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Rossheim ME, LoParco CR, Tillett KK, Treffers RD, Livingston MD, Berg CJ. Intoxicating Cannabis Products in Vape Shops: United States, 2023. Am J Prev Med 2024:S0749-3797(24)00229-0. [PMID: 39002889 DOI: 10.1016/j.amepre.2024.07.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/26/2024] [Revised: 07/08/2024] [Accepted: 07/08/2024] [Indexed: 07/15/2024]
Abstract
INTRODUCTION Since 2020, many types of intoxicating cannabis products have entered the U.S. market. Hemp-derived intoxicating cannabis products, including hexahydrocannabinol and delta-8 tetrahydrocannabinol, pose concerns regarding their youth-oriented marketing, potency, and health effects. Some states have attempted to ban, restrict, or regulate their sale. However, the effectiveness of these laws and their enforcement is unclear. This study provides insights into the retail landscape of intoxicating cannabis products sold across the U.S. METHODS In November-December 2023, researchers systematically identified, called, and completed brief surveys with 520 U.S. vape shops: (n=10 per state, n=10 in District of Columbia, n=10 in Puerto Rico). The survey assessed the availability of 6 commonly sold intoxicating cannabis products. Data were analyzed by regulatory context. Analyses were conducted in 2024. RESULTS A total of 74% of vape shops sold any intoxicating cannabis products. Intoxicating cannabis products were sold in 43% of shops in states with delta-8 tetrahydrocannabinol bans, 53% in states with substantial regulations (intended to support safe use), 90% in states with significant restrictions (intended to limit potency/availability), and 92% in states with limited/no regulations. Intoxicating cannabis products were sold in vape shops in each state except Washington and Alaska, both of which banned hemp-derived intoxicating cannabis products and had active retail of legalized nonmedical cannabis. CONCLUSIONS Taking licensed dispensaries into consideration, intoxicating cannabis products can be purchased in retail stores located in all 50 states; Washington, District of Columbia; and Puerto Rico. Intoxicating cannabis products are widely available in vape shops, even in most states with relevant bans/restrictions. Enhanced laws, surveillance, and enforcement are needed. The 2024 Farm Bill and state laws should explicitly prohibit hemp-derived intoxicating cannabis products.
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Affiliation(s)
- Matthew E Rossheim
- Department of Health Administration and Health Policy, School of Public Health, The University of North Texas Health Science Center, Fort Worth, Texas.
| | - Cassidy R LoParco
- Department of Prevention and Community Health, Milken Institute School of Public Health, George Washington University, Washington, District of Columbia
| | - Kayla K Tillett
- Department of Health Administration and Health Policy, School of Public Health, The University of North Texas Health Science Center, Fort Worth, Texas
| | - Ryan D Treffers
- Pacific Institute for Research and Evaluation, Santa Cruz, California
| | - Melvin D Livingston
- Department of Behavioral Sciences and Health Education, Rollins School of Public Health, Emory University, Atlanta, Georgia
| | - Carla J Berg
- Department of Prevention and Community Health, Milken Institute School of Public Health, George Washington University, Washington, District of Columbia
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2
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Timmerman A, Balcaen M, Coopman V, Degreef M, Pottie E, Stove CP. Activity-based detection of synthetic cannabinoid receptor agonists in plant materials. Harm Reduct J 2024; 21:127. [PMID: 38951904 PMCID: PMC11218095 DOI: 10.1186/s12954-024-01044-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/23/2024] [Accepted: 06/18/2024] [Indexed: 07/03/2024] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Since late 2019, fortification of 'regular' cannabis plant material with synthetic cannabinoid receptor agonists (SCRAs) has become a notable phenomenon on the drug market. As many SCRAs pose a higher health risk than genuine cannabis, recognizing SCRA-adulterated cannabis is important from a harm reduction perspective. However, this is not always an easy task as adulterated cannabis may only be distinguished from genuine cannabis by dedicated, often expensive and time-consuming analytical techniques. In addition, the dynamic nature of the SCRA market renders identification of fortified samples a challenging task. Therefore, we established and applied an in vitro cannabinoid receptor 1 (CB1) activity-based procedure to screen plant material for the presence of SCRAs. METHODS The assay principle relies on the functional complementation of a split-nanoluciferase following recruitment of β-arrestin 2 to activated CB1. A straightforward sample preparation, encompassing methanolic extraction and dilution, was optimized for plant matrices, including cannabis, spiked with 5 µg/mg of the SCRA CP55,940. RESULTS The bioassay successfully detected all samples of a set (n = 24) of analytically confirmed authentic Spice products, additionally providing relevant information on the 'strength' of a preparation and whether different samples may have originated from separate batches or possibly the same production batch. Finally, the methodology was applied to assess the occurrence of SCRA adulteration in a large set (n = 252) of herbal materials collected at an international dance festival. This did not reveal any positives, i.e. there were no samples that yielded a relevant CB1 activation. CONCLUSION In summary, we established SCRA screening of herbal materials as a new application for the activity-based CB1 bioassay. The simplicity of the sample preparation, the rapid results and the universal character of the bioassay render it an effective and future-proof tool for evaluating herbal materials for the presence of SCRAs, which is relevant in the context of harm reduction.
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Affiliation(s)
- Axelle Timmerman
- Laboratory of Toxicology, Department of Bioanalysis, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Ghent University, Ghent, Belgium
| | - Margot Balcaen
- Belgian Early Warning System on Drugs, Unit Illicit drugs, Health information, Sciensano, Brussels, Belgium
| | | | - Maarten Degreef
- Belgian Early Warning System on Drugs, Unit Illicit drugs, Health information, Sciensano, Brussels, Belgium
| | - Eline Pottie
- Laboratory of Toxicology, Department of Bioanalysis, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Ghent University, Ghent, Belgium
| | - Christophe P Stove
- Laboratory of Toxicology, Department of Bioanalysis, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Ghent University, Ghent, Belgium.
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3
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Love AC, Purdy TN, Hubert FM, Kirwan EJ, Holland DC, Moore BS. Discovery of Latent Cannabichromene Cyclase Activity in Marine Bacterial Flavoenzymes. ACS Synth Biol 2024; 13:1343-1354. [PMID: 38459634 PMCID: PMC11031283 DOI: 10.1021/acssynbio.4c00051] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 03/10/2024]
Abstract
Production of phytocannabinoids remains an area of active scientific interest due to the growing use of cannabis by the public and the underexplored therapeutic potential of the over 100 minor cannabinoids. While phytocannabinoids are biosynthesized by Cannabis sativa and other select plants and fungi, structural analogs and stereoisomers can only be accessed synthetically or through heterologous expression. To date, the bioproduction of cannabinoids has required eukaryotic hosts like yeast since key, native oxidative cyclization enzymes do not express well in bacterial hosts. Here, we report that two marine bacterial flavoenzymes, Clz9 and Tcz9, perform oxidative cyclization reactions on phytocannabinoid precursors to efficiently generate cannabichromene scaffolds. Furthermore, Clz9 and Tcz9 express robustly in bacteria and display significant tolerance to organic solvent and high substrate loading, thereby enabling fermentative production of cannabichromenic acid in Escherichia coli and indicating their potential for biocatalyst development.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anna C. Love
- Center for Marine Biotechnology and Biomedicine, Scripps Institution of Oceanography, University of California San Diego, La Jolla, California 92093, United States
| | - Trevor N. Purdy
- Center for Marine Biotechnology and Biomedicine, Scripps Institution of Oceanography, University of California San Diego, La Jolla, California 92093, United States
| | - Felix M. Hubert
- Center for Marine Biotechnology and Biomedicine, Scripps Institution of Oceanography, University of California San Diego, La Jolla, California 92093, United States
| | - Ella J. Kirwan
- Center for Marine Biotechnology and Biomedicine, Scripps Institution of Oceanography, University of California San Diego, La Jolla, California 92093, United States
| | - Darren C. Holland
- Center for Marine Biotechnology and Biomedicine, Scripps Institution of Oceanography, University of California San Diego, La Jolla, California 92093, United States
| | - Bradley S. Moore
- Center for Marine Biotechnology and Biomedicine, Scripps Institution of Oceanography, University of California San Diego, La Jolla, California 92093, United States
- Skaggs School of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of California San Diego, La Jolla, California 92093, United States
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Malík M, Doskočil I, Pavlík J, Ulman M, Praus L, Kouřimský P, Lampová B, Kuklina A, Tlustoš P. Selective Cytotoxicity of Medical Cannabis ( Cannabis sativa L.) Extracts Across the Whole Vegetation Cycle Under Various Hydroponic and Nutritional Treatments. Cannabis Cannabinoid Res 2024; 9:409-420. [PMID: 36459627 DOI: 10.1089/can.2022.0243] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/05/2022] Open
Abstract
Introduction: The use of Cannabis sativa L. in health care requires stringent care for the optimal production of the bioactive compounds. However, plant phenotypes and the content of secondary metabolites, such as phytocannabinoids, are strongly influenced by external factors, such as nutrient availability. It has been shown that phytocannabinoids can exhibit selective cytotoxicity against various cancer cell lines while protecting healthy tissue from apoptosis. Research Aim: This study aimed to clarify the cytotoxic effect of cannabis extracts on colorectal cell lines by identifying the main active compounds and determining their abundance and activity across all developmental stages of medical cannabis plants cultivated under hydroponic conditions. Materials and Methods: Dimethyl sulfoxide extracts of medical cannabis plants bearing the genotype classified as chemotype I were analyzed by high-performance liquid chromatography, and their cytotoxic activity was determined by measuring cell viability by methylthiazolyldiphenyl-tetrazolium bromide assay on the human colon cancer cell lines, Caco-2 and HT-29, and the normal human epithelial cell line, CCD 841 CoN. Results: The most abundant phytocannabinoid in cannabis extracts was tetrahydrocannabinolic acid (THCA). Its maximum concentrations were reached from the 7th to the 13th plant vegetation week, depending on the nutritional cycle and treatment. Almost all extracts were cytotoxic to the human colorectal cancer (CRC) cell line HT-29 at lower concentrations than the other cell lines. The phytocannabinoids that most affected the cytotoxicity of individual extracts on HT-29 were cannabigerol, Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol, cannabidiol, cannabigerolic acid, and THCA. The tested model showed almost 70% influence of these cannabinoids. However, THCA alone influenced the cytotoxicity of individual extracts by nearly 65%. Conclusions: Phytocannabinoid extracts from plants of the THCA-dominant chemotype interacted synergistically and showed selective cytotoxicity against the CRC cell line, HT-29. This positive extract response indicates possible therapeutic value.
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Affiliation(s)
- Matěj Malík
- Department of Agroenvironmental Chemistry and Plant Nutrition, Nutrition and Dietetics, Faculty of Agrobiology, Food and Natural Resources, Czech University of Life Sciences Prague, Praha, Czech Republic
| | - Ivo Doskočil
- Department of Microbiology, Nutrition and Dietetics, Faculty of Agrobiology, Food and Natural Resources, Czech University of Life Sciences Prague, Praha, Czech Republic
| | - Jan Pavlík
- Department of Information Technologies, Faculty of Economics and Management, Czech University of Life Sciences Prague, Praha, Czech Republic
| | - Miloš Ulman
- Department of Information Technologies, Faculty of Economics and Management, Czech University of Life Sciences Prague, Praha, Czech Republic
| | - Lukáš Praus
- Department of Agroenvironmental Chemistry and Plant Nutrition, Nutrition and Dietetics, Faculty of Agrobiology, Food and Natural Resources, Czech University of Life Sciences Prague, Praha, Czech Republic
| | - Pavel Kouřimský
- Department of Microbiology, Nutrition and Dietetics, Faculty of Agrobiology, Food and Natural Resources, Czech University of Life Sciences Prague, Praha, Czech Republic
| | - Barbora Lampová
- Department of Microbiology, Nutrition and Dietetics, Faculty of Agrobiology, Food and Natural Resources, Czech University of Life Sciences Prague, Praha, Czech Republic
| | - Alexandra Kuklina
- Department of Agroenvironmental Chemistry and Plant Nutrition, Nutrition and Dietetics, Faculty of Agrobiology, Food and Natural Resources, Czech University of Life Sciences Prague, Praha, Czech Republic
| | - Pavel Tlustoš
- Department of Agroenvironmental Chemistry and Plant Nutrition, Nutrition and Dietetics, Faculty of Agrobiology, Food and Natural Resources, Czech University of Life Sciences Prague, Praha, Czech Republic
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Gagné V, Boucher N, Desgagné-Penix I. Cannabis Roots: Therapeutic, Biotechnological and Environmental Aspects. Cannabis Cannabinoid Res 2024; 9:35-48. [PMID: 38252502 DOI: 10.1089/can.2023.0168] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/24/2024] Open
Abstract
Since the legalization of recreational cannabis in Canada in 2018, the number of licenses for this crop has increased significantly, resulting in an increase in waste generated. Nevertheless, cannabis roots were once used for their therapeutic properties, indicating that they could be valued today rather than dismissed. This review will focus on both traditional therapeutic aspects and potential use of roots in modern medicine while detailing the main studies on active phytomolecules found in cannabis roots. The environmental impact of cannabis cultivation and current knowledge of the root-associated microbiome are also presented as well as their potential applications in biotechnology and phytoremediation. Thus, several high added-value applications of cannabis roots resulting from scientific advances in recent years can be considered to remove them from discarded residues.
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Affiliation(s)
- Valérie Gagné
- Department of Chemistry, Biochemistry and Physics, University of Québec at Trois-Rivières, Trois- Rivières, Québec, Canada
| | - Nathalie Boucher
- Department of Chemistry, Biochemistry and Physics, University of Québec at Trois-Rivières, Trois- Rivières, Québec, Canada
- Plant Biology Research Group, Trois-Rivières, Québec, Canada
| | - Isabel Desgagné-Penix
- Department of Chemistry, Biochemistry and Physics, University of Québec at Trois-Rivières, Trois- Rivières, Québec, Canada
- Plant Biology Research Group, Trois-Rivières, Québec, Canada
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6
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Brikenstein N, Birenboim M, Kenigsbuch D, Shimshoni JA. Optimization of Trimming Techniques for Enhancing Cannabinoid and Terpene Content in Medical Cannabis Inflorescences. Med Cannabis Cannabinoids 2024; 7:111-118. [PMID: 39015609 PMCID: PMC11249524 DOI: 10.1159/000539192] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/13/2024] [Accepted: 04/25/2024] [Indexed: 07/18/2024] Open
Abstract
Introduction Cannabis sativa L. inflorescences are widely used in the medicinal field as treatments for a variety of symptoms and illnesses due to their unique phytochemicals such as cannabinoids and terpenes. Common postharvest procedures for cannabis inflorescence include trimming, followed by drying, curing, and subsequent storage. The postharvest trimming step, particularly its timing (pre- or post-drying) and the extent of trimming, is not optimally refined in terms of its impact on the cannabinoid and terpene content. In this study, our objective was to identify the optimal trimming conditions for a commercially available medicinal cannabis hybrid chemovar, with the goal of maximizing its cannabinoid and terpene content. Methods To achieve this, we investigated the effects of pre- versus post-drying trimming and evaluated the impact of mild versus aggressive trimming prior to drying on the cannabinoid and terpene profiles using liquid and gas chromatography. Results Our results indicated that pre-drying mild trimming yielded the highest cannabinoid concentration, possibly due to optimal balance between stress signals and precursor influx from the sugar leaves to the inflorescence. On the other, post-drying trimming yielded the highest terpene content. Conclusion Identifying the optimal trimming conditions that maximize both cannabinoid and terpene levels in cannabis is challenging. Therefore, growers face a decision in their trimming practices: to prioritize either enhanced cannabinoid content or increased aromatic terpene concentrations, as optimizing for both simultaneously appears to be difficult.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nimrod Brikenstein
- Department of Food Science, Institute for Postharvest and Food Sciences, Agricultural Research Organization, Volcani Center, Rishon LeZion, Israel
- Department of Plant Science, The Robert H Smith Faculty of Agriculture, Food and Environment, The Hebrew University, Rehovot, Israel
| | - Matan Birenboim
- Department of Food Science, Institute for Postharvest and Food Sciences, Agricultural Research Organization, Volcani Center, Rishon LeZion, Israel
- Department of Plant Science, The Robert H Smith Faculty of Agriculture, Food and Environment, The Hebrew University, Rehovot, Israel
| | - David Kenigsbuch
- Department of Postharvest Science, Institute for Postharvest and Food Sciences, Agricultural Research Organization, Volcani Center, Rishon LeZion, Israel
| | - Jakob A. Shimshoni
- Department of Food Science, Institute for Postharvest and Food Sciences, Agricultural Research Organization, Volcani Center, Rishon LeZion, Israel
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7
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Cheng YC, Kerrigan S. Factors influencing the in situ formation of Δ9-THC from cannabidiol during GC-MS analysis. Drug Test Anal 2023. [PMID: 38049934 DOI: 10.1002/dta.3617] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/13/2023] [Revised: 11/08/2023] [Accepted: 11/09/2023] [Indexed: 12/06/2023]
Abstract
Gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS) is widely used for the identification of cannabinoids in seized plant material. Conditions used for instrumental analysis should maximize decarboxylation, while minimizing the in situ production of Δ9-THC inside the GC inlet. In this study, decarboxylation of the acidic Δ9-THC precursor and in situ degradation of cannabidiol (CBD) were investigated using seven commercial GC liners with different deactivation chemistries and geometries. While the inlet temperature was previously optimized at 250°C in a previously validated assay, we systematically examined the temperature-dependent decarboxylation of tetrahydrocannabinolic acid-A (Δ9-THCA-A) and cyclization of CBD between 230°C and 310°C using different liners using favorable and unfavorable conditions. Significant differences in decarboxylation rate and CBD cyclization were observed between different liner types. While no temperature-dependent differences in decarboxylation rate were observed within liner type, liner-dependent differences were observed (α = 0.05), particularly between those with different geometry. In contrast, temperature and liner-dependent differences were observed for in situ formation of Δ9-THC (α = 0.05). This was influenced by liner geometry and to a smaller extent by surface deactivation. Effects were exacerbated with liner usage. While significant differences were observed using new and used GC liners, differences between liners of the same type but different lot numbers were not observed. Inter-instrument differences using the same liner were also evaluated and had minimal effect. Liner- and temperature-dependent effects were also confirmed using more than 20 cannabis plant extracts. Careful selection of liner, inlet conditions, and regular preventive maintenance can mitigate the risks associated with in situ formation Δ9-THC from CBD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ya-Chih Cheng
- Department of Forensic Science, Sam Houston State University, Huntsville, Texas, USA
| | - Sarah Kerrigan
- Department of Forensic Science, Sam Houston State University, Huntsville, Texas, USA
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Park C, Zuo J, Gil MC, Löbenberg R, Lee BJ. Investigation of Cannabinoid Acid/Cyclodextrin Inclusion Complex for Improving Physicochemical and Biological Performance. Pharmaceutics 2023; 15:2533. [PMID: 38004513 PMCID: PMC10675134 DOI: 10.3390/pharmaceutics15112533] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/04/2023] [Revised: 10/24/2023] [Accepted: 10/24/2023] [Indexed: 11/26/2023] Open
Abstract
This study aimed to investigate the enhancement of cannabinoid acid solubility and stability through the formation of a cannabinoid acid/cyclodextrin (CD) inclusion complex. Two cannabinoid acids, tetrahydro-cannabinolic acid (THCA) and cannabidiolic acid (CBDA), were selected as a model drug along with five types of CD: α-cyclodextrin (α-CD), β-cyclodextrin (β-CD), γ-cyclodextrin (γ-CD), hydroxypropyl-β-cyclodextrin (HP-β-CD), and methylated-β-cyclodextrin (M-β-CD). Phase solubility studies were conducted using various types of CD to determine the complex stoichiometry. The preparation methods of the CD inclusion complex were optimized by adjusting the loading pH solution and the drying processes (spray-drying, freeze-drying, spray-freeze-drying). The drying process of the cannabinoid acid/M-β-CD inclusion complex was further optimized through the spray-freeze-drying method. These CD complexes were characterized using solubility determination, differential scanning calorimetry (DSC), field-emission scanning electron microscopy (FE-SEM), X-ray diffraction (XRD), and 1H NMR spectroscopy. DSC, XRD, and FE-SEM studies confirmed the non-crystalline state of the cannabinoid acid/CD inclusion complex. The permeation of THCA or CBDA from the M-β-CD spray-freeze-dried inclusion complex was highly improved compared to those of cannabis ethanolic extracts under simulated physiological conditions. The stability of the cannabinoid acid/M-β-CD inclusion complex was maintained for 7 days in a simulated physiological condition. Furthermore, the minimum inhibitory concentration of cannabinoid acid/M-β-CD inclusion complex had superior anti-cancer activity in MCF-7 breast cancer cell lines compared to cannabinoid acid alone. The improved physicochemical and biological performances indicated that these CD inclusion complexes could provide a promising option for loading lipophilic cannabinoids in cannabis-derived drug products.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chulhun Park
- College of Pharmacy, Jeju National University, Jeju 63243, Republic of Korea;
| | - Jieyu Zuo
- Faculty of Pharmacy & Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Alberta, Edmonton, AB T6G 2E1, Canada; (J.Z.); (R.L.)
| | - Myung-Chul Gil
- College of Pharmacy, Ajou University, Suwon 16499, Republic of Korea;
- PLUTO Inc., Seongnam 13453, Republic of Korea
| | - Raimar Löbenberg
- Faculty of Pharmacy & Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Alberta, Edmonton, AB T6G 2E1, Canada; (J.Z.); (R.L.)
| | - Beom-Jin Lee
- College of Pharmacy, Ajou University, Suwon 16499, Republic of Korea;
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Filipiuc LE, Ştefănescu R, Solcan C, Ciorpac M, Szilagyi A, Cojocaru D, Stanciu GD, Creangă I, Caratașu CC, Ababei DC, Gavrila RE, Timofte AD, Filipiuc SI, Bild V. Acute Toxicity and Pharmacokinetic Profile of an EU-GMP-Certified Cannabis sativa L. in Rodents. Pharmaceuticals (Basel) 2023; 16:ph16050694. [PMID: 37242477 DOI: 10.3390/ph16050694] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/04/2023] [Revised: 04/26/2023] [Accepted: 04/30/2023] [Indexed: 05/28/2023] Open
Abstract
The conundrum of Cannabis sativa's applications for therapeutical purposes is set apart by the hundreds of known and commercially available strains, the social, cultural and historical context, and the legalization of its use for medical purposes in various jurisdictions around the globe. In an era where targeted therapies are continuously being developed and have become the norm, it is imperative to conduct standardized, controlled studies on strains currently cultivated under Good Manufacturing Practices (GMP) certification, a standard that guarantees the quality requirements for modern medical and therapeutic use. Thus, the aim of our study is to evaluate the acute toxicity of a 15.6% THC: <1% CBD, EU-GMP certified, Cannabis sativa L. in rodents, following the OECD acute oral toxicity guidelines, and to provide an overview of its pharmacokinetic profile. Groups of healthy female Sprague-Dawley rats were treated orally with a stepwise incremental dose, each step using three animals. The absence or presence of plant-induced mortality in rats dosed at one step determined the next step. For the EU GMP-certified Cannabis sativa L. investigated, we determined an oral LD50 value of over 5000 mg/kg in rats and a human equivalent oral dose of ≈806.45 mg/kg. Additionally, no significant clinical signs of toxicity or gross pathological findings were observed. According to our data, the toxicology, safety and pharmacokinetic profile of the tested EU-GMP-certified Cannabis sativa L. support further investigations through efficacy and chronic toxicity studies in preparation for potential future clinical applications and especially for the treatment of chronic pain.
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Affiliation(s)
- Leontina-Elena Filipiuc
- Advanced Research and Development Center for Experimental Medicine (CEMEX), Grigore T. Popa University of Medicine and Pharmacy, 16 Universitatii Street, 700115 Iasi, Romania
| | - Raluca Ştefănescu
- Advanced Research and Development Center for Experimental Medicine (CEMEX), Grigore T. Popa University of Medicine and Pharmacy, 16 Universitatii Street, 700115 Iasi, Romania
| | - Carmen Solcan
- Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Ion Ionescu de la Brad University of Life Sciences, 700490 Iasi, Romania
| | - Mitică Ciorpac
- Advanced Research and Development Center for Experimental Medicine (CEMEX), Grigore T. Popa University of Medicine and Pharmacy, 16 Universitatii Street, 700115 Iasi, Romania
| | - Andrei Szilagyi
- Advanced Research and Development Center for Experimental Medicine (CEMEX), Grigore T. Popa University of Medicine and Pharmacy, 16 Universitatii Street, 700115 Iasi, Romania
| | - Dana Cojocaru
- Advanced Research and Development Center for Experimental Medicine (CEMEX), Grigore T. Popa University of Medicine and Pharmacy, 16 Universitatii Street, 700115 Iasi, Romania
| | - Gabriela Dumitrita Stanciu
- Advanced Research and Development Center for Experimental Medicine (CEMEX), Grigore T. Popa University of Medicine and Pharmacy, 16 Universitatii Street, 700115 Iasi, Romania
| | - Ioana Creangă
- Advanced Research and Development Center for Experimental Medicine (CEMEX), Grigore T. Popa University of Medicine and Pharmacy, 16 Universitatii Street, 700115 Iasi, Romania
| | - Cătălin-Cezar Caratașu
- Advanced Research and Development Center for Experimental Medicine (CEMEX), Grigore T. Popa University of Medicine and Pharmacy, 16 Universitatii Street, 700115 Iasi, Romania
| | - Daniela-Carmen Ababei
- Advanced Research and Development Center for Experimental Medicine (CEMEX), Grigore T. Popa University of Medicine and Pharmacy, 16 Universitatii Street, 700115 Iasi, Romania
- Pharmacodynamics and Clinical Pharmacy Department, Grigore T. Popa University of Medicine and Pharmacy, 16 Universitatii Street, 700115 Iasi, Romania
| | - Roxana-Elena Gavrila
- Advanced Research and Development Center for Experimental Medicine (CEMEX), Grigore T. Popa University of Medicine and Pharmacy, 16 Universitatii Street, 700115 Iasi, Romania
| | - Andrei-Daniel Timofte
- Histology Department, Grigore T. Popa University of Medicine and Pharmacy, 16 Universitatii Street, 700115 Iasi, Romania
| | - Silviu-Iulian Filipiuc
- Advanced Research and Development Center for Experimental Medicine (CEMEX), Grigore T. Popa University of Medicine and Pharmacy, 16 Universitatii Street, 700115 Iasi, Romania
| | - Veronica Bild
- Advanced Research and Development Center for Experimental Medicine (CEMEX), Grigore T. Popa University of Medicine and Pharmacy, 16 Universitatii Street, 700115 Iasi, Romania
- Pharmacodynamics and Clinical Pharmacy Department, Grigore T. Popa University of Medicine and Pharmacy, 16 Universitatii Street, 700115 Iasi, Romania
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10
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Antimicrobial and Cytotoxic Effects of Cannabinoids: An Updated Review with Future Perspectives and Current Challenges. Pharmaceuticals (Basel) 2022; 15:ph15101228. [PMID: 36297340 PMCID: PMC9607911 DOI: 10.3390/ph15101228] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/03/2022] [Revised: 09/21/2022] [Accepted: 09/22/2022] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
The development of new antibiotics is urgently needed to combat the threat of bacterial resistance. New classes of compounds that have novel properties are urgently needed for the development of effective antimicrobial agents. The extract of Cannabis sativa L. has been used to treat multiple ailments since ancient times. Its bioactivity is largely attributed to the cannabinoids found in its plant. Researchers are currently searching for new anti-infective agents that can treat various infections. Although its phytocannabinoid ingredients have a wide range of medical benefits beyond the treatment of infections, they are primarily associated to psychotropic effects. Different cannabinoids have been demonstrated to be helpful against harmful bacteria, including Gram-positive bacteria. Moreover, combination therapy involving the use of different antibiotics has shown synergism and broad-spectrum activity. The purpose of this review is to gather current data on the actions of Cannabis sativa (C. sativa) extracts and its primary constituents such as terpenes and cannabinoids towards pathogens in order to determine their antimicrobial properties and cytotoxic effects together with current challenges and future perspectives in biomedical application.
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WANG M, ZHANG W, WANG N. Covalent flavoproteins: types, occurrence, biogenesis and catalytic mechanisms. Chin J Nat Med 2022; 20:749-760. [DOI: 10.1016/s1875-5364(22)60194-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/01/2022] [Indexed: 11/03/2022]
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12
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Salehi A, Puchalski K, Shokoohinia Y, Zolfaghari B, Asgary S. Differentiating Cannabis Products: Drugs, Food, and Supplements. Front Pharmacol 2022; 13:906038. [PMID: 35833025 PMCID: PMC9271575 DOI: 10.3389/fphar.2022.906038] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/28/2022] [Accepted: 06/01/2022] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
Abstract
“Hemp” refers to non-intoxicating, low delta-9 tetrahydrocannabinol (Δ9-THC) cultivars of Cannabis sativa L. “Marijuana” refers to cultivars with high levels of Δ9-THC, the primary psychoactive cannabinoid found in the plant and a federally controlled substance used for both recreational and therapeutic purposes. Although marijuana and hemp belong to the same genus and species, they differ in terms of chemical and genetic composition, production practices, product uses, and regulatory status. Hemp seed and hemp seed oil have been shown to have valuable nutritional capacity. Cannabidiol (CBD), a non-intoxicating phytocannabinoid with a wide therapeutic index and acceptable side effect profile, has demonstrated high medicinal potential in some conditions. Several countries and states have facilitated the use of THC-dominant medical cannabis for certain conditions, while other countries continue to ban all forms of cannabis regardless of cannabinoid profile or low psychoactive potential. Today, differentiating between hemp and marijuana in the laboratory is no longer a difficult process. Certain thin layer chromatography (TLC) methods can rapidly screen for cannabinoids, and several gas and liquid chromatography techniques have been developed for precise quantification of phytocannabinoids in plant extracts and biological samples. Geographic regulations and testing guidelines for cannabis continue to evolve. As they are improved and clarified, we can better employ the appropriate applications of this uniquely versatile plant from an informed scientific perspective.
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Affiliation(s)
- Arash Salehi
- Department of Pharmacognosy, School of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences, Isfahan University of Medical Sciences, Isfahan, Iran
| | - Keely Puchalski
- Ric Scalzo Institute for Botanical Research, Southwest College of Naturopathic Medicine, Tempe, AZ, United States
| | - Yalda Shokoohinia
- Ric Scalzo Institute for Botanical Research, Southwest College of Naturopathic Medicine, Tempe, AZ, United States
| | - Behzad Zolfaghari
- Department of Pharmacognosy, School of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences, Isfahan University of Medical Sciences, Isfahan, Iran
| | - Sedigheh Asgary
- Isfahan Cardiovascular Research Center, Cardiovascular Research Institute, Isfahan University of Medical Sciences, Isfahan, Iran
- *Correspondence: Sedigheh Asgary,
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Melzer R, McCabe PF, Schilling S. Evolution, genetics and biochemistry of plant cannabinoid synthesis: a challenge for biotechnology in the years ahead. Curr Opin Biotechnol 2022; 75:102684. [DOI: 10.1016/j.copbio.2022.102684] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/13/2021] [Revised: 12/14/2021] [Accepted: 01/03/2022] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
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14
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Valizadehderakhshan M, Kazem-Rostami M, Shahbazi A, Azami M, Bhowmik A, Wang L. Refining Cannabidiol Using Wiped-Film Molecular Distillation: Experimentation, Process Modeling, and Prediction. Ind Eng Chem Res 2022. [DOI: 10.1021/acs.iecr.2c00290] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Mehrab Valizadehderakhshan
- Joint School of Nanoscience and Nanoengineering, North Carolina Agricultural and Technical State University, Greensboro, North Carolina 27401, United States
| | - Masoud Kazem-Rostami
- Department of Chemistry, Northwestern University, 2145 Sheridan Road, Evanston, Illinois 60208, United States
- Faculty of Science and Engineering, Macquarie University, North Ryde, Sydney, New South Wales 2109, Australia
| | - Abolghasem Shahbazi
- Natural Resources and Environmental Design, North Carolina Agricultural and Technical State University, 1601 E. Market Street, Greensboro, North Carolina 27411, United States
| | - Mahsa Azami
- Department of Nanoscience, Joint School of Nanoscience and Nanoengineering (JSNN), University of North Carolina at Greensboro, Greensboro, North Carolina 27401, United States
| | - Arnab Bhowmik
- Natural Resources and Environmental Design, North Carolina Agricultural and Technical State University, 1601 E. Market Street, Greensboro, North Carolina 27411, United States
| | - Lijun Wang
- Natural Resources and Environmental Design, North Carolina Agricultural and Technical State University, 1601 E. Market Street, Greensboro, North Carolina 27411, United States
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15
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Procaccia S, Lewitus GM, Lipson Feder C, Shapira A, Berman P, Meiri D. Cannabis for Medical Use: Versatile Plant Rather Than a Single Drug. Front Pharmacol 2022; 13:894960. [PMID: 35548332 PMCID: PMC9081504 DOI: 10.3389/fphar.2022.894960] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/12/2022] [Accepted: 03/28/2022] [Indexed: 12/05/2022] Open
Abstract
Medical Cannabis and its major cannabinoids (−)-trans-Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) and cannabidiol (CBD) are gaining momentum for various medical purposes as their therapeutic qualities are becoming better established. However, studies regarding their efficacy are oftentimes inconclusive. This is chiefly because Cannabis is a versatile plant rather than a single drug and its effects do not depend only on the amount of THC and CBD. Hundreds of Cannabis cultivars and hybrids exist worldwide, each with a unique and distinct chemical profile. Most studies focus on THC and CBD, but these are just two of over 140 phytocannabinoids found in the plant in addition to a milieu of terpenoids, flavonoids and other compounds with potential therapeutic activities. Different plants contain a very different array of these metabolites in varying relative ratios, and it is the interplay between these molecules from the plant and the endocannabinoid system in the body that determines the ultimate therapeutic response and associated adverse effects. Here, we discuss how phytocannabinoid profiles differ between plants depending on the chemovar types, review the major factors that affect secondary metabolite accumulation in the plant including the genotype, growth conditions, processing, storage and the delivery route; and highlight how these factors make Cannabis treatment highly complex.
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16
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Abidi AH, Alghamdi SS, Derefinko K. A critical review of cannabis in medicine and dentistry: A look back and the path forward. Clin Exp Dent Res 2022; 8:613-631. [PMID: 35362240 PMCID: PMC9209799 DOI: 10.1002/cre2.564] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/02/2021] [Revised: 03/08/2022] [Accepted: 03/11/2022] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Introduction In the last two decades, our understanding of the therapeutic utility and medicinal properties of cannabis has greatly changed. This change has been accompanied by widespread cannabis use in various communities and different age groups, especially within the United States. With this increase, we should consider the potential effects of cannabis–hemp on general public health and how they could alter therapeutic outcomes. Material and Methods The present investigation examined cannabis use for recreational and therapeutic use and a review of pertinent indexed literature was performed. The focused question evaluates “how cannabis or hemp products impact health parameters and do they provide potential therapeutic value in dentistry, and how do they interact with conventional medicines (drugs).” Indexed databases (PubMed/Medline, EMBASE) were searched without any time restrictions but language was restricted to English. Results The review highlights dental concerns of cannabis usage, the need to understand the endocannabinoid system (ECS), cannabinoid receptor system, its endogenous ligands, pharmacology, metabolism, current oral health, and medical dilemma to ascertain the detrimental or beneficial effects of using cannabis–hemp products. The pharmacological effects of pure cannabidiol (CBD) have been studied extensively while cannabis extracts can vary significantly and lack empirical studies. Several metabolic pathways are affected by cannabis use and could pose a potential drug interaction. The chronic use of cannabis is associated with health issues, but the therapeutic potential is multifold since there is a regulatory role of ECS in many pathologies. Conclusion Current shortcomings in understanding the benefits of cannabis or hemp products are limited due to pharmacological and clinical effects not being predictable, while marketed products vary greatly in phytocompounds warrant further empirical investigation. Given the healthcare challenges to manage acute and chronic pain, this review highlights both cannabis and CBD‐hemp extracts to help identify the therapeutic application for patient populations suffering from anxiety, inflammation, and dental pain.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ammaar H Abidi
- College of Dentistry, Department of Bioscience Research, The University of Tennessee Health Science Center, Memphis, Tennessee, USA.,College of Dentistry, Department of General Dentistry, The University of Tennessee Health Science Center, Memphis, Tennessee, USA
| | - Sahar S Alghamdi
- Department of Phamaceutical Sciences, College of Pharmacy, King Saud Bin Abdulaziz University for Health Sciences, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia.,King Abdullah International Medical Research Center (KAIMRC), Ministry of National Guard Health Affairs, Riyadh, Kingdom of Saudi Arabia
| | - Karen Derefinko
- College of Medicine, Department of Pharmacology, Addiction Science, and Toxicology, The University of Tennessee Health Science Center, Memphis, Tennessee, USA.,College of Medicine, Department of Preventive Medicine, The University of Tennessee Health Science Center, Memphis, Tennessee, USA
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17
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Mirlohi S, Bladen C, Santiago MJ, Arnold JC, McGregor I, Connor M. Inhibition of human recombinant T-type calcium channels by phytocannabinoids in vitro. Br J Pharmacol 2022; 179:4031-4043. [PMID: 35342937 DOI: 10.1111/bph.15842] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/15/2021] [Revised: 03/07/2022] [Accepted: 03/09/2022] [Indexed: 11/30/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND AND PURPOSE T-type Ca channels (ICa ) regulate neuronal excitability and contribute to neurotransmitter release. The phytocannabinoids Δ9 -tetrahydrocannabinol and cannabidiol effectively modulate T-type ICa , but effects of other biologically active phytocannabinoids on these channels are unknown. We thus investigated the modulation of T-type ICa by low abundance phytocannabinoids. EXPERIMENTAL APPROACH A fluorometric (FLIPR) assay was used to investigate modulation of human T-type ICa (CaV 3.1, 3.2 and 3.3) stably expressed in FlpIn-TREx HEK293 cells. The biophysical effects of some compounds were examined using whole-cell patch clamp recordings from the same cells. KEY RESULTS In the FLIPR assay, all eleven phytocannabinoids tested modulated T-type ICa , with most inhibiting CaV 3.1 and CaV 3.2 more effectively than CaV 3.3. Cannabigerolic acid was the most potent inhibitor of CaV 3.1 (pIC50 6.1 ± 0.6) and CaV 3.2 (pIC50 6.4 ± 0.4); in all cases phytocannabinoid acids were more potent than their corresponding neutral forms. In patch clamp recordings, cannabigerolic acid inhibited CaV 3.1 and 3.2 with similar potency to the FLIPR assay, the inhibition was associated with significant hyperpolarizing shift in activation and steady state inactivation of these channels. In contrast, cannabidiol, cannabidivarin and cannabigerol only affected channel inactivation. CONCLUSION AND IMPLICATIONS Modulation of T-type calcium channels is a common property of phytocannabinoids, which all increase steady state inactivation at physiological membrane potentials, with some also affecting channel activation. Thus, T-type ICa may be a common site of action for phytocannabinoids, and the diverse actions of phytocannabinoids on channel gating may provide insight into structural requirement for selective T-type ICa modulators.
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Affiliation(s)
- Somayeh Mirlohi
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, Faculty of Medicine Health and Human Sciences, Macquarie University, Sydney
| | - Chris Bladen
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, Faculty of Medicine Health and Human Sciences, Macquarie University, Sydney
| | - Marina J Santiago
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, Faculty of Medicine Health and Human Sciences, Macquarie University, Sydney
| | - Jonathon C Arnold
- The Lambert Initiative for Cannabinoid Therapeutics, The University of Sydney, Sydney, New South Wales, Australia.,Discipline of Pharmacology, Sydney Pharmacy School, The University of Sydney, Sydney, New South Wales, Australia
| | - Ian McGregor
- The Lambert Initiative for Cannabinoid Therapeutics, The University of Sydney, Sydney, New South Wales, Australia
| | - Mark Connor
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, Faculty of Medicine Health and Human Sciences, Macquarie University, Sydney
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18
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Fearby N, Penman S, Thanos P. Effects of Δ9-Tetrahydrocannibinol (THC) on Obesity at Different Stages of Life: A Literature Review. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH AND PUBLIC HEALTH 2022; 19:ijerph19063174. [PMID: 35328862 PMCID: PMC8951828 DOI: 10.3390/ijerph19063174] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/01/2022] [Accepted: 03/04/2022] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
The Cannabis sativa plant has historically been used for both recreational and medical purposes. With the recent surge in recreational use of cannabis among adolescents and adults in particular, there is an increased obligation to determine the short- and long-term effects that consuming this plant may have on several aspects of the human psyche and body. The goal of this article was to examine the negative effects of obesity, and how the use of Δ9-tetrahydrocannibinol (THC) or cannabidiol (CBD) can impact rates of this global pandemic at different timepoints of life. Conflicting studies have been reported between adult and adolescents, as there are reports of THC use leading to increased weight due to elevated appetite and consumption of food, while others observed a decrease in overall body weight due to the regulation of omega-6/omega-3 endocannabinoid precursors and a decrease in energy expenditure. Studies supported a positive correlation between prenatal cannabis use and obesity rates in the children as they matured. The data did not indicate a direct connection between prenatal THC levels in cannabis and obesity rates, but that this development may occur due to prenatal THC consumption leading to low birthweight, and subsequent obesity. There are few studies using animal models that directly measure the effects that prenatal THC administration on obesity risks among offspring. Thus, this is a critical area for future studies using a developmental framework to examine potential changes in risk across development.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nathan Fearby
- Department of Biological Sciences, University at Buffalo, Buffalo, NY 14203, USA;
- Behavioral Neuropharmacology and Neuroimaging Laboratory on Addictions, Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Clinical Research Institute on Addictions, Jacobs School of Medicine and Biosciences, University at Buffalo, Buffalo, NY 14203, USA;
| | - Samantha Penman
- Behavioral Neuropharmacology and Neuroimaging Laboratory on Addictions, Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Clinical Research Institute on Addictions, Jacobs School of Medicine and Biosciences, University at Buffalo, Buffalo, NY 14203, USA;
| | - Panayotis Thanos
- Behavioral Neuropharmacology and Neuroimaging Laboratory on Addictions, Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Clinical Research Institute on Addictions, Jacobs School of Medicine and Biosciences, University at Buffalo, Buffalo, NY 14203, USA;
- Department of Psychology, University at Buffalo, Buffalo, NY 14203, USA
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +1-(716)-881-7520
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19
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Odieka AE, Obuzor GU, Oyedeji OO, Gondwe M, Hosu YS, Oyedeji AO. The Medicinal Natural Products of Cannabis sativa Linn.: A Review. Molecules 2022; 27:1689. [PMID: 35268790 PMCID: PMC8911748 DOI: 10.3390/molecules27051689] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/31/2021] [Revised: 02/23/2022] [Accepted: 02/24/2022] [Indexed: 01/27/2023] Open
Abstract
Cannabis sativa is known among many cultures for its medicinal potential. Its complexity contributes to the historical application of various parts of the plant in ethno-medicines and pharmacotherapy. C. sativa has been used for the treatment of rheumatism, epilepsy, asthma, skin burns, pain, the management of sexually transmitted diseases, difficulties during child labor, postpartum hemorrhage, and gastrointestinal activity. However, the use of C. sativa is still limited, and it is illegal in most countries. Thus, this review aims to highlight the biological potential of the plant parts, as well as the techniques for the extraction, isolation, and characterization of C. sativa compounds. The plant produces a unique class of terpenophenolic compounds, called cannabinoids, as well as non-cannabinoid compounds. The exhaustive profiling of bioactive compounds and the chemical characterization and analysis of C. sativa compounds, which modern research has not yet fully achieved, is needed for the consistency, standardization, and the justified application of Cannabis sativa products for therapeutic purposes. Studies on the clinical relevance and applications of cannabinoids and non-cannabinoid phenols in the prevention and treatment of life-threatening diseases is indeed significant. Furthermore, psychoactive cannabinoids, when chemically standardized and administered under medical supervision, can be the legal answer to the use of C. sativa.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anwuli Endurance Odieka
- Department of Chemical and Physical Sciences, Walter Sisulu University, Mthatha 5099, South Africa;
| | - Gloria Ukalina Obuzor
- Department of Pure and Industrial Chemistry, University of Port Harcourt, Port Harcourt 500004, Rivers State, Nigeria;
| | | | - Mavuto Gondwe
- Department of Human Biology, Walter Sisulu University, Mthatha 5099, South Africa;
| | - Yiseyon Sunday Hosu
- Department of Economics and Business Sciences, Walter Sisulu University, Mthatha 5099, South Africa;
| | - Adebola Omowunmi Oyedeji
- Department of Chemical and Physical Sciences, Walter Sisulu University, Mthatha 5099, South Africa;
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20
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Specific Way of Controlling Composition of Cannabinoids and Essential Oil from Cannabis sativa var. Finola. WATER 2022. [DOI: 10.3390/w14050688] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
Recently, a series of papers reported preparation and physicochemical properties of various kinds of water treated in contact with various gases with low-temperature, low-pressure glow plasma of low frequency (LPGP). Consecutive papers presented results of watering numerous herbal plants with those kinds of water in planting of numerous herbal plants. Always, the watering influenced the yield and quality of the crops and considerably changed the composition of the essential oils extracted from the watered plants. This paper provides the effects of watering of Cannabis sativum var. Finola with water LPGP-treated either in the air (LPGPA), under molecular nitrogen (LPGPN) or carbon dioxide (LPGPC). Cannabis sativa, particularly its botanic class called hemp, attracts great attention for its numerous applications. They include rope, textiles, clothing, shoes, food, paper, bioplastics, insulation, biofuel and industrial fibre. The watering was maintained for 12 weeks. Regardless of the kind of the used plasma-treated water, a considerable increase in the plant crop yield was noted for first 7 weeks. Further cultivation resulted in a minute increase in the yield. The watering with LPGPC offered the highest crop yield, followed by nontreated water, LPGPN and LPGPA. The yield of essential oil per 1 g of plant was independent of the used kind of plasma-treated water. Watering Finola with LPGPA resulted in a decrease in the level of cannabidivarin (CBD V) and considerable increase in the deal of Δ 9-tetrahydrocannabinol (Δ9-THC). The levels of the remaining components of the essential oil slightly decreased with respect to that in the control sample. Almost identical trends in the influence of watering upon the composition of essential oil were observed in the case of LPGPN. However, an unusually strong decrease in the level of CBD V accompanied by a very high increase in the level of Δ9-THC could be noted. The performed study provided strong evidence that watering seeds and plants of Finola with various kinds of the LPGP-treated water could modulate and even tailor the crop yield, functional properties of the plant and essential oils extracted from it. The composition of the essential oil isolated from the plant watered with LPGPN suggests its application as a substitute of medical marijuana (medical cannabis).
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21
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Raïch I, Rivas-Santisteban R, Lillo A, Lillo J, Reyes-Resina I, Nadal X, Ferreiro-Vera C, de Medina VS, Majellaro M, Sotelo E, Navarro G, Franco R. Similarities and differences upon binding of naturally occurring Δ 9-tetrahydrocannabinol-derivatives to cannabinoid CB 1 and CB 2 receptors. Pharmacol Res 2021; 174:105970. [PMID: 34758399 DOI: 10.1016/j.phrs.2021.105970] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/07/2021] [Revised: 11/01/2021] [Accepted: 11/02/2021] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Abstract
We have here assessed, using Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol (Δ9-THC) for comparison, the effect of Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinolic acid (Δ9-THCA) and of Δ9-tetrahydrocannabivarin (Δ9-THCV) that is mediated by human versions of CB1, CB2, and CB1-CB2 receptor functional units, expressed in a heterologous system. Binding to the CB1 and CB2 receptors was addressed in living cells by means of a homogeneous assay. A biphasic competition curve for the binding to the CB2 receptor, was obtained for Δ9-THCV in cells expressing the two receptors. Signaling studies included cAMP level determination, activation of the mitogen-activated protein kinase pathway and ß-arrestin recruitment were performed. The signaling triggered by Δ9-THCA and Δ9-THCV via individual receptors or receptor heteromers disclosed differential bias, i.e. the bias observed using a given phytocannabinoid depended on the receptor (CB1, CB2 or CB1-CB2) and on the compound used as reference to calculate the bias factor (Δ9-THC, a selective agonist or a non-selective agonist). These results are consistent with different binding modes leading to differential functional selectivity depending on the agonist structure, and the state (monomeric or heteromeric) of the cannabinoid receptor. In addition, on studying Gi-coupling we showed that Δ9-THCV and Δ9-THCA and Δ9-THCV were able to revert the effect of a selective CB2 receptor agonist, but only Δ9-THCV, and not Δ9-THCA, reverted the effect of arachidonyl-2'-chloroethylamide (ACEA 100 nM) a selective agonist of the CB1 receptor. Overall, these results indicate that cannabinoids may have a variety of binding modes that results in qualitatively different effects depending on the signaling pathway that is engaged upon cannabinoid receptor activation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Iu Raïch
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biomedicine, School of Biology, University of Barcelona, 08028 Barcelona, Spain; Centro de Investigación Biomédica en Red Enfermedades Neurodegenerativas (CiberNed), Spanish National Institute of Health, Carlos iii, 28034 Madrid, Spain
| | - Rafael Rivas-Santisteban
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biomedicine, School of Biology, University of Barcelona, 08028 Barcelona, Spain; Centro de Investigación Biomédica en Red Enfermedades Neurodegenerativas (CiberNed), Spanish National Institute of Health, Carlos iii, 28034 Madrid, Spain
| | - Alejandro Lillo
- Department of Biochemistry and Physiology, Faculty of Pharmacy and Food Science, University of Barcelona, 08028 Barcelona, Spain
| | - Jaume Lillo
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biomedicine, School of Biology, University of Barcelona, 08028 Barcelona, Spain; Centro de Investigación Biomédica en Red Enfermedades Neurodegenerativas (CiberNed), Spanish National Institute of Health, Carlos iii, 28034 Madrid, Spain
| | - Irene Reyes-Resina
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biomedicine, School of Biology, University of Barcelona, 08028 Barcelona, Spain; RG Neuroplasticity, Leibniz Institute for Neurobiology, Magdeburg, Saxony-Anhalt 39118, Germany
| | - Xavier Nadal
- Ethnophytotech Research & Consulting S.L.U., Córdoba, Spain
| | | | | | - Maria Majellaro
- Centro Singular de Investigación en Química Biolóxica e Materiais Moleculares (CIQUS) Universidade de Santiago de Compostela, 15782 Santiago de Compostela, Spain
| | - Eddy Sotelo
- Centro Singular de Investigación en Química Biolóxica e Materiais Moleculares (CIQUS) Universidade de Santiago de Compostela, 15782 Santiago de Compostela, Spain
| | - Gemma Navarro
- Department of Biochemistry and Physiology, Faculty of Pharmacy and Food Science, University of Barcelona, 08028 Barcelona, Spain; Institut de Neurociències de la Universitat de Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain.
| | - Rafael Franco
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biomedicine, School of Biology, University of Barcelona, 08028 Barcelona, Spain; Centro de Investigación Biomédica en Red Enfermedades Neurodegenerativas (CiberNed), Spanish National Institute of Health, Carlos iii, 28034 Madrid, Spain; School of Chemistry. University of Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain.
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22
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Major Phytocannabinoids and Their Related Compounds: Should We Only Search for Drugs That Act on Cannabinoid Receptors? Pharmaceutics 2021; 13:pharmaceutics13111823. [PMID: 34834237 PMCID: PMC8625816 DOI: 10.3390/pharmaceutics13111823] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/10/2021] [Revised: 10/24/2021] [Accepted: 10/25/2021] [Indexed: 12/24/2022] Open
Abstract
The most important discoveries in pharmacology, such as certain classes of analgesics or chemotherapeutics, started from natural extracts which have been found to have effects in traditional medicine. Cannabis, traditionally used in Asia for the treatment of pain, nausea, spasms, sleep, depression, and low appetite, is still a good candidate for the development of new compounds. If initially all attention was directed to the endocannabinoid system, recent studies suggest that many of the clinically proven effects are based on an intrinsic chain of mechanisms that do not necessarily involve only cannabinoid receptors. Recent research has shown that major phytocannabinoids and their derivatives also interact with non-cannabinoid receptors such as vanilloid receptor 1, transient receptor ankyrin 1 potential, peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor-gamma or glitazone receptor, G55 protein-coupled receptor, and nuclear receptor, producing pharmacological effects in diseases such as Alzheimer's, epilepsy, depression, neuropathic pain, cancer, and diabetes. Nonetheless, further studies are needed to elucidate the precise mechanisms of these compounds. Structure modulation of phytocannabinoids, in order to improve pharmacological effects, should not be limited to the exploration of cannabinoid receptors, and it should target other courses of action discovered through recent research.
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23
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Abstract
Introduction: Cannabis is a valuable plant, cultivated by humans for millennia. However, it has only been in the past several decades that biologists have begun to clarify the interesting Cannabis biosynthesis details, especially the production of its fascinating natural products termed acidic cannabinoids. Discussion: Acidic cannabinoids can experience a common organic chemistry reaction known as decarboxylation, transforming them into structural analogues referred to as neutral cannabinoids with far different pharmacology. This review addresses acidic and neutral cannabinoid structural pairs, when and where acidic cannabinoid decarboxylation occurs, the kinetics and mechanism of the decarboxylation reaction as well as possible future directions for this topic. Conclusions: Acidic cannabinoid decarboxylation is a unique transformation that has been increasingly investigated over the past several decades. Understanding how acidic cannabinoid decarboxylation occurs naturally as well as how it can be promoted or prevented during harvesting or storage is important for the various stakeholders in Cannabis cultivation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Crist N Filer
- PerkinElmer Health Sciences Inc., Waltham, Massachusetts, USA
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24
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Arif Y, Singh P, Bajguz A, Hayat S. Phytocannabinoids Biosynthesis in Angiosperms, Fungi, and Liverworts and Their Versatile Role. PLANTS (BASEL, SWITZERLAND) 2021; 10:1307. [PMID: 34203173 PMCID: PMC8309193 DOI: 10.3390/plants10071307] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/06/2021] [Revised: 06/22/2021] [Accepted: 06/25/2021] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Phytocannabinoids are a structurally diverse class of bioactive naturally occurring compounds found in angiosperms, fungi, and liverworts and produced in several plant organs such as the flower and glandular trichrome of Cannabis sativa, the scales in Rhododendron, and oil bodies of liverworts such as Radula species; they show a diverse role in humans and plants. Moreover, phytocannabinoids are prenylated polyketides, i.e., terpenophenolics, which are derived from isoprenoid and fatty acid precursors. Additionally, targeted productions of active phytocannabinoids have beneficial properties via the genes involved and their expression in a heterologous host. Bioactive compounds show a remarkable non-hallucinogenic biological property that is determined by the variable nature of the side chain and prenyl group defined by the enzymes involved in their biosynthesis. Phytocannabinoids possess therapeutic, antibacterial, and antimicrobial properties; thus, they are used in treating several human diseases. This review gives the latest knowledge on their role in the amelioration of abiotic (heat, cold, and radiation) stress in plants. It also aims to provide synthetic and biotechnological approaches based on combinatorial biochemical and protein engineering to synthesize phytocannabinoids with enhanced properties.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yamshi Arif
- Department of Botany, Plant Physiology Section, Faculty of Life Sciences, Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh 202002, India; (Y.A.); (P.S.); (S.H.)
| | - Priyanka Singh
- Department of Botany, Plant Physiology Section, Faculty of Life Sciences, Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh 202002, India; (Y.A.); (P.S.); (S.H.)
| | - Andrzej Bajguz
- Department of Biology and Plant Ecology, Faculty of Biology, University of Bialystok, Ciolkowskiego 1J, 15-245 Bialystok, Poland
| | - Shamsul Hayat
- Department of Botany, Plant Physiology Section, Faculty of Life Sciences, Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh 202002, India; (Y.A.); (P.S.); (S.H.)
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25
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Mathew B, Harilal S, Musa A, Kumar R, Parambi DGT, Jose J, Uddin MS, Shah MA, Behl T, Unnikrishnan MK. An Agathokakological Tale of Δ 9-THC: Exploration of Possible Biological Targets. Curr Drug Targets 2021; 22:823-834. [PMID: 33001012 DOI: 10.2174/1389450121666201001123515] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/08/2020] [Revised: 09/04/2020] [Accepted: 09/05/2020] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
Δ9-Tetrahydrocannabinol (Δ9-THC), the active phytocannabinoid in cannabis, is virtually an adjunct to the endogenous endocannabinoid signaling system. By interacting with G-proteincoupled receptors CB1 and CB2, Δ9-THC affects peripheral and central circulation by lowering sympathetic activity, altering gene expression, cell proliferation, and differentiation, decreasing leukocyte migration, modulating neurotransmitter release, thereby modulating cardiovascular functioning, tumorigenesis, immune responses, behavioral and locomotory activities. Δ9-THC effectively suppresses chemotherapy-induced vomiting, retards malignant tumor growth, inhibits metastasis, and promotes apoptosis. Other mechanisms involved are targeting cell cycle at the G2-M phase in human breast cancer, downregulation of E2F transcription factor 1 (E2F1) in human glioblastoma multiforme, and stimulation of ER stress-induced autophagy. Δ9-THC also plays a role in ameliorating neuroinflammation, excitotoxicity, neuroplasticity, trauma, and stroke and is associated with reliving childhood epilepsy, brain trauma, and neurodegenerative diseases. Δ9-THC via CB1 receptors affects nociception, emotion, memory, and reduces neuronal excitability and excitotoxicity in epilepsy. It also increases renal blood flow, reduces intraocular pressure via a sympathetic pathway, and modulates hormonal release, thereby decreasing the reproductive function and increasing glucose metabolism. Versatile medical marijuana has stimulated abundant research demonstrating substantial therapeutic promise, suggesting the possibilities of first-in-class drugs in diverse therapeutic segments. This review represents the current pharmacological status of the phytocannabinoid, Δ9-THC, and synthetic analogs in cancer, cardiovascular, and neurodegenerative disorders.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bijo Mathew
- Department of Pharmaceutical Chemistry, Amrita School of Pharmacy, Amrita Vishwa Vidyapeetham, AIMS Health Sciences Campus, Kochi-682 041, India
| | - Seetha Harilal
- Department of Pharmacy, Kerala University of Health Sciences, Thrissur, Kerala, India
| | - Arafa Musa
- Department of Pharmacogonosy, College of Pharmacy, Jouf University, Sakaka, Al Jouf, 2014, Saudi Arabia
| | - Rajesh Kumar
- Department of Pharmacy, Kerala University of Health Sciences, Thrissur, Kerala, India
| | - Della Grace Thomas Parambi
- Department of Pharmaceutical Chemistry, College of Pharmacy, Jouf University, Sakaka, Al Jouf, 2014, Saudi Arabia
| | - Jobin Jose
- Department of Pharmaceutics, NGSM Institute of Pharmaceutical Science, NITTE Deemed to be University, Manglore, 575018, India
| | - Md Sahab Uddin
- Department of Pharmacy, Southeast University, Dhaka, Bangladesh
| | - Muhammad Ajmal Shah
- Department of Pharmacogonosy, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Government College University, Faisalabad, Pakistan
| | - Tapan Behl
- Department of Pharmacology, Chitkara College of Pharmacy, Chitkara University, Punjab, India
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26
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Tahir MN, Shahbazi F, Rondeau-Gagné S, Trant JF. The biosynthesis of the cannabinoids. J Cannabis Res 2021; 3:7. [PMID: 33722296 PMCID: PMC7962319 DOI: 10.1186/s42238-021-00062-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 62] [Impact Index Per Article: 20.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/21/2020] [Accepted: 02/17/2021] [Indexed: 01/04/2023] Open
Abstract
Cannabis has been integral to Eurasian civilization for millennia, but a century of prohibition has limited investigation. With spreading legalization, science is pivoting to study the pharmacopeia of the cannabinoids, and a thorough understanding of their biosynthesis is required to engineer strains with specific cannabinoid profiles. This review surveys the biosynthesis and biochemistry of cannabinoids. The pathways and the enzymes' mechanisms of action are discussed as is the non-enzymatic decarboxylation of the cannabinoic acids. There are still many gaps in our knowledge about the biosynthesis of the cannabinoids, especially for the minor components, and this review highlights the tools and approaches that will be applied to generate an improved understanding and consequent access to these potentially biomedically-relevant materials.
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Affiliation(s)
- M Nazir Tahir
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of Windsor, 401 Sunset Avenue, Windsor, Ontario, N9B 3P4, Canada
| | - Fred Shahbazi
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of Windsor, 401 Sunset Avenue, Windsor, Ontario, N9B 3P4, Canada
| | - Simon Rondeau-Gagné
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of Windsor, 401 Sunset Avenue, Windsor, Ontario, N9B 3P4, Canada.
| | - John F Trant
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of Windsor, 401 Sunset Avenue, Windsor, Ontario, N9B 3P4, Canada.
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27
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Skell JM, Kahn M, Foxman BM. Δ 9-Tetrahydrocannabinolic acid A, the precursor to Δ 9-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC). Acta Crystallogr C Struct Chem 2021; 77:84-89. [PMID: 33536371 DOI: 10.1107/s2053229621000280] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/30/2020] [Accepted: 01/08/2021] [Indexed: 12/17/2022] Open
Abstract
While Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinolic acid A (THCA-A) has been reported to be difficult to crystallize and/or amorphous, we have obtained THCA-A in a pure crystalline form by extraction of marijuana and selective fractionation with liquid CO2. THCA-A (systematic name: 1-hydroxy-6,6,9-trimethyl-3-pentyl-6a,7,8,10a-tetrahydro-6H-benzo[c]isochromene-2-carboxylic acid, C22H30O4) crystallizes in the orthorhombic space group P212121, with Z = 8 and Z' = 2. The two independent molecules are related by a pseudo-twofold axis centered between the two -CO2H groups, but the conformations of the two -C5H11 chains are quite different (tgt and ttg; t is trans and g is gauche). The carboxylate groups form an intermolecular R22(8) hydrogen-bonded ring; the two C2O2 carboxylate planes are twisted out of the planes of the attached arene rings in opposite directions by 13.59 (8) and 18.92 (8)°, respectively, with a resultant interplanar angle of 28.89 (8)°. Each molecule also has an intramolecular S(6) hydrogen-bond motif between the ortho -OH group and the dihydropyran-ring O atom. Other conformational aspects of the two independent molecules are quite similar to those found in the previously determined structure of THCA-B. THCA-A has shown promise in a number of medical applications. Demonstration of the crystallinity and details of the crystal structure are expected to provide a standard point of departure for chemical and medical experiments.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jeffrey M Skell
- Skell Labs, LLC, 41 Hundreds Road, Westborough, MA 01581, USA
| | - Michael Kahn
- MCR Labs, LLC, 85 Speen Street, Framingham, MA 01701, USA
| | - Bruce M Foxman
- Department of Chemistry - MS015, Brandeis University, Waltham, MA 02453-2728, USA
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Lago-Fernandez A, Zarzo-Arias S, Jagerovic N, Morales P. Relevance of Peroxisome Proliferator Activated Receptors in Multitarget Paradigm Associated with the Endocannabinoid System. Int J Mol Sci 2021; 22:1001. [PMID: 33498245 PMCID: PMC7863932 DOI: 10.3390/ijms22031001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/30/2020] [Revised: 01/14/2021] [Accepted: 01/15/2021] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Cannabinoids have shown to exert their therapeutic actions through a variety of targets. These include not only the canonical cannabinoid receptors CB1R and CB2R but also related orphan G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs), ligand-gated ion channels, transient receptor potential (TRP) channels, metabolic enzymes, and nuclear receptors. In this review, we aim to summarize reported compounds exhibiting their therapeutic effects upon the modulation of CB1R and/or CB2R and the nuclear peroxisome proliferator-activated receptors (PPARs). Concomitant actions at CBRs and PPARα or PPARγ subtypes have shown to mediate antiobesity, analgesic, antitumoral, or neuroprotective properties of a variety of phytogenic, endogenous, and synthetic cannabinoids. The relevance of this multitargeting mechanism of action has been analyzed in the context of diverse pathologies. Synergistic effects triggered by combinatorial treatment with ligands that modulate the aforementioned targets have also been considered. This literature overview provides structural and pharmacological insights for the further development of dual cannabinoids for specific disorders.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Nadine Jagerovic
- Medicinal Chemistry Institute, Spanish Research Council, Juan de la Cierva 3, 28006 Madrid, Spain; (A.L.-F.); (S.Z.-A.)
| | - Paula Morales
- Medicinal Chemistry Institute, Spanish Research Council, Juan de la Cierva 3, 28006 Madrid, Spain; (A.L.-F.); (S.Z.-A.)
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29
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Rock EM, Parker LA. Constituents of Cannabis Sativa. ADVANCES IN EXPERIMENTAL MEDICINE AND BIOLOGY 2021; 1264:1-13. [PMID: 33332000 DOI: 10.1007/978-3-030-57369-0_1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
The Cannabis sativa plant has been used medicinally and recreationally for thousands of years, but recently only relatively some of its constituents have been identified. There are more than 550 chemical compounds in cannabis, with more than 100 phytocannabinoids being identified, including Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) and cannabidiol (CBD). These phytocannabinoids work by binding to the cannabinoid receptors, as well as other receptor systems. Also within cannabis are the aromatic terpenes, more than 100 of which have been identified. Cannabis and its constituents have been indicated as therapeutic compounds in numerous medical conditions, such as pain, anxiety, epilepsy, nausea and vomiting, and post-traumatic stress disorder. This chapter provides an overview of some of the biological effects of a number of the cannabinoids and terpenes, as well as discussing their known mechanisms of action and evidence of potential therapeutic effects.
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Affiliation(s)
- Erin M Rock
- Department of Psychology and Collaborative Neuroscience Program, University of Guelph, Guelph, ON, Canada
| | - Linda A Parker
- Department of Psychology and Collaborative Neuroscience Program, University of Guelph, Guelph, ON, Canada.
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30
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Franco GDRR, Smid S, Viegas C. Phytocannabinoids: General Aspects and Pharmacological Potential in Neurodegenerative Diseases. Curr Neuropharmacol 2021; 19:449-464. [PMID: 32691712 PMCID: PMC8206465 DOI: 10.2174/1570159x18666200720172624] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/07/2020] [Revised: 06/01/2020] [Accepted: 07/01/2020] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
In the last few years research into Cannabis and its constituent phytocannabinoids has burgeoned, particularly in the potential application of novel cannabis phytochemicals for the treatment of diverse illnesses related to neurodegeneration and dementia, including Alzheimer's (AD), Parkinson's (PD) and Huntington's disease (HD). To date, these neurological diseases have mostly relied on symptomatological management. However, with an aging population globally, the search for more efficient and disease-modifying treatments that could delay or mitigate disease progression is imperative. In this context, this review aims to present state of the art in the research with cannabinoids and novel cannabinoid-based drug candidates that have been emerged as novel promising alternatives for drug development and innovation in the therapeutics of a number of diseases, especially those related to CNS-disturbance and impairment.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Cláudio Viegas
- Address correspondence to this author at the PeQuiM-Laboratory of Research in Medicinal Chemistry, Institute of Chemistry, Federal University of Alfenas, 37133-840, Brazil; Tel/Fax: +55 35 3701-1880; E-mail:
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31
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Phytocannabinoid drug-drug interactions and their clinical implications. Pharmacol Ther 2020; 215:107621. [DOI: 10.1016/j.pharmthera.2020.107621] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/03/2020] [Accepted: 06/24/2020] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
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32
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Araneda JF, Chu T, Leclerc MC, Riegel SD, Spingarn N. Quantitative analysis of cannabinoids using benchtop NMR instruments. ANALYTICAL METHODS : ADVANCING METHODS AND APPLICATIONS 2020; 12:4853-4857. [PMID: 33043914 DOI: 10.1039/d0ay01511c] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
The quantification of cannabinoids is an essential part of cannabis profiling and testing, whether for medical or recreational use. As regulatory bodies continue to increase testing requirements for these products, it is crucial that alternative and effective analytical methods be developed. Herein, we describe the use of benchtop NMR instruments for the quantification of Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) and cannabidiol (CBD) in a variety of cannabis concentrates and compare the values to those obtained using HPLC, the most common approach for the quantification of cannabinoids. Based on the discrepancies observed in test values from different laboratories using only HPLC, the value of orthogonal testing methods has been identified and is increasingly desired.
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Affiliation(s)
- Juan F Araneda
- Nanalysis Corp., 1-4600 5 St NE, Calgary, AB T2E 7C3, Canada.
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33
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Biological Activity of Cannabis sativa L. Extracts Critically Depends on Solvent Polarity and Decarboxylation. SEPARATIONS 2020. [DOI: 10.3390/separations7040056] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Minor cannabinoid and non-cannabinoid molecules have been proposed to significantly contribute to the pharmacological profile of cannabis extracts. Phytoplant Research has developed highly productive cannabis cultivars with defined chemotypes, as well as proprietary methods for the extraction and purification of cannabinoids. Here, we investigate the effect of solvent selection and decarboxylation on the composition and pharmacological activity of cannabis extracts. A library of forty cannabis extracts was generated from ten different cannabis cultivars registered by Phytoplant Research at the EU Community Plant Variety Office. Plant material was extracted using two different solvents, ethanol and hexane, and crude extracts were subsequently decarboxylated or not. Cannabinoid content in the resulting extracts was quantified, and biological activity was screened in vitro at three molecular targets involved in hypoxia and inflammation (NF-κB, HIF-1α and STAT3). Changes in transcriptional activation were strongly associated to solvent selection and decarboxylation. Two decarboxylated extracts prepared with hexane were the most potent at inhibiting NF-κB transcription, while HIF-1α activation was preferentially inhibited by ethanolic extracts, and decarboxylated extracts were generally more potent at inhibiting STAT3 induction. Our results indicate that solvent selection and proper decarboxylation represent key aspects of the standardized production of cannabis extracts with reproducible pharmacological activity.
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Gülck T, Møller BL. Phytocannabinoids: Origins and Biosynthesis. TRENDS IN PLANT SCIENCE 2020; 25:985-1004. [PMID: 32646718 DOI: 10.1016/j.tplants.2020.05.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 170] [Impact Index Per Article: 42.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/15/2020] [Revised: 05/19/2020] [Accepted: 05/21/2020] [Indexed: 05/19/2023]
Abstract
Phytocannabinoids are bioactive natural products found in some flowering plants, liverworts, and fungi that can be beneficial for the treatment of human ailments such as pain, anxiety, and cachexia. Targeted biosynthesis of cannabinoids with desirable properties requires identification of the underlying genes and their expression in a suitable heterologous host. We provide an overview of the structural classification of phytocannabinoids based on their decorated resorcinol core and the bioactivities of naturally occurring cannabinoids, and we review current knowledge of phytocannabinoid biosynthesis in Cannabis, Rhododendron, and Radula species. We also highlight the potential in planta roles of phytocannabinoids and the opportunity for synthetic biology approaches based on combinatorial biochemistry and protein engineering to produce cannabinoid derivatives with improved properties.
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Affiliation(s)
- Thies Gülck
- Plant Biochemistry Laboratory, Department of Plant and Environmental Sciences, University of Copenhagen, Thorvaldsensvej 40, 1871 Frederiksberg C, Copenhagen, Denmark; VILLUM Center for Plant Plasticity, University of Copenhagen, Thorvaldsensvej 40, 1871 Frederiksberg C, Copenhagen, Denmark; Center for Synthetic Biology, University of Copenhagen, Thorvaldsensvej 40, 1871 Frederiksberg C, Copenhagen, Denmark.
| | - Birger Lindberg Møller
- Plant Biochemistry Laboratory, Department of Plant and Environmental Sciences, University of Copenhagen, Thorvaldsensvej 40, 1871 Frederiksberg C, Copenhagen, Denmark; VILLUM Center for Plant Plasticity, University of Copenhagen, Thorvaldsensvej 40, 1871 Frederiksberg C, Copenhagen, Denmark; Center for Synthetic Biology, University of Copenhagen, Thorvaldsensvej 40, 1871 Frederiksberg C, Copenhagen, Denmark.
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35
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Benson MJ, Anderson LL, Low IK, Luo JL, Kevin RC, Zhou C, McGregor IS, Arnold JC. Evaluation of the Possible Anticonvulsant Effect of Δ 9-Tetrahydrocannabinolic Acid in Murine Seizure Models. Cannabis Cannabinoid Res 2020; 7:46-57. [PMID: 33998858 PMCID: PMC8864425 DOI: 10.1089/can.2020.0073] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Introduction: The cannabinoid Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinolic acid (Δ9-THCA) has long been suggested in review articles and anecdotal reports to be anticonvulsant; yet, there is scant evidence supporting this notion. The objective of this study was to interrogate the anticonvulsant potential of Δ9-THCA in various seizure models—the Scn1a+/− mouse model of Dravet syndrome, the 6-Hz model of psychomotor seizures and the maximal electroshock (MES) model of generalized tonic-clonic seizures. Materials and Methods: We examined the effect of acute Δ9-THCA treatment against hyperthermia-induced seizures, and subchronic treatment on spontaneous seizures and survival in the Scn1a+/− mice. We also studied the effect of acute Δ9-THCA treatment on the critical current thresholds in the 6-Hz and MES tests using outbred Swiss mice. Highly purified Δ9-THCA was used in the studies or a mixture of Δ9-THCA and Δ9-THC. Results: We observed mixed anticonvulsant and proconvulsant effects of Δ9-THCA across the seizure models. Highly pure Δ9-THCA did not affect hyperthermia-induced seizures in Scn1a+/− mice. A Δ9-THCA/Δ9-THC mixture was anticonvulsant in the 6-Hz threshold test, but purified Δ9-THCA and Δ9-THC had no effect. Conversely, both Δ9-THCA and Δ9-THC administered individually were proconvulsant in the MES threshold test but had no effect when administered as a Δ9-THCA/Δ9-THC mixture. The Δ9-THCA/Δ9-THC mixture, however, increased spontaneous seizure severity and increased mortality of Scn1a+/− mice. Discussion: The anticonvulsant profile of Δ9-THCA was variable depending on the seizure model used and presence of Δ9-THC. Because of the unstable nature of Δ9-THCA, further exploration of Δ9-THCA through formal anticonvulsant drug development is problematic without stabilization. Future studies may better focus on determining the mechanisms by which combined Δ9-THCA and Δ9-THC alters seizure thresholds, as this may uncover novel targets for the control of refractory partial seizures.
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Affiliation(s)
- Melissa J Benson
- Brain and Mind Centre, The University of Sydney, Sydney, New South Wales, Australia.,Lambert Initiative for Cannabinoid Therapeutics, The University of Sydney, Sydney, New South Wales, Australia.,Faculty of Science, School of Psychology, The University of Sydney, Sydney, New South Wales, Australia
| | - Lyndsey L Anderson
- Brain and Mind Centre, The University of Sydney, Sydney, New South Wales, Australia.,Lambert Initiative for Cannabinoid Therapeutics, The University of Sydney, Sydney, New South Wales, Australia.,Discipline of Pharmacology, Faculty of Medicine and Health, School of Medical Sciences, The University of Sydney, Sydney, New South Wales, Australia
| | - Ivan K Low
- Brain and Mind Centre, The University of Sydney, Sydney, New South Wales, Australia.,Lambert Initiative for Cannabinoid Therapeutics, The University of Sydney, Sydney, New South Wales, Australia
| | - Jia Lin Luo
- Brain and Mind Centre, The University of Sydney, Sydney, New South Wales, Australia.,Lambert Initiative for Cannabinoid Therapeutics, The University of Sydney, Sydney, New South Wales, Australia.,Faculty of Science, School of Psychology, The University of Sydney, Sydney, New South Wales, Australia
| | - Richard C Kevin
- Brain and Mind Centre, The University of Sydney, Sydney, New South Wales, Australia.,Lambert Initiative for Cannabinoid Therapeutics, The University of Sydney, Sydney, New South Wales, Australia.,Faculty of Science, School of Psychology, The University of Sydney, Sydney, New South Wales, Australia
| | - Cilla Zhou
- Brain and Mind Centre, The University of Sydney, Sydney, New South Wales, Australia.,Lambert Initiative for Cannabinoid Therapeutics, The University of Sydney, Sydney, New South Wales, Australia.,Discipline of Pharmacology, Faculty of Medicine and Health, School of Medical Sciences, The University of Sydney, Sydney, New South Wales, Australia
| | - Iain S McGregor
- Brain and Mind Centre, The University of Sydney, Sydney, New South Wales, Australia.,Lambert Initiative for Cannabinoid Therapeutics, The University of Sydney, Sydney, New South Wales, Australia.,Faculty of Science, School of Psychology, The University of Sydney, Sydney, New South Wales, Australia
| | - Jonathon C Arnold
- Brain and Mind Centre, The University of Sydney, Sydney, New South Wales, Australia.,Lambert Initiative for Cannabinoid Therapeutics, The University of Sydney, Sydney, New South Wales, Australia.,Discipline of Pharmacology, Faculty of Medicine and Health, School of Medical Sciences, The University of Sydney, Sydney, New South Wales, Australia
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Palomares B, Garrido-Rodriguez M, Gonzalo-Consuegra C, Gómez-Cañas M, Saen-Oon S, Soliva R, Collado JA, Fernández-Ruiz J, Morello G, Calzado MA, Appendino G, Muñoz E. Δ 9 -Tetrahydrocannabinolic acid alleviates collagen-induced arthritis: Role of PPARγ and CB 1 receptors. Br J Pharmacol 2020; 177:4034-4054. [PMID: 32510591 DOI: 10.1111/bph.15155] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/10/2019] [Revised: 05/22/2020] [Accepted: 05/27/2020] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND AND PURPOSE Δ9 -Tetrahydrocannabinolic acid (Δ9 -THCA-A), the precursor of Δ9 -THC, is a non-psychotropic phytocannabinoid that shows PPARγ agonist activity. Here, we investigated the ability of Δ9 -THCA-A to modulate the classic cannabinoid CB1 and CB2 receptors and evaluated its anti-arthritis activity in vitro and in vivo. EXPERIMENTAL APPROACH Cannabinoid receptors binding and intrinsic activity, as well as their downstream signalling, were analysed in vitro and in silico. The anti-arthritis properties of Δ9 -THCA-A were studied in human chondrocytes and in the murine model of collagen-induced arthritis (CIA). Plasma disease biomarkers were identified by LC-MS/MS based on proteomic and elisa assays. KEY RESULTS Functional and docking analyses showed that Δ9 -THCA-A can act as an orthosteric CB1 receptor agonist and also as a positive allosteric modulator in the presence of CP-55,940. Also, Δ9 -THCA-A seemed to be an inverse agonist for CB2 receptors. In vivo, Δ9 -THCA-A reduced arthritis in CIA mice, preventing the infiltration of inflammatory cells, synovium hyperplasia, and cartilage damage. Furthermore, Δ9 -THCA-A inhibited expression of inflammatory and catabolic genes on knee joints. The anti-arthritic effect of Δ9 -THCA-A was blocked by either SR141716 or T0070907. Analysis of plasma biomarkers, and determination of cytokines and anti-collagen antibodies confirmed that Δ9 -THCA-A mediated its activity mainly through PPARγ and CB1 receptor pathways. CONCLUSION AND IMPLICATIONS Δ9 -THCA-A modulates CB1 receptors through the orthosteric and allosteric binding sites. In addition, Δ9 -THCA-A exerts anti-arthritis activity through CB1 receptors and PPARγ pathways, highlighting its potential for the treatment of chronic inflammatory diseases such as rheumatoid arthritis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Belén Palomares
- Maimonides Biomedical Research Institute of Córdoba, University of Córdoba, Córdoba, Spain.,Department of Cellular Biology, Physiology and Immunology, University of Córdoba, Córdoba, Spain.,Reina Sofía University Hospital, Córdoba, Spain
| | - Martín Garrido-Rodriguez
- Maimonides Biomedical Research Institute of Córdoba, University of Córdoba, Córdoba, Spain.,Department of Cellular Biology, Physiology and Immunology, University of Córdoba, Córdoba, Spain.,Reina Sofía University Hospital, Córdoba, Spain
| | - Claudia Gonzalo-Consuegra
- Instituto Universitario de Investigación en Neuroquímica, Departamento de Bioquímica y Biología Molecular, Facultad de Medicina, Universidad Complutense, Madrid, Spain.,Centro de Investigación Biomédica en Red de Enfermedades Neurodegenerativas (CIBERNED), Madrid, Spain.,Instituto Ramón y Cajal de Investigación Sanitaria (IRYCIS), Madrid, Spain
| | - María Gómez-Cañas
- Instituto Universitario de Investigación en Neuroquímica, Departamento de Bioquímica y Biología Molecular, Facultad de Medicina, Universidad Complutense, Madrid, Spain.,Centro de Investigación Biomédica en Red de Enfermedades Neurodegenerativas (CIBERNED), Madrid, Spain.,Instituto Ramón y Cajal de Investigación Sanitaria (IRYCIS), Madrid, Spain
| | | | | | | | - Javier Fernández-Ruiz
- Instituto Universitario de Investigación en Neuroquímica, Departamento de Bioquímica y Biología Molecular, Facultad de Medicina, Universidad Complutense, Madrid, Spain.,Centro de Investigación Biomédica en Red de Enfermedades Neurodegenerativas (CIBERNED), Madrid, Spain.,Instituto Ramón y Cajal de Investigación Sanitaria (IRYCIS), Madrid, Spain
| | | | - Marco A Calzado
- Maimonides Biomedical Research Institute of Córdoba, University of Córdoba, Córdoba, Spain.,Department of Cellular Biology, Physiology and Immunology, University of Córdoba, Córdoba, Spain.,Reina Sofía University Hospital, Córdoba, Spain
| | - Giovanni Appendino
- Dipartimento di Scienze del Farmaco, Università del Piemonte Orientale, Novara, Italy
| | - Eduardo Muñoz
- Maimonides Biomedical Research Institute of Córdoba, University of Córdoba, Córdoba, Spain.,Department of Cellular Biology, Physiology and Immunology, University of Córdoba, Córdoba, Spain.,Reina Sofía University Hospital, Córdoba, Spain
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Alloisio S, Clericuzio M, Nobile M, Salis A, Damonte G, Canali C, Fortuna-Perez AP, Cornara L, Burlando B. Cannabis-like activity of Zornia latifolia Sm. detected in vitro on rat cortical neurons: major role of the flavone syzalterin. Drug Chem Toxicol 2020; 45:919-931. [PMID: 32628037 DOI: 10.1080/01480545.2020.1788057] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/23/2022]
Abstract
Zornia latifolia is a plant suspected to possess psychoactive properties and marketed as a marijuana substitute under the name 'maconha brava'. In this study, the effects of fractions obtained from a 2-propanol extract of aerial portions of the plant were determined by multielectrode array (MEA) analyses on cultured networks of rat cortical neurons. Lipophilic (ZL_lipo, mainly containing flavonoid aglycones), and hydrophilic (ZL_hydro, mainly containing flavonoid glycosides) fractions were initially obtained from the raw extract. ZL_lipo significantly inhibited mean firing rate (MFR) and mean bursting rate (MBR) of MEA recordings, while ZL_hydro induced no inhibition. Column chromatography separation of ZL_lipo yielded five fractions (ZL1-ZL5), among which ZL1 induced the strongest MFR and MBR inhibition. NMR and HPLC-MS analyses of ZL1 revealed the prevalence of the common flavonoids genistein (1) and apigenin (2) (in about a 1:1 ratio), and the presence of the rare flavone syzalterin (6,8-dimethylapigenin) (3) as a minor compound. Exposures of MEA to apigenin and genistein standards did not induce the MFR and MBR inhibition observed with ZL1, whereas exposure to syzalterin standard or to a 1:9 mixture syzalterin-genistein induced effects similar to ZL1. These inhibitory effects were comparable to that observed with high-THC hashish, possibly accounting for the plant psychoactive properties. Data indicate that Z. latifolia, currently marketed as a free herbal product, should be subjected to measures of control. In addition, syzalterin showed distinctive pharmacological properties, opening the way to its possible exploitation as a neuroactive drug.
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Affiliation(s)
- Susanna Alloisio
- ETT Spa, Genova, Italy.,National Research Council (CNR), Institute of Biophysics, Genova, Italy
| | - Marco Clericuzio
- Department of Sciences and Technological Innovation (DISIT), University of Eastern Piedmont, Alessandria, Italy
| | - Mario Nobile
- National Research Council (CNR), Institute of Biophysics, Genova, Italy
| | - Annalisa Salis
- Center of Excellence for Biomedical Research (CEBR), University of Genova, Genova, Italy
| | - Gianluca Damonte
- Center of Excellence for Biomedical Research (CEBR), University of Genova, Genova, Italy.,Department of Experimental Medicine (DIMES), Section of Biochemistry, University of Genova, Genova, Italy
| | - Claudia Canali
- Forensic Science Police Service, Italian National Police, Genova, Italy
| | | | - Laura Cornara
- Department of Earth, Environment and Life Sciences (DISTAV), University of Genova, Genova, Italy
| | - Bruno Burlando
- Department of Pharmacy (DIFAR), University of Genova, Genova, Italy
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38
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Johal H, Vannabouathong C, Chang Y, Zhu M, Bhandari M. Medical cannabis for orthopaedic patients with chronic musculoskeletal pain: does evidence support its use? Ther Adv Musculoskelet Dis 2020; 12:1759720X20937968. [PMID: 32655704 PMCID: PMC7333482 DOI: 10.1177/1759720x20937968] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/10/2020] [Accepted: 06/05/2020] [Indexed: 12/22/2022] Open
Abstract
The treatment of chronic, non-cancer musculoskeletal pain has become a topic growing interest as it is believed to be one of the reasons for the current opioid epidemic. The medicinal use of cannabis has a long history as a number of active compounds in cannabis have been shown to interact with the body's endocannabinoid system to reduce pain. This position paper provides a history on the evolution of cannabis, the science behind its therapeutic effects, and review of the evidence and current guideline recommendations on its use as a treatment for patients with chronic, non-cancer musculoskeletal pain. Results from systematic reviews have demonstrated a statistically significant reduction in chronic pain conditions with cannabinoids, compared with placebo, although the effects might be considered small and did not reach the minimally important difference. More adverse events were reported in the cannabinoid group than in the placebo group with longer than 2 weeks of treatment. There is a lack of evidence on dependence. With changes to policies, patients' perception has changed to be more positive toward the use of medical cannabis. Current recommendations from North America, Latin America, Europe, Australia and Iran support the use of medical cannabis for chronic, non-cancer pain. Based on the current evidence, it is our position that cannabinoids may be considered as an adjunctive therapy after recommended first- and second-line therapies have failed to provide sufficient efficacy or tolerability. Patients should consider the balance between the desirable and undesirable effects of taking cannabis for chronic pain, and comprehensively consider their own values and preferences, as well as cost-effectiveness factors, based on the information provided by their physician.
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Affiliation(s)
- Herman Johal
- Department of Surgery, McMaster University, 237 Barton Street East, Floor 5N, Hamilton, ON L8L 2X2, Canada
| | | | - Yaping Chang
- OrthoEvidence Inc., 3228 South Service Road, Suite 206, Burlington, ON L7N 3J6, Canada
| | - Meng Zhu
- OrthoEvidence Inc., Burlington, ON, Canada
| | - Mohit Bhandari
- Department of Surgery, McMaster University, Hamilton, ON, Canada
- OrthoEvidence Inc., Burlington, ON, Canada
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Golombek P, Müller M, Barthlott I, Sproll C, Lachenmeier DW. Conversion of Cannabidiol (CBD) into Psychotropic Cannabinoids Including Tetrahydrocannabinol (THC): A Controversy in the Scientific Literature. TOXICS 2020; 8:E41. [PMID: 32503116 PMCID: PMC7357058 DOI: 10.3390/toxics8020041] [Citation(s) in RCA: 71] [Impact Index Per Article: 17.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/27/2020] [Revised: 05/26/2020] [Accepted: 05/29/2020] [Indexed: 01/15/2023]
Abstract
Cannabidiol (CBD) is a naturally occurring, non-psychotropic cannabinoid of the hemp plant Cannabis sativa L. and has been known to induce several physiological and pharmacological effects. While CBD is approved as a medicinal product subject to prescription, it is also widely sold over the counter (OTC) in the form of food supplements, cosmetics and electronic cigarette liquids. However, regulatory difficulties arise from its origin being a narcotic plant or its status as an unapproved novel food ingredient. Regarding the consumer safety of these OTC products, the question whether or not CBD might be degraded into psychotropic cannabinoids, most prominently tetrahydrocannabinol (THC), under in vivo conditions initiated an ongoing scientific debate. This feature review aims to summarize the current knowledge of CBD degradation processes, specifically the results of in vitro and in vivo studies. Additionally, the literature on psychotropic effects of cannabinoids was carefully studied with a focus on the degradants and metabolites of CBD, but data were found to be sparse. While the literature is contradictory, most studies suggest that CBD is not converted to psychotropic THC under in vivo conditions. Nevertheless, it is certain that CBD degrades to psychotropic products in acidic environments. Hence, the storage stability of commercial formulations requires more attention in the future.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | | | - Dirk W. Lachenmeier
- Chemisches und Veterinäruntersuchungsamt (CVUA) Karlsruhe, Weissenburger Straße 3, 76187 Karlsruhe, Germany; (P.G.); (M.M.); (I.B.); (C.S.)
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40
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Klahn P. Cannabinoids-Promising Antimicrobial Drugs orIntoxicants with Benefits? Antibiotics (Basel) 2020; 9:E297. [PMID: 32498408 PMCID: PMC7345649 DOI: 10.3390/antibiotics9060297] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/11/2020] [Revised: 05/29/2020] [Accepted: 05/30/2020] [Indexed: 01/03/2023] Open
Abstract
Novel antimicrobial drugs are urgently needed to counteract the increasing occurrence ofbacterial resistance. Extracts of Cannabis sativa have been used for the treatment of several diseasessince ancient times. However, its phytocannabinoid constituents are predominantly associated withpsychotropic effects and medical applications far beyond the treatment of infections. It has beendemonstrated that several cannabinoids show potent antimicrobial activity against primarily Grampositivebacteria including methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA). As first in vivoefficacy has been demonstrated recently, it is time to discuss whether cannabinoids are promisingantimicrobial drug candidates or overhyped intoxicants with benefits.
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Affiliation(s)
- Philipp Klahn
- Institute of Organic Chemistry, Technische Universität Braunschweig, Hagenring 30,D-38106 Braunschweig, Germany
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41
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Franco R, Rivas-Santisteban R, Reyes-Resina I, Casanovas M, Pérez-Olives C, Ferreiro-Vera C, Navarro G, Sánchez de Medina V, Nadal X. Pharmacological potential of varinic-, minor-, and acidic phytocannabinoids. Pharmacol Res 2020; 158:104801. [PMID: 32416215 DOI: 10.1016/j.phrs.2020.104801] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/05/2020] [Revised: 04/03/2020] [Accepted: 04/03/2020] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
While natural Δ9-tetrahidrocannabinol (Δ9THC), cannabidiol (CBD), and their therapeutic potential have been extensively researched, some cannabinoids have been less extensively investigated. The present article compiles data from the literature that highlight the health benefits and therapeutic potential of lesser known phytocannabinoids, which we have divided into varinic, acidic, and "minor" (i.e., cannabinoids that are not present in high quantities in common varieties of Cannabis sativa L). A growing interest in these compounds, which are enriched in some cannabis varieties, has already resulted in enough preclinical information to show that they are promising therapeutic agents for a variety of diseases. Every phytocannabinoid has a "preferential" mechanism of action, and often targets the cannabinoid receptors, CB1 and/or CB2. The recent resolution of the structure of cannabinoid receptors demonstrates the atypical nature of cannabinoid binding, and that different binding modes depend on the agonist or partial agonist/inverse agonist, which allows for differential signaling, even acting on the same cannabinoid receptor. In addition, other players and multiple signaling pathways may be targeted/engaged by phytocannabinoids, thereby expanding the mechanistic possibilities for therapeutic use.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rafael Franco
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biomedicine, Universitat de Barcelona, Spain; Centro de Investigación Biomédica en Red sobre Enfermedades Neurodegenerativas (CiberNed), Spain.
| | - Rafael Rivas-Santisteban
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biomedicine, Universitat de Barcelona, Spain; Centro de Investigación Biomédica en Red sobre Enfermedades Neurodegenerativas (CiberNed), Spain
| | - Irene Reyes-Resina
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biomedicine, Universitat de Barcelona, Spain; Centro de Investigación Biomédica en Red sobre Enfermedades Neurodegenerativas (CiberNed), Spain
| | - Mireia Casanovas
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biomedicine, Universitat de Barcelona, Spain; Centro de Investigación Biomédica en Red sobre Enfermedades Neurodegenerativas (CiberNed), Spain
| | - Catalina Pérez-Olives
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biomedicine, Universitat de Barcelona, Spain
| | | | - Gemma Navarro
- Department of Biochemistry and Physiology, School of Pharmacy and Food Sciences, Universitat de Barcelona, Spain
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Effect of combined doses of Δ 9-tetrahydrocannabinol and cannabidiol or tetrahydrocannabinolic acid and cannabidiolic acid on acute nausea in male Sprague-Dawley rats. Psychopharmacology (Berl) 2020; 237:901-914. [PMID: 31897571 DOI: 10.1007/s00213-019-05428-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/31/2019] [Accepted: 12/06/2019] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Abstract
RATIONALE This study evaluated the potential of combined cannabis constituents to reduce nausea. OBJECTIVES Using the lithium chloride (LiCl)-induced conditioned gaping model of nausea in male rats, we aimed to: 1) Determine effective anti-nausea doses of cannabidiol (CBD) 2) Determine effectiveness and the mechanism of action of combined subthreshold doses of CBD and Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) 3) Determine effective doses of synthetic cannabidiolic acid (CBDA) 4) Determine effective doses of synthetic tetrahydrocannabinolic acid (THCA) 5) Determine the mechanism of action for THCA 6) Determine effectiveness and the mechanism of action of combined subthreshold doses of CBDA and THCA RESULTS: CBD (0.5-5 mg/kg, intraperitoneal [i.p.]) reduces LiCl-induced conditioned gaping (but 0.1, 20, 40 mg/kg are ineffective). Combined subthreshold doses of CBD (0.1 mg/kg, i.p.) and THC (0.1 mg/kg, i.p.) produce suppression of conditioned gaping, and this effect is blocked by administration of either WAY100635 (a serotonin 1A [5-HT1A]) receptor antagonist or SR141716 (SR; a CB1 receptor antagonist). THCA (0.01 mg/kg, i.p.) reduces conditioned gaping and administration of MK886 (a peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor alpha [PPARα] antagonist) blocked THCA's anti-nausea effect. Combined subthreshold doses of CBDA (0.00001 mg/kg, i.p.) and THCA (0.001 mg/kg, i.p.) produce suppression of conditioned gaping, and this effect is blocked by administration of WAY100635 or MK886. CONCLUSION Combinations of very low doses of CBD + THC or CBDA + THCA robustly reduce LiCl-induced conditioned gaping. Clinical trials are necessary to determine the efficacy of using single or combined cannabinoids as adjunct treatments with existing anti-emetic regimens to manage chemotherapy-induced nausea.
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43
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Tetrahydrocannabinolic acid A (THCA-A) reduces adiposity and prevents metabolic disease caused by diet-induced obesity. Biochem Pharmacol 2020; 171:113693. [DOI: 10.1016/j.bcp.2019.113693] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/29/2019] [Accepted: 11/05/2019] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
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Watanabe S, Santos TQ, Matyska-Pesek MT, Pesek JJ. Evaluating novel silica hydride-based stationary phases for the analysis of phytocannabinoids and other psychoactive drugs. J Sep Sci 2019; 42:1972-1979. [PMID: 30919567 DOI: 10.1002/jssc.201900013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/22/2019] [Revised: 03/22/2019] [Accepted: 03/23/2019] [Indexed: 11/10/2022]
Abstract
Three silica hydride based novel chromatographic phases chemically-bonded with allyloxy-DL-alpha-tocopherol, allylpentafluorophenyl, and 1-eicosene moieties were evaluated as separation media for selected phytocannabinoids and other substances of abuse. In order to assess column selectivity, a series of reference standards was analyzed and detected by using liquid chromatography with mass spectrometry. Further, quantitative detections of cannabidiol and tetrahydrocannabinol were attempted for the extracts of cannabis plants and cannabidiol gummy formulation. For potential bioanalytical applications, the columns were evaluated for substance screening in a human urine matrix. In summary, the newly developed columns are functional and effective for the analysis of phytocannabinoids and various psychoactive drugs with or without the presence of biological matrices.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Theresa Q Santos
- Department of Chemistry, San José State University, San Jose, USA
| | | | - Joseph J Pesek
- Department of Chemistry, San José State University, San Jose, USA
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45
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Banister SD, Arnold JC, Connor M, Glass M, McGregor IS. Dark Classics in Chemical Neuroscience: Δ 9-Tetrahydrocannabinol. ACS Chem Neurosci 2019; 10:2160-2175. [PMID: 30689342 DOI: 10.1021/acschemneuro.8b00651] [Citation(s) in RCA: 52] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Cannabis ( Cannabis sativa) is the most widely used illicit drug in the world, with an estimated 192 million users globally. The main psychoactive component of cannabis is (-)- trans-Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol (Δ9-THC), a compound with a diverse range of pharmacological actions. The unique and distinctive intoxication caused by Δ9-THC primarily reflects partial agonist action at central cannabinoid type 1 (CB1) receptors. Δ9-THC is an approved therapeutic treatment for a range of conditions, including chronic pain, chemotherapy-induced nausea and vomiting, and multiple sclerosis, and is being investigated in indications such as anorexia nervosa, agitation in dementia, and Tourette's syndrome. It is available as a regulated pharmaceutical in products such as Marinol, Sativex, and Namisol as well as in an ever-increasing range of unregistered medicinal and recreational cannabis products. While cannabis is an ancient medicament, contemporary use is embroiled in legal, scientific, and social controversy, much of which relates to the potential hazards and benefits of Δ9-THC itself. Robust contemporary debate surrounds the therapeutic value of Δ9-THC in different diseases, its capacity to produce psychosis and cognitive impairment, and the addictive and "gateway" potential of the drug. This review will provide a profile of the chemistry, pharmacology, and therapeutic uses of Δ9-THC as well as the historical and societal import of this unique, distinctive, and ubiquitous psychoactive substance.
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Affiliation(s)
- Samuel D. Banister
- Lambert Initiative for Cannabinoid Therapeutics, Brain and Mind Centre, The University of Sydney, Sydney, NSW 2050, Australia
- Faculty of Science and School of Chemistry, The University of Sydney, Sydney, NSW 2006, Australia
| | - Jonathon C. Arnold
- Lambert Initiative for Cannabinoid Therapeutics, Brain and Mind Centre, The University of Sydney, Sydney, NSW 2050, Australia
- School of Medical Science and Discipline of Pharmacology, The University of Sydney, Sydney, NSW 2006, Australia
| | - Mark Connor
- Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, Macquarie University, Macquarie Park, NSW 2109, Australia
| | - Michelle Glass
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, University of Otago, Dunedin 9016, New Zealand
| | - Iain S. McGregor
- Lambert Initiative for Cannabinoid Therapeutics, Brain and Mind Centre, The University of Sydney, Sydney, NSW 2050, Australia
- Faculty of Science and School of Psychology, The University of Sydney, Sydney, NSW 2006, Australia
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46
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Abstract
Extracts from Cannabis species have aided the discovery of the endocannabinoid signaling system (ECSS) and phytocannabinoids that possess broad therapeutic potential. Whereas the reinforcing effects of C. sativa are largely attributed to CB1 receptor agonism by Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol (Δ9-THC), the observed medicinal effects of Cannabis arise from the combined actions of various compounds. In addition to compounds bearing a classical cannabinoid structure, naturally occurring fatty acid amides and esters resembling anandamide and 2-arachidonoyl glycerol isolated from non- Cannabis species are also valuable tools for studying ECSS function. This review highlights the potential of plant-based secondary metabolites from Cannabis and unrelated species as ECSS modulators.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christopher W Cunningham
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences , Concordia University Wisconsin , Mequon , Wisconsin 53097 , United States
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47
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Bettiol A, Lombardi N, Crescioli G, Maggini V, Gallo E, Mugelli A, Firenzuoli F, Baronti R, Vannacci A. Galenic Preparations of Therapeutic Cannabis sativa Differ in Cannabinoids Concentration: A Quantitative Analysis of Variability and Possible Clinical Implications. Front Pharmacol 2019; 9:1543. [PMID: 30705629 PMCID: PMC6344428 DOI: 10.3389/fphar.2018.01543] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/09/2018] [Accepted: 12/18/2018] [Indexed: 01/02/2023] Open
Abstract
Introduction: Magistral preparations of therapeutic cannabis are extracted from standardized products imported from Holland or from the Florence Military Pharmaceutical Chemical Works, but extraction protocols differ among galenic laboratories. This study assessed the inter-laboratory variability in concentrations of cannabidiol (CBD), cannabinol (CBN), tetrahydrocannabinol (THC), and tetrahydrocannabinolic acid (THCA) among different magistral oil preparations. Methods: 219 samples of Bediol, Bedrobinol, Bedrolite or FM-2 70 or 100 mg/ml in oil were collected from 3 laboratories. Concentrations of CBD, CBN, THC, and THCA were quantified by high-pressure liquid chromatography; inter-laboratories variability was assessed using the Kruskal–Wallis test. Results: A significant variability in CBD and THC concentrations was found for Bediol 70 mg/ml samples from 2 laboratories [for CBD: median 5.4 (range 4.8–6.6) vs. 6.1 (4.9–7.2) mg/ml, p = 0.033; for THC: 3.6 (3.1–3.9) vs. 4.0 (2.6–5.1) mg/ml, p = 0.020]. As for Bediol 100 mg/ml, a significant variability emerged in THC concentrations among the three considered laboratories [5.7 (-) vs. 4.2 (1.5–4.8) vs. 5.2 (4.2–6.9), p = 0.030]. No significant inter-laboratory variability emerged for Bedrocan and Bedrolite. Concentrations of CBD, CBN, and THC were <LOQ in all Bedrocan samples, and CBN and THCA were <LOQ in all Bedrolite samples. As for FM-2, a significant inter-laboratories variability was found for CBD concentrations. Conclusion: Quantitative variability of cannabinoids in magistral preparations might impact on the efficacy and safety of therapeutic cannabis. A standardized protocol is needed to guarantee a homogeneous product and patients’ therapeutic continuity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alessandra Bettiol
- Section of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Department of Neurosciences, Psychology, Drug Research and Child Health, University of Florence, Florence, Italy.,Tuscan Regional Centre of Pharmacovigilance and Phytovigilance, Florence, Italy
| | - Niccolò Lombardi
- Section of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Department of Neurosciences, Psychology, Drug Research and Child Health, University of Florence, Florence, Italy.,Tuscan Regional Centre of Pharmacovigilance and Phytovigilance, Florence, Italy
| | - Giada Crescioli
- Section of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Department of Neurosciences, Psychology, Drug Research and Child Health, University of Florence, Florence, Italy.,Tuscan Regional Centre of Pharmacovigilance and Phytovigilance, Florence, Italy
| | - Valentina Maggini
- Department of Experimental and Clinical Medicine, University of Florence, Florence, Italy.,Center for Integrative Medicine, Careggi University Hospital, University of Florence, Florence, Italy
| | - Eugenia Gallo
- Department of Experimental and Clinical Medicine, University of Florence, Florence, Italy.,Center for Integrative Medicine, Careggi University Hospital, University of Florence, Florence, Italy
| | - Alessandro Mugelli
- Section of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Department of Neurosciences, Psychology, Drug Research and Child Health, University of Florence, Florence, Italy.,Tuscan Regional Centre of Pharmacovigilance and Phytovigilance, Florence, Italy
| | - Fabio Firenzuoli
- Center for Integrative Medicine, Careggi University Hospital, University of Florence, Florence, Italy
| | - Roberto Baronti
- Clinical Toxicology Laboratory, Local Health Service, Florence, Italy
| | - Alfredo Vannacci
- Section of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Department of Neurosciences, Psychology, Drug Research and Child Health, University of Florence, Florence, Italy.,Tuscan Regional Centre of Pharmacovigilance and Phytovigilance, Florence, Italy
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48
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Citti C, Linciano P, Panseri S, Vezzalini F, Forni F, Vandelli MA, Cannazza G. Cannabinoid Profiling of Hemp Seed Oil by Liquid Chromatography Coupled to High-Resolution Mass Spectrometry. FRONTIERS IN PLANT SCIENCE 2019; 10:120. [PMID: 30815007 PMCID: PMC6381057 DOI: 10.3389/fpls.2019.00120] [Citation(s) in RCA: 44] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/03/2018] [Accepted: 01/24/2019] [Indexed: 05/02/2023]
Abstract
Hemp seed oil is well known for its nutraceutical, cosmetic and pharmaceutical properties due to a perfectly balanced content of omega 3 and omega 6 polyunsaturated fatty acids. Its importance for human health is reflected by the success on the market of organic goods in recent years. However, it is of utmost importance to consider that its healthy properties are strictly related to its chemical composition, which varies depending not only on the manufacturing method, but also on the hemp variety employed. In the present work, we analyzed the chemical profile of ten commercially available organic hemp seed oils. Their cannabinoid profile was evaluated by a liquid chromatography method coupled to high-resolution mass spectrometry. Besides tetrahydrocannabinol and cannabidiol, other 30 cannabinoids were identified for the first time in hemp seed oil. The results obtained were processed according to an untargeted metabolomics approach. The multivariate statistical analysis showed highly significant differences in the chemical composition and, in particular, in the cannabinoid content of the hemp oils under investigation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Cinzia Citti
- Department of Life Sciences, University of Modena and Reggio Emilia, Modena, Italy
- CNR NANOTEC, Institute of Nanotechnology, Lecce, Italy
- *Correspondence: Cinzia Citti, Giuseppe Cannazza,
| | - Pasquale Linciano
- Department of Life Sciences, University of Modena and Reggio Emilia, Modena, Italy
| | - Sara Panseri
- Department of Health, Animal Science and Food Safety, University of Milan, Milan, Italy
| | - Francesca Vezzalini
- Department of Life Sciences, University of Modena and Reggio Emilia, Modena, Italy
| | - Flavio Forni
- Department of Life Sciences, University of Modena and Reggio Emilia, Modena, Italy
| | | | - Giuseppe Cannazza
- Department of Life Sciences, University of Modena and Reggio Emilia, Modena, Italy
- CNR NANOTEC, Institute of Nanotechnology, Lecce, Italy
- *Correspondence: Cinzia Citti, Giuseppe Cannazza,
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Elucidation of structure-function relationship of THCA and CBDA synthase from Cannabis sativaL. J Biotechnol 2018; 284:17-26. [PMID: 30053500 DOI: 10.1016/j.jbiotec.2018.07.031] [Citation(s) in RCA: 45] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/05/2018] [Revised: 07/23/2018] [Accepted: 07/24/2018] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
Abstract
Cannabinoids are secondary natural products from the plant Cannabis sativaL. Therapeutic indications of cannabinoids currently comprise a significant area of medicinal research. We have expressed the Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinolic acid synthase (THCAS) and cannabidiolic acid synthase (CBDAS) recombinantly in Komagataella phaffii and could detect eight different products with a cannabinoid scaffold after conversion of the precursor cannabigerolic acid (CBGA). Besides five products remaining to be identified, both enzymes were forming three major cannabinoids of C. sativa - Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinolic acid (THCA), cannabidiolic acid (CBDA) and cannabichromenic acid (CBCA). In pursuit of improved enzyme properties for a biotechnological cannabinoid production, we performed site-directed mutagenesis to investigate the glycosylation pattern, the C-terminal berberine-bridge-enzyme (BBE) domain, the active site and the product specificity of both enzymes. The THCAS variant T_N89Q+N499Q (lacking two glycosylation sites) exerted about two-fold increased activity compared to wild-type enzyme. Variant T_H494C+R532C (additional disulfide bridge) exerted about 1.7-fold increased activity compared to wild-type enzyme and a shifted temperature optimum from 52 °C to 57 °C. We generated two CBDAS variants, C_S116A and C_A414V, with 2.8 and 3.3-fold increased catalytic activities for CBDA production. C_A414V additionally showed a broadened pH spectrum and a 19-fold increased catalytic activity for THCA production. These studies lay the groundwork for further research as well as biotechnological cannabinoid production.
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50
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Nallathambi R, Mazuz M, Namdar D, Shik M, Namintzer D, Vinayaka AC, Ion A, Faigenboim A, Nasser A, Laish I, Konikoff FM, Koltai H. Identification of Synergistic Interaction Between Cannabis-Derived Compounds for Cytotoxic Activity in Colorectal Cancer Cell Lines and Colon Polyps That Induces Apoptosis-Related Cell Death and Distinct Gene Expression. Cannabis Cannabinoid Res 2018; 3:120-135. [PMID: 29992185 PMCID: PMC6038055 DOI: 10.1089/can.2018.0010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 48] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Introduction: Colorectal cancer remains the third most common cancer diagnosis and fourth leading cause of cancer-related mortality worldwide. Purified cannabinoids have been reported to prevent proliferation, metastasis, and induce apoptosis in a variety of cancer cell types. However, the active compounds from Cannabis sativa flowers and their interactions remain elusive. Research Aim: This study was aimed to specify the cytotoxic effect of C. sativa-derived extracts on colon cancer cells and adenomatous polyps by identification of active compound(s) and characterization of their interaction. Materials and Methods: Ethanol extracts of C. sativa were analyzed by high-performance liquid chromatography and gas chromatograph/mass spectrometry and their cytotoxic activity was determined using alamarBlue-based assay (Resazurin) and tetrazolium dye-based assay (XTT) on cancer and normal colon cell lines and on dysplastic adenomatous polyp cells. Annexin V Assay and fluorescence-activated cell sorting (FACS) were used to determine apoptosis and cell cycle, and RNA sequencing was used to determine gene expression. Results: The unheated cannabis extracts (C2F), fraction 7 (F7), and fraction 3 (F3) had cytotoxic activity on colon cancer cells, but reduced activity on normal colon cell lines. Moreover, synergistic interaction was found between F7 and F3 and the latter contains mainly cannabigerolic acid. The F7 and F7+F3 cytotoxic activity involved cell apoptosis and cell cycle arrest in S or G0/G1 phases, respectively. RNA profiling identified 2283 differentially expressed genes in F7+F3 treatment, among them genes related to the Wnt signaling pathway and apoptosis-related genes. Moreover, F7, F3, and F7+F3 treatments induced cell death of polyp cells. Conclusions:C. sativa compounds interact synergistically for cytotoxic activity against colon cancer cells and induce cell cycle arrest, apoptotic cell death, and distinct gene expression. F3, F7, and F7+F3 are also active on adenomatous polyps, suggesting possible future therapeutic value.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Moran Mazuz
- Agricultural Research Organization, Volcani Center, Bet Dagan, Israel
| | - Dvory Namdar
- Agricultural Research Organization, Volcani Center, Bet Dagan, Israel
| | - Michal Shik
- Agricultural Research Organization, Volcani Center, Bet Dagan, Israel.,The Mina and Everard Goodman Faculty of Life Sciences, Bar-Ilan University, Ramat Gan, Israel
| | - Diana Namintzer
- Agricultural Research Organization, Volcani Center, Bet Dagan, Israel.,The Mina and Everard Goodman Faculty of Life Sciences, Bar-Ilan University, Ramat Gan, Israel
| | | | - Aurel Ion
- Agricultural Research Organization, Volcani Center, Bet Dagan, Israel
| | - Adi Faigenboim
- Agricultural Research Organization, Volcani Center, Bet Dagan, Israel
| | - Ahmad Nasser
- The Interinstitutional Analytical Instrumentation Unit (IU), ARO, Volcani Center, Bet Dagan, Israel
| | - Ido Laish
- Department of Gastroenterology and Hepatology, Meir Medical Center, Kfar Saba, Israel
| | - Fred M Konikoff
- Department of Gastroenterology and Hepatology, Meir Medical Center, Kfar Saba, Israel.,Sackler Faculty of Medicine, Tel Aviv University, Tel Aviv, Israel
| | - Hinanit Koltai
- Agricultural Research Organization, Volcani Center, Bet Dagan, Israel
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