importance in HIV-1 persistence due to their ability to cross the blood-brain barrier (BBB) and spread HIV-1 infection in the immunoprivileged central nervous system (CNS). Hematopoietic progenitor cells (HPCs) are also a potential HIV-1 reservoir, as several studies have shown that CD34+ HPCs carrying proviral DNA can be found in vivo in a subpopulation of HIV-1-infected patients. The ability of HPCs to proliferate and potentially generate clonal populations of infected cells of the monocyte-macrophage lineage may be crucial in HIV-1 dissemination. The contribution of these and other cell populations in HIV-1 persistence, as well as the possible strategies to eliminate latently infected cells are critically examined in this review.
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Affiliation(s)
- Aikaterini Alexaki
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Institute for Molecular Medicine and Infectious Disease, Drexel University College of Medicine, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania 19129, USA
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