Immune cell-specific amplification of interferon signaling by the IRF-4/8-PU.1 complex

The Diverse Roles of ETV6 Alterations in B-Lymphoblastic Leukemia and Other Hematopoietic Cancers

Genetic alterations of the repressive ETS family transcription factor gene ETV6 are recurrent in several categories of hematopoietic malignancy, including subsets of B-cell and T-cell acute lymphoblastic leukemias (B-ALL and T-ALL), myeloid neoplasms, and mature B-cell lymphomas. ETV6 is essential for adult hematopoietic stem cells (HSCs), contributes to specific functions of some mature immune cells, and plays a key role in thrombopoiesis as demonstrated by familial ETV6 mutations associated with thrombocytopenia and predisposition to hematopoietic cancers, particularly B-ALL. ETV6 appears to have a tumor suppressor role in several hematopoietic lineages, as demonstrated by recurrent somatic loss-of-function (LoF) and putative dominant-negative alterations in leukemias and lymphomas. ETV6 rearrangements contribute to recurrent fusion oncogenes such as the B-ALL-associated transcription factor (TF) fusions ETV6::RUNX1 and PAX5::ETV6, rare drivers such as ETV6::NCOA6, and a spectrum of tyrosine kinase gene fusions encoding hyperactive signaling proteins that self-associate via the ETV6 N-terminal pointed domain. Another subset of recurrent rearrangements involving the ETV6 gene locus appear to function primarily to drive overexpression of the partner gene. This review surveys what is known about the biochemical and genome regulatory properties of ETV6 as well as our current understanding of how alterations in these functions contribute to hematopoietic and nonhematopoietic cancers.

pDC-like cells are pre-DC2 and require KLF4 to control homeostatic CD4 T cells

Plasmacytoid dendritic cells (pDCs) have been shown to play an important role during immune responses, ranging from initial viral control through the production of type I interferons to antigen presentation. However, recent studies uncovered unexpected heterogeneity among pDCs. We identified a previously uncharacterized immune subset, referred to as pDC-like cells, that not only resembles pDCs but also shares conventional DC (cDC) features. We show that this subset is a circulating precursor distinct from common DC progenitors, with prominent cDC2 potential. Our findings from human CD2-iCre and CD300c-iCre lineage tracing mouse models suggest that a substantial fraction of cDC2s originates from pDC-like cells, which can therefore be referred to as pre-DC2. This precursor subset responds to homeostatic cytokines, such as macrophage colony stimulating factor, by expanding and differentiating into cDC2 that efficiently prime T helper 17 (TH17) cells. Development of pre-DC2 into CX3CR1+ ESAM- cDC2b but not CX3CR1- ESAM+ cDC2a requires the transcription factor KLF4. Last, we show that, under homeostatic conditions, this developmental pathway regulates the immune threshold at barrier sites by controlling the pool of TH17 cells within skin-draining lymph nodes.

IRF8 Regulates Intrinsic Ferroptosis through Repressing p53 Expression to Maintain Tumor Cell Sensitivity to Cytotoxic T Lymphocytes

Ferroptosis has emerged as a cytotoxic T lymphocyte (CTL)-induced tumor cell death pathway. The regulation of tumor cell sensitivity to ferroptosis is incompletely understood. Here, we report that interferon regulatory factor 8 (IRF8) functions as a regulator of tumor cell intrinsic ferroptosis. Genome-wide gene expression profiling identified the ferroptosis pathway as an IRF8-regulated pathway in tumor cells. IRF8.KO tumor cells acquire resistance to intrinsic ferroptosis induction and IRF8-deficient tumor cells also exhibit decreased ferroptosis in response to tumor-specific CTLs. Irf8 deletion increased p53 expression in tumor cells and knocking out p53 in IRF8.KO tumor cells restored tumor cell sensitivity to intrinsic ferroptosis induction. Furthermore, IRF8.KO tumor cells grew significantly faster than WT tumor cells in immune-competent mice. To restore IRF8 expression in tumor cells, we designed and synthesized codon usage-optimized IRF8-encoding DNA to generate IRF8-encoding plasmid NTC9385R-mIRF8. Restoring IRF8 expression via a lipid nanoparticle-encapsulated NTC9385R-mIRF8 plasmid therapy suppressed established tumor growth in vivo. In human cancer patients, nivolumab responders have a significantly higher IRF8 expression level in their tumor cells as compared to the non-responders. Our data determine that IRF8 represses p53 expression to maintain tumor cell sensitivity to intrinsic ferroptosis.

Silencing of IRF8 Mediated by m6A Modification Promotes the Progression of T-Cell Acute Lymphoblastic Leukemia

T-cell acute lymphoblastic leukemia (T-ALL) is an aggressive hematological malignancy with a poor prognosis, urging for novel therapeutic targets and treatment strategies. N6-methyladenosine (m6A) is a crucial methylation modification that affects the pathogenesis of leukemia by regulating the mRNA of key genes. Interferon regulatory factor 8 (IRF8) is a crucial transcription factor for hematological lineage commitment, but its role in T-ALL is unclear. Here, IRF8 is shown to suppress T-ALL. The expression of IRF8 is abnormally silenced in patients with T-ALL. Knockout of Irf8 significantly hastens the progression of Notch1-induced T-ALL in vivo. Overexpression of IRF8 suppresses the proliferation and invasion of T-ALL cells by inhibiting the phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase/AKT signaling pathway. The fat mass- and obesity-associated protein (FTO), an m6A demethylase, is responsible for directly binding to m6A sites in 3' untranslated region of IRF8 messenger RNA (mRNA) and inducing mRNA degradation via m6A modification. Targeting the FTO-IRF8 axis is used as a proof of concept therapy; inhibition of FTO's demethylase activity drastically alleviates the proliferation of leukemic cells and prolongs the survival of T-ALL mice by restoring IRF8 expression. This study elucidates the pathogenesis of T-ALL from the perspective of epitranscriptomics and provides new insight into the genetic mechanisms and targeted therapy of T-ALL.

IRF8: Mechanism of Action and Health Implications

Interferon regulatory factor 8 (IRF8) is a transcription factor of the IRF protein family. IRF8 was originally identified as an essentialfactor for myeloid cell lineage commitment and differentiation. Deletion of Irf8 leads to massive accumulation of CD11b⁺Gr1⁺ immature myeloid cells (IMCs), particularly the CD11b⁺Ly6C^hi/+Ly6G⁻ polymorphonuclear myeloid-derived suppressor cell-like cells (PMN-MDSCs). Under pathological conditions such as cancer, Irf8 is silenced by its promoter DNA hypermethylation, resulting in accumulation of PMN-MDSCs and CD11b⁺ Ly6G⁺Ly6C^lo monocytic MDSCs (M-MDSCs) in mice. IRF8 is often silenced in MDSCs in human cancer patients. MDSCs are heterogeneous populations of immune suppressive cells that suppress T and NK cell activity to promote tumor immune evasion and produce growth factors to exert direct tumor-promoting activity. Emerging experimental data reveals that IRF8 is also expressed in non-hematopoietic cells. Epithelial cell-expressed IRF8 regulates apoptosis and represses Osteopontin (OPN). Human tumor cells may use the IRF8 promoter DNA methylation as a mechanism to repress IRF8 expression to advance cancer through acquiring apoptosis resistance and OPN up-regulation. Elevated OPN engages CD44 to suppress T cell activation and promote tumor cell stemness to advance cancer. IRF8 thus is a transcription factor that regulates both the immune and non-immune components in human health and diseases.

Transcription-independent regulation of STING activation and innate immune responses by IRF8 in monocytes

Sensing of cytosolic DNA of microbial or cellular/mitochondrial origin by cGAS initiates innate immune responses via the adaptor protein STING. It remains unresolved how the activity of STING is balanced between a productive innate immune response and induction of autoimmunity. Here we show that interferon regulatory factor 8 (IRF8) is essential for efficient activation of STING-mediated innate immune responses in monocytes. This function of IRF8 is independent of its transcriptional role in monocyte differentiation. In uninfected cells, IRF8 remains inactive via sequestration of its IRF-associated domain by its N- and C-terminal tails, which reduces its association with STING. Upon triggering the DNA sensing pathway, IRF8 is phosphorylated at Serine 151 to allow its association with STING via the IRF-associated domain. This is essential for STING polymerization and TBK1-mediated STING and IRF3 phosphorylation. Consistently, IRF8-deficiency impairs host defense against the DNA virus HSV-1, and blocks DNA damage-induced cellular senescence. Bone marrow-derived mononuclear cells which have an autoimmune phenotype due to deficiency of Trex1, respond to IRF-8 deletion with reduced pro-inflammatory cytokine production. Peripheral blood mononuclear cells from systemic lupus erythematosus patients are characterized by elevated phosphorylation of IRF8 at the same Serine residue we find to be important in STING activation, and in these cells STING is hyper-active. Taken together, the transcription-independent function of IRF8 we describe here appears to mediate STING activation and represents an important regulatory step in the cGAS/STING innate immune pathway in monocytes.

The transcription factor IRF8 has been shown to regulate monocyte differentiation via its DNA-binding activity. Here authors show that IRF8 is also involved in cytosolic DNA sensing via its phosphorylation-dependent association to the adaptor protein STING, thus representing an important checkpoint between immune response and autoimmunity in monocytes.

The Roles of IRF-8 in Regulating IL-9-Mediated Immunologic Mechanisms in the Development of DLBCL: A State-of-the-Art Literature Review

Interferon regulatory factor 8 (IRF-8) is a transcription suppressor that functions through associations with other transcription factors, contributing to the growth and differentiation of bone marrow cells and the activation of macrophages. IRF-8 expression profoundly affects pathogenic processes ranging from infections to blood diseases. Interleukin-9 (IL-9) is a multipotent cytokine that acts on a variety of immune cells by binding to the IL-9 receptor (IL-9R) and is involved in a variety of diseases such as cancer, autoimmune diseases, and other pathogen-mediated immune regulatory diseases. Studies have shown that IL-9 levels are significantly increased in the serum of patients with diffuse large B-cell lymphoma (DLBCL), and IL-9 levels are correlated with the DLBCL prognostic index. The activator protein-1 (AP-1) complex is a dimeric transcription factor that plays a critical role in cellular proliferation, apoptosis, angiogenesis, oncogene-induced transformation, and invasion by controlling basic and induced transcription of several genes containing the AP-1 locus. The AP-1 complex is involved in many cancers, including hematological tumors. In this report, we systematically review the precise roles of IL-9, IRF-8, and AP-1 in tumor development, particularly with regard to DLBCL. Finally, the recent progress in IRF-8 and IL-9 research is presented; the possible relationship among IRF-8, IL-9, and AP-1 family members is analyzed; and future research prospects are discussed.

Expression profile of PU.1 in CD4+T cells from patients with systemic lupus erythematosus

Systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE) is a multisystem autoimmune disease with complex genetic predisposing factors involved. PU.1 is an important member of the ETS transcription factors family which has diverse functions such as regulating the proliferation, differentiation of immune cells and multiple inflammatory cytokines. Previous studies preliminary explored the relation between PU.1 and SLE. To further explain the potential role of PU.1 in the pathogenesis of SLE, 40 SLE patients and 20 age-sex matched healthy controls (HC) were recruited in this study. Flow cytometry was used to test the percentages of CD4+PU.1+T cells in peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs) from patients with SLE and HC. Expression levels of PU.1 mRNA in CD4+T cells from SLE patients and HC were analyzed by real-time transcription-polymerase chain reaction. Expression levels of plasma IL-1β, IL-9, IL-18, IL-6, IFN-α, TNF-α, IL-10 and TGF-β1 were measured by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay. The percentage of CD4+PU.1+T cells in PBMCs from patients with SLE was significantly higher than that from HC (P < 0.001). In addition, the PU.1 mRNA expression in CD4+T cells from SLE patients was increased than that from HC (P = 0.002). In SLE patients, no significant correlation was found between the percentage of CD4+PU.1+T cells and the expression of PU.1 mRNA in CD4+T cells (P > 0.05). Associations of PU.1 mRNA expression in CD4+T cells with major clinical and laboratory parameters of SLE patients were also analyzed, but no significant correlations were found. Consistent with previous studies, SLE patients had increased IL-1β, IL-18, IL-6, IFN-α, TNF-α and IL-10 plasma concentrations than HC (P < 0.01). The expression level of plasma TGF-β1 was significantly decreased in SLE patients than in HC (P < 0.001). In SLE patients, the expression level of IL-1β was positive correlated with PU.1 mRNA expression in CD4+T cells (P = 0.001). Our study first time evaluated the expression profile of PU.1 in CD4+T cells from SLE patients confirming that PU.1 may participate in the pathogenesis of SLE.

System-Level Scenarios for the Elucidation of T Cell-Mediated Germinal Center B Cell Differentiation

Germinal center (GC) reactions are vital to the correct functioning of the adaptive immune system, through formation of high affinity, class switched antibodies. GCs are transient anatomical structures in secondary lymphoid organs where specific B cells, after recognition of antigen and with T cell help, undergo class switching. Subsequently, B cells cycle between zones of proliferation and somatic hypermutation and zones where renewed antigen acquisition and T cell help allows for selection of high affinity B cells (affinity maturation). Eventually GC B cells first differentiate into long-lived memory B cells (MBC) and finally into plasma cells (PC) that partially migrate to the bone marrow to encapsulate into long-lived survival niches. The regulation of GC reactions is a highly dynamically coordinated process that occurs between various cells and molecules that change in their signals. Here, we present a system-level perspective of T cell-mediated GC B cell differentiation, presenting and discussing the experimental and computational efforts on the regulation of the GCs. We aim to integrate Systems Biology with B cell biology, to advance elucidation of the regulation of high-affinity, class switched antibody formation, thus to shed light on the delicate functioning of the adaptive immune system. Specifically, we: i) review experimental findings of internal and external factors driving various GC dynamics, such as GC initiation, maturation and GCBC fate determination; ii) draw comparisons between experimental observations and mathematical modeling investigations; and iii) discuss and reflect on current strategies of modeling efforts, to elucidate B cell behavior during the GC tract. Finally, perspectives are specifically given on to the areas where a Systems Biology approach may be useful to predict novel GCBC-T cell interaction dynamics.

PU.1 and IRF8 Modulate Activation of NLRP3 Inflammasome via Regulating Its Expression in Human Macrophages

NLRP3 inflammasomes play crucial roles in the initiation of host defense by converting pro-Caspase-1 to mature Caspase-1, which in turn processes immature IL-1β and IL-18 into their biologically active forms. Although NLRP3 expression is restricted to monocytic lineages such as monocytes, macrophages, and dendritic cells, the mechanisms determining the lineage-specific expression of NLRP3 remain largely unknown. In this study, we investigated the transcription factors involved in cell-type-specific transcription of NLRP3. We found that a distal, rather than a proximal, promoter of human NLRP3 was predominantly used in the human monocytic cell lines and macrophages. Reporter analysis showed that an Ets/IRF composite element (EICE) at -309/-300 and an Ets motif at +5/+8 were critical for transcriptional activity of the distal promoter. Electrophoretic mobility shift assays and chromatin immunoprecipitation assays demonstrated that two transcription factors, PU.1 and IRF8, both of which play essential roles in development and gene expression of the monocytic lineage, were bound to the EICE site, whereas PU.1 alone was bound to the Ets site. Knockdown of PU.1 and/or IRF8 mediated by small interfering RNA downregulated expression of NLRP3 and related molecules and markedly diminished the LPS-induced release of IL-1β in THP-1, suggesting that activity of the NLRP3 inflammasome was suppressed by knockdown of PU.1 and IRF8. Taken together, these results indicate that PU.1 and IRF8 are involved in the monocytic lineage-specific expression of NLRP3 by binding to regulatory elements within its promoter and that PU.1 and IRF8 are potential targets for regulating the activity of the NLRP3 inflammasome.

High Amount of Transcription Factor IRF8 Engages AP1-IRF Composite Elements in Enhancers to Direct Type 1 Conventional Dendritic Cell Identity

Development and function of conventional dendritic cell (cDC) subsets, cDC1 and cDC2, depend on transcription factors (TFs) IRF8 and IRF4, respectively. Since IRF8 and IRF4 can each interact with TF BATF3 at AP1-IRF composite elements (AICEs) and with TF PU.1 at Ets-IRF composite elements (EICEs), it is unclear how these factors exert divergent actions. Here, we determined the basis for distinct effects of IRF8 and IRF4 in cDC development. Genes expressed commonly by cDC1 and cDC2 used EICE-dependent enhancers that were redundantly activated by low amounts of either IRF4 or IRF8. By contrast, cDC1-specific genes relied on AICE-dependent enhancers, which required high IRF concentrations, but were activated by either IRF4 or IRF8. IRF8 was specifically required only by a minority of cDC1-specific genes, such as Xcr1, which could distinguish between IRF8 and IRF4 DNA-binding domains. Thus, these results explain how BATF3-dependent Irf8 autoactivation underlies emergence of the cDC1-specific transcriptional program.

Role of ETS1 in the Transcriptional Network of Diffuse Large B Cell Lymphoma of the Activated B Cell-Like Type

Diffuse large B cell lymphoma (DLBCL) is a heterogenous disease that has been distinguished into at least two major molecular entities, the germinal center-like B cell (GCB) DLBCL and activated-like B cell (ABC) DLBCL, based on transcriptome expression profiling. A recurrent ch11q24.3 gain is observed in roughly a fourth of DLBCL cases resulting in the overexpression of two ETS transcription factor family members, ETS1 and FLI1. Here, we knocked down ETS1 expression by siRNA and analyzed expression changes integrating them with ChIP-seq data to identify genes directly regulated by ETS1. ETS1 silencing affected expression of genes involved in B cell signaling activation, B cell differentiation, cell cycle, and immune processes. Integration of RNA-Seq (RNA sequencing) data and ChIP-Seq (chromatin immunoprecipitation sequencing) identified 97 genes as bona fide, positively regulated direct targets of ETS1 in ABC-DLBCL. Among these was the Fc receptor for IgM, FCMR (also known as FAIM3 or Toso), which showed higher expression in ABC- than GCB-DLBCL clinical specimens. These findings show that ETS1 is contributing to the lymphomagenesis in a subset of DLBCL and identifies FCMR as a novel target of ETS1, predominantly expressed in ABC-DLBCL.

Protein inhibitor of activated STAT1 (PIAS1) inhibits IRF8 activation of Epstein-Barr virus lytic gene expression

Epstein-Barr virus (EBV), a major human oncogenic pathogen, establishes life-long persistent infections. In latently infected B lymphocytes, the virus persists as an episome in the nucleus. Periodic reactivation of latent virus is controlled by both viral and cellular factors. Our recent studies showed that interferon regulatory factor 8 (IRF8) is required for EBV lytic reactivation while protein inhibitor of activated STAT1 (PIAS1) functions as an EBV restriction factor to block viral reactivation. Here, we show that IRF8 directly binds to the EBV genome and regulates EBV lytic gene expression together with PU.1 and EBV transactivator RTA. Furthermore, our study reveals that PIAS1 antagonizes IRF8/PU.1-mediated lytic gene activation through binding to and inhibiting IRF8. Together, our study establishes IRF8 as a transcriptional activator in promoting EBV reactivation and defines PIAS1 as an inhibitor of IRF8 to limit lytic gene expression.

Functional characterization of IRF8 regulation of type II IFN in golden pompano (Trachinotus ovatus)

Interferon regulatory factor 8 (IRF8) increases type I IFN transcription levels by binding to IFN promoters, thereby playing a role in innate immunity. Nevertheless, the detailed mechanism through which IRF8 regulates type II IFN in fish remains ambiguous. In the present study, two genes from the golden pompano (Trachinotus ovatus), IRF8 (ToIRF8) and IFN gamma (ToIFNγ), were identified in the IFN/IRF-based signalling pathway. The full-length ToIRF8 cDNA was composed of 2,141 bp and encoded a 421 amino acid polypeptide; the genomic DNA was 2,917 bp in length and consisted of 8 exons and 7 introns. The putative protein showed the highest sequence identity (90-92%) with fish IRF8 and possessed a DNA-binding domain (DBD), an IRF-association domain (IAD) and a nuclear localization signal (NLS) motif consistent with those of IRF8 in other vertebrates. Furthermore, the ToIRF8 transcripts were expressed in all examined tissues of healthy fish, with higher levels observed in the central nervous and immune relevant tissues. They were upregulated by polyinosinic acid: polycytidylic acid [poly (I: C)], lipopolysaccharide (LPS) and flagellin treatments in the blood, liver, intestine and kidney. The results from assays of subcellular localization showed that ToIRF8 was localized to the cytoplasm. Moreover, to investigate whether ToIRF8 was a regulator of ToIFNγ, a promoter analysis was performed using progressive deletion mutations of ToIFNγ. The results indicated that the region from -601 bp to -468 bp includes the core promoter. Mutation analyses indicated that the activity of the ToIFNγ promoter significantly decreased after the targeted mutation of the M1-M3 binding sites. Additionally, overexpressed ToIRF8 in vitro notably increased the expression of several IFN/IRF-based signalling pathway genes. These results suggest that IRF8 is vital in the defence of T. ovatus against bacterial infection and contributes to a better understanding of the transcriptional mechanisms of ToIRF8 on type II IFN in fish.

[Liver X receptors define the immune response during general adaptation syndrome (GAS)]

The impact of stressful conditions on immunity seems mixed and at times counterbalanced. Such inconsistencies can often be attributed to the fact that the notion of stress has a very wide meaning and covers a large number of different situations. Research on liver X receptors using both natural and synthetic ligands may help to solve this conflict. When an infectious agent is present in a stressed body, LXR activation is likely to be a key element in the regulation of POMC, IFN-γ, and IL-18; moreover, it is a unique anti-inflammatory mode of action. They concurrently stimulate a non-specific immune reaction as they suppress inflammatory and autoimmune processes.

Inactivating Mutation in IRF8 Promotes Osteoclast Transcriptional Programs and Increases Susceptibility to Tooth Root Resorption

This is the first study to our knowledge to report a novel mutation in the interferon regulatory factor 8 gene (IRF8G388S ) associated with multiple idiopathic tooth root resorption, a form of periodontal disease. The IRF8G388S variant in the highly conserved C-terminal motif is predicted to alter the protein structure, likely impairing IRF8 function. Functional assays demonstrated that the IRF8G388S mutant promoted osteoclastogenesis and failed to inhibit NFATc1-dependent transcriptional activation when compared with IRF8WT control. Further, similar to subjects with heterozygous IRF8G388S mutation, Irf8+/- mice exhibited increased osteoclast activity in the mandibular alveolar bone surrounding molar teeth. Immunohistochemistry illustrated increased NFATc1 expression in the dentoalveolar region of Irf8-/- and Irf8+/- mice when compared with Irf8+/+ controls. Genomewide analyses revealed that IRF8 constitutively bound to regulatory regions of several thousand genes in osteoclast precursors, and genetic aberration of IRF8 significantly enhanced many osteoclast-specific transcripts. Collectively, this study delineates the critical role of IRF8 in defining osteoclast lineage and osteoclast transcriptional program, which may help in better understanding of various osteoclast-mediated disorders, including periodontal disease. © 2019 American Society for Bone and Mineral Research.

Contribution of IDO to human respiratory syncytial virus infection

IDO is an enzyme that participates in the degradation of tryptophan (Trp), which is an essential amino acid necessary for vital cellular processes. The degradation of Trp and the metabolites generated by the enzymatic activity of IDO can have immunomodulating effects, notably over T cells, which are particularly sensitive to the absence of Trp and leads to the inhibition of T cell activation, cell death, and the suppression of T cell effector functions. Noteworthy, T cells participate in the cellular immune response against the human respiratory syncytial virus (hRSV) and are essential for viral clearance, as well as the total recovery of the host. Furthermore, inadequate or non‐optimal polarization of T cells is often seen during the acute phase of the disease caused by this pathogen. Here, we discuss the capacity of hRSV to exploit the immunosuppressive features of IDO to reduce T cell function, thus acquiring relevant aspects during the biology of the virus. Additionally, we review studies on the influence of IDO over T cell activation and its relationship with hRSV infection.

Differential Regulation of Type I and Type III Interferon Signaling

Interferons (IFNs) are very powerful cytokines, which play a key role in combatting pathogen infections by controlling inflammation and immune response by directly inducing anti-pathogen molecular countermeasures. There are three classes of IFNs: type I, type II and type III. While type II IFN is specific for immune cells, type I and III IFNs are expressed by both immune and tissue specific cells. Unlike type I IFNs, type III IFNs have a unique tropism where their signaling and functions are mostly restricted to epithelial cells. As such, this class of IFN has recently emerged as a key player in mucosal immunity. Since the discovery of type III IFNs, the last 15 years of research in the IFN field has focused on understanding whether the induction, the signaling and the function of these powerful cytokines are regulated differently compared to type I IFN-mediated immune response. This review will cover the current state of the knowledge of the similarities and differences in the signaling pathways emanating from type I and type III IFN stimulation.

Mechanisms of Action of Hematopoietic Transcription Factor PU.1 in Initiation of T-Cell Development

PU.1 is an ETS-family transcription factor that plays a broad range of roles in hematopoiesis. A direct regulator of myeloid, dendritic-cell, and B cell functional programs, and a well-known antagonist of terminal erythroid cell differentiation, it is also expressed in the earliest stages of T-cell development of each cohort of intrathymic pro-T cells. Its expression in this context appears to give T-cell precursors initial, transient access to myeloid and dendritic cell developmental competence and therefore to represent a source of antagonism or delay of T-cell lineage commitment. However, it has remained uncertain until recently why T-cell development is also intensely dependent upon PU.1. Here, we review recent work that sheds light on the molecular biology of PU.1 action across the genome in pro-T cells and identifies the genes that depend on PU.1 for their correct regulation. This work indicates modes of chromatin engagement, pioneering, and cofactor recruitment (“coregulator theft”) by PU.1 as well as gene network interactions that not only affect specific target genes but also have system-wide regulatory consequences, amplifying the impact of PU.1 beyond its own direct binding targets. The genes directly regulated by PU.1 also suggest a far-reaching transformation of cell biology and signaling potential between the early stages of T-cell development when PU.1 is expressed and when it is silenced. These cell-biological functions can be important to distinguish fetal from adult T-cell development and have the potential to illuminate aspects of thymic function that have so far remained the most mysterious.

Regulatory Networks Involving STATs, IRFs, and NFκB in Inflammation

Cells engaging in inflammation undergo drastic changes of their transcriptomes. In order to tailor these alterations in gene expression to the requirements of the inflammatory process, tight and coordinate regulation of gene expression by environmental cues, microbial or danger-associated molecules or cytokines, are mandatory. The transcriptional response is set off by signal-regulated transcription factors (SRTFs) at the receiving end of pathways originating at pattern recognition- and cytokine receptors. These interact with a genome that has been set for an appropriate response by prior activity of pioneer or lineage determining transcription factors (LDTFs). The same types of transcription factors are also critical determinants of the changes in chromatin landscapes and transcriptomes that specify potential consequences of inflammation: tissue repair, training, and tolerance. Here we focus on the role of three families of SRTFs in inflammation and its sequels: signal transducers and activators of transcription (STATs), interferon regulatory factors (IRFs), and nuclear factor κB (NFκB). We describe recent findings about their interactions and about their networking with LDTFs. Our aim is to provide a snapshot of a highly dynamic research area.

Biallelic interferon regulatory factor 8 mutation: A complex immunodeficiency syndrome with dendritic cell deficiency, monocytopenia, and immune dysregulation

BACKGROUND

The homozygous K108E mutation of interferon regulatory factor 8 (IRF8) is reported to cause dendritic cell (DC) and monocyte deficiency. However, more widespread immune dysfunction is predicted from the multiple roles ascribed to IRF8 in immune cell development and function.

OBJECTIVE

We sought to describe the effect on hematopoiesis and immunity of the compound heterozygous R83C/R291Q mutation of IRF8, which is present in a patient with recurrent viral infection, granuloproliferation, and intracerebral calcification.

METHODS

Variant IRF8 alleles were identified by means of exome sequencing, and their function was tested by using reporter assays. The cellular phenotype was studied in detail by using flow cytometry, functional immunologic assay transcriptional profiling, and antigen receptor profiling.

RESULTS

Both mutations affected conserved residues, and R291Q is orthologous to R294, which is mutated in the BXH2 IRF8-deficient mouse. R83C showed reduced nuclear translocation, and neither mutant was able to regulate the Ets/IRF composite element or interferon-stimulated response element, whereas R291Q retained BATF/JUN interactions. DC deficiency and monocytopenia were observed in blood, dermis, and lung lavage fluid. Granulocytes were consistently increased, dysplastic, and hypofunctional. Natural killer cell development and maturation were arrested. TH1, TH17, and CD8+ memory T-cell differentiation was significantly reduced, and T cells did not express CXCR3. B-cell development was impaired, with fewer memory cells, reduced class-switching, and lower frequency and complexity of somatic hypermutation. Cell-specific gene expression was widely disturbed in interferon- and IRF8-regulated transcripts.

CONCLUSIONS

This analysis defines the clinical features of human biallelic IRF8 deficiency, revealing a complex immunodeficiency syndrome caused by DC and monocyte deficiency combined with widespread immune dysregulation.

Patent highlights from December 2017 to January 2018

A snapshot of noteworthy recent developments in the patent literature of relevance to pharmaceutical and medical research and development.

Interferonregulatoryfactor-8(IRF-8) regulates the expression of matrix metalloproteinase-13 (MMP-13) in chondrocytes

Low levels of inflammation-induced expression of matrix metalloproteinase (MMP) play a crucial role in articular cartilage matrix destruction in osteoarthritis (OA) patients. Interferon regulatory factor-8 (IRF-8), an important member in the IRF family, plays a key role in regulating the inflammation-related signaling pathway. The aim of this study is to investigate the physiological roles of IRF-8 in the pathological progression of OA. We found that IRF-8 was expressed in human primary chondrocytes. Interestingly, the expression of IRF-8 was upregulated in OA chondrocytes. In addition, IRF-8 was increased in response to interleukin-1β (IL-1β) treatment, mediated by the Janus kinase 2 (JAK2) pathway. Overexpression of IRF-8 in human chondrocytes by transduction with lentiviral-IRF-8 exacerbated IL-1β-induced expression of matrix metalloproteinase-13 (MMP-13) in human chondrocytes. In contrast, knockdown of IRF-8 inhibited IL-1β-induced expression of MMP-13. Importantly, IRF-8 could bind to the promoter of MMP-13 and stimulate its activity. Additionally, overexpression of IRF-8 exacerbated IL-1β-induced degradation of type II collagen. However, silencing IRF-8 abrogated the degradation of type II collagen. Taken together, our findings identified a novel function of IRF-8 in regulating articular cartilage matrix destruction by promoting the expression of MMP-13.

Sjögren's syndrome X-chromosome dose effect: An epigenetic perspective

Sjögren's syndrome (SS) is a chronic autoimmune disease affecting exocrine glands leading to mouth and eyes dryness. The extent to which epigenetic DNA methylation changes are responsible for an X-chromosome dose effect has yet to be determined. Our objectives were to (i) describe how epigenetic DNA methylation changes could explain an X-chromosome dose effect in SS for women with normal 46,XX genotype and (ii) determine the relevant relationships to this dose effect, between X-linked genes, genes controlling X-chromosome inactivation (XCI) and genes encoding associated transcription factors, all of which are differentially expressed and/or differentially methylated in the salivary glands of patients with SS. We identified 58 upregulated X-chromosome genes, including 22 genes previously shown to escape XCI, based on the analysis of SS patient salivary gland GEO2R gene expression datasets. Moreover, we found XIST and its cis regulators RLIM, FTX, and CHIC1, and polycomb repressor genes of the PRC1/2 complexes to be upregulated. Many of the X-chromosome genes implicated in SS pathogenesis can be regulated by transcription factors which we found to be overexpressed and/or differentially methylated in patients with SS. Determination of the mechanisms underlying methylation-dependent gene expression and impaired XCI is needed to further elucidate the etiopathogenesis of SS.

IRF8-dependent molecular complexes control the Th9 transcriptional program

Interferon regulatory factors (IRF) have critical functions in lymphoid development and in immune response regulation. Although many studies have described the function of IRF4 in CD4⁺ T cells, few have focused on the IRF4 homologue, IRF8. Here, we show that IRF8 is required for Th9 differentiation in vitro and in vivo. IRF8 functions through a transcription factor complex consisting of IRF8, IRF4, PU.1 and BATF, which binds to DNA and boosts Il9 transcription. By contrast, IRF8 deficiency promotes the expression of other genes such as Il4, as IRF8 dimerises with the transcriptional repressor ETV6 and inhibits Il4 expression. In vivo, IRF8 is essential for the anti-tumour effects of Th9 cells in mouse melanoma models. Our results show that IRF8 complexes boost the Th9 program and repress Il4 expression to modulate Th9 cell differentiation, thereby implicating IRF8 as a potential therapeutic target to affect Th9 responses in cancer therapy.

Interferon regulatory factors IRF regulate lymphoid development, but the specific function of IRF8 in helper T-cell polarization is unclear. Here the authors show that IRF8 forms a complex with IRF4, PU.1 and BATF to modulate the Th9 transcription program and expression of IL-4 and IL-9.

Langerhans Cells-Programmed by the Epidermis

Langerhans cells (LCs) reside in the epidermis as a dense network of immune system sentinels. These cells determine the appropriate adaptive immune response (inflammation or tolerance) by interpreting the microenvironmental context in which they encounter foreign substances. In a normal physiological, "non-dangerous" situation, LCs coordinate a continuous state of immune tolerance, preventing unnecessary and harmful immune activation. Conversely, when they sense a danger signal, for example during infection or when the physical integrity of skin has been compromised as a result of a trauma, they instruct T lymphocytes of the adaptive immune system to mount efficient effector responses. Recent advances investigating the molecular mechanisms underpinning the cross talk between LCs and the epidermal microenvironment reveal its importance for programming LC biology. This review summarizes the novel findings describing LC origin and function through the analysis of the transcriptomic programs and gene regulatory networks (GRNs). Review and meta-analysis of publicly available datasets clearly delineates LCs as distinct from both conventional dendritic cells (DCs) and macrophages, suggesting a primary role for the epidermal microenvironment in programming LC biology. This concept is further supported by the analysis of the effect of epidermal pro-inflammatory signals, regulating key GRNs in human and murine LCs. Applying whole transcriptome analyses and in silico analysis has advanced our understanding of how LCs receive, integrate, and process signals from the steady-state and diseased epidermis. Interestingly, in homeostasis and under immunological stress, the molecular network in LCs remains relatively stable, reflecting a key evolutionary need related to tissue localization. Importantly, to fulfill their key role in orchestrating antiviral adaptive immune responses, LC share specific transcriptomic modules with other DC types able to cross-present antigens to cytotoxic CD8⁺ T cells, pointing to a possible evolutionary convergence mechanism. With the development of more advanced technologies allowing delineation of the molecular networks at the level of chromatin organization, histone modifications, protein translation, and phosphorylation, future "omics" investigations will bring in-depth understanding of the complex molecular mechanisms underpinning human LC biology.

RHS6 coordinately regulates the Th2 cytokine genes by recruiting GATA3, SATB1, and IRF4

BACKGROUND

Asthma is a Th2 cell-driven inflammatory disease and a major public health concern. The cis-acting element Rad50 hypersensitive site 6 (RHS6) in the Th2 locus control region is essential for regulation of the Th2 cytokine genes; however, its role in allergic airway inflammation and underlying molecular mechanisms of the regulation by RHS6 are poorly understood.

OBJECTIVE

We sought to understand the role of RHS6 in the development of allergic airway inflammation and its molecular mechanism for Th2 cytokine expression.

METHODS

We used an ovalbumin-induced allergic inflammation model with RHS6-deficient mice to examine the role of RHS6 in this process. To examine molecular mechanism of RHS6 for Th2 cytokine expression, we used DNA affinity chromatography and mass spectrometry, quantitative RT-PCR, ELISA, intracellular cytokine staining, chromatin immunoprecipitation, and co-immunoprecipitation.

RESULTS

Deletion of RHS6 caused a dramatic resistance to allergic airway inflammation. RHS6 recruited transcription factors GATA3, SATB1, and IRF4, which play important roles in expression of all three Th2 cytokine genes. RHS6 deficiency caused inhibition of transcription factor-induced Th2 cytokine gene expression.

CONCLUSION

RHS6 is a critical regulatory element for allergic airway inflammation and for coordinate regulation of Th2 cytokine genes by recruiting GATA3, SATB1, and IRF4.

CXCL9: evidence and contradictions for its role in tumor progression

Chemokines are a group of low molecular weight peptides. Their major function is the recruitment of leukocytes to inflammation sites, but they also play a key role in tumor growth, angiogenesis, and metastasis. In the last few years, accumulated experimental evidence supports that monokine induced by interferon (IFN)‐gamma (CXCL9), a member of CXC chemokine family and known to attract CXCR3‐ (CXCR3‐A and CXCR3‐B) T lymphocytes, is involved in the pathogenesis of a variety of physiologic diseases during their initiation and their maintenance. This review for the first time presents the most comprehensive summary for the role of CXCL9 in different types of tumors, and demonstrates its contradictory role of CXCL9 in tumor progression. Altogether, this is a useful resource for researchers investigating therapeutic opportunities for cancer.

PU.1 cooperates with IRF4 and IRF8 to suppress pre-B-cell leukemia

The Ets family transcription factor PU.1 and the interferon regulatory factor (IRF)4 and IRF8 regulate gene expression by binding to composite DNA sequences known as Ets/interferon consensus elements. Although all three factors are expressed from the onset of B-cell development, single deficiency of these factors in B-cell progenitors only mildly impacts on bone marrow B lymphopoiesis. Here we tested whether PU.1 cooperates with IRF factors in regulating early B-cell development. Lack of PU.1 and IRF4 resulted in a partial block in development the pre-B-cell stage. The combined deletion of PU.1 and IRF8 reduced recirculating B-cell numbers. Strikingly, all PU.1/IRF4 and ~50% of PU.1/IRF8 double deficient mice developed pre-B-cell acute lymphoblastic leukemia (B-ALL) associated with reduced expression of the established B-lineage tumor suppressor genes, Ikaros and Spi-B. These genes are directly regulated by PU.1/IRF4/IRF8, and restoration of Ikaros or Spi-B expression inhibited leukemic cell growth. In summary, we demonstrate that PU.1, IRF4 and IRF8 cooperate to regulate early B-cell development and to prevent pre-B-ALL formation.

Cutting Edge: Expression of IRF8 in Gastric Epithelial Cells Confers Protective Innate Immunity against Helicobacter pylori Infection

IFN regulatory factor 8 (IRF8) is expressed in many types of blood cells and plays critical roles in cellular differentiation and function. However, the role of IRF8 in nonhematopoietic systems remains poorly understood. In this study, we provide evidence that IRF8 is a transcriptional modulator of the gastric mucosa necessary for limiting Helicobacter pylori colonization. H. pylori infection significantly upregulated expression of IRF8, which, in turn, promoted IFN-γ expression by gastric epithelial cells. Mice deficient in IRF8 exhibited increased H. pylori colonization and aborted induction of mucosal IFN-γ. Genome-wide analyses of IFN-γ-treated gastric epithelial cells by chromatin immunoprecipitation sequencing and RNA sequencing led to the identification of IRF8 target genes, with many belonging to the IFN-regulated gene family that was observed previously in immune cells. Our results identify the IRF8-IFN-γ circuit as a novel gastric innate immune mechanism in the host defense against infection with H. pylori.

The NF-κB p65 and p50 homodimer cooperate with IRF8 to activate iNOS transcription

Background

Inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS) metabolizes L-arginine to produce nitric oxide (NO) which was originally identified in myeloid cells as a host defense mechanism against pathogens. Recent studies, however, have revealed that iNOS is often induced in tumor cells and myeloid cells in the tumor microenvironment. Compelling experimental data have shown that iNOS promotes tumor development in certain cellular context and suppresses tumor development in other cellular conditions. The molecular mechanisms underlying these contrasting functions of iNOS is unknown. Because iNOS is often induced by inflammatory signals, it is therefore likely that these contrasting functions of iNOS could be controlled by the inflammatory signaling pathways, which remains to be determined.

Methods

iNOS is expressed in colon carcinoma and myeloid cells in the tumor microenvironment. Colon carcinoma and myeloid cell lines were used to elucidate the molecular mechanisms underlying iNOS expression. Chromatin immunoprecipitation and electrophoretic mobility shift assay were used to determine the IFNγ-activated pSTAT1 and NF-κB association with the chromatin DNA of the nos2 promoter.

Results

We show here that iNOS is dramatically up-regulated in inflammed human colon tissues and in human colon carcinoma as compared to normal colon tissue. iNOS is expressed in either the colon carcinoma cells or immune cells within the tumor microenvironment. On the molecular level, the proinflammatory IFNγ and NF-κB signals induce iNOS expression in human colon cancer cells. We further demonstrate that NF-κB directly binds to the NOS2 promoter to regulate iNOS expression. Although neither the IFNγ signaling pathway nor the NF-κB signaling pathway alone is sufficient to induce iNOS expression in myeloid cells, IFNγ and NF-κB synergistically induce iNOS expression in myeloid cells. Furthermore, we determine that IFNγ up-regulates IRF8 expression to augment NF-κB induction of iNOS expression. More interestingly, we observed that the p65/p65 and p50/p50 homodimers, not the canonical p65/p50 heterodimer, directly binds to the nos2 promoter to regulate iNOS expression in myeloid cells.

Conclusions

IFNγ-induced IRF8 acts in concert with NF-κB to regulate iNOS expression in both colon carcinoma and myeloid cells. In myeloid cells, the NF-κB complexes that bind to the nos2 promoter are p65/p65 and p50/p50 homodimers.

EPCR-dependent PAR2 activation by the blood coagulation initiation complex regulates LPS-triggered interferon responses in mice

Infection and inflammation are invariably associated with activation of the blood coagulation mechanism, secondary to the inflammation-induced expression of the coagulation initiator tissue factor (TF) on innate immune cells. By investigating the role of cell-surface receptors for coagulation factors in mouse endotoxemia, we found that the protein C receptor (ProcR; EPCR) was required for the normal in vivo and in vitro induction of lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-regulated gene expression. In cultured bone marrow-derived myeloid cells and in monocytic RAW264.7 cells, the LPS-induced expression of functionally active TF, assembly of the ternary TF-VIIa-Xa initiation complex of blood coagulation, and the EPCR-dependent activation of protease-activated receptor 2 (PAR2) by the ternary TF-VIIa-Xa complex were required for the normal LPS induction of messenger RNAs encoding the TLR3/4 signaling adaptor protein Pellino-1 and the transcription factor interferon regulatory factor 8. In response to in vivo challenge with LPS, mice lacking EPCR or PAR2 failed to fully initiate an interferon-regulated gene expression program that included the Irf8 target genes Lif, Iigp1, Gbp2, Gbp3, and Gbp6. The inflammation-induced expression of TF and crosstalk with EPCR, PAR2, and TLR4 therefore appear necessary for the normal evolution of interferon-regulated host responses.

The interferon regulatory factors as novel potential targets in the treatment of cardiovascular diseases

The family of interferon regulatory factors (IRFs) consists of nine members (IRF1-IRF9) in mammals. They act as transcription factors for the interferons and thus exert essential regulatory functions in the immune system and in oncogenesis. Recent clinical and experimental studies have identified critically important roles of the IRFs in cardiovascular diseases, arising from their participation in divergent and overlapping molecular programmes beyond the immune response. Here we review the current knowledge of the regulatory effects and mechanisms of IRFs on the immune system. The role of IRFs and their potential molecular mechanisms as novel stress sensors and mediators of cardiovascular diseases are highlighted.

The generation of antibody-secreting plasma cells

The regulation of antibody production is linked to the generation and maintenance of plasmablasts and plasma cells from their B cell precursors. Plasmablasts are the rapidly produced and short-lived effector cells of the early antibody response, whereas plasma cells are the long-lived mediators of lasting humoral immunity. An extraordinary number of control mechanisms, at both the cellular and molecular levels, underlie the regulation of this essential arm of the immune response. Despite this complexity, the terminal differentiation of B cells can be described as a simple probabilistic process that is governed by a central gene-regulatory network and modified by environmental stimuli.

IFN regulatory factor 8 represses GM-CSF expression in T cells to affect myeloid cell lineage differentiation

During hematopoiesis, hematopoietic stem cells constantly differentiate into granulocytes and macrophages via a distinct differentiation program that is tightly controlled by myeloid lineage-specific transcription factors. Mice with a null mutation of IFN regulatory factor 8 (IRF8) accumulate CD11b(+)Gr1(+) myeloid cells that phenotypically and functionally resemble tumor-induced myeloid-derived suppressor cells (MDSCs), indicating an essential role of IRF8 in myeloid cell lineage differentiation. However, IRF8 is expressed in various types of immune cells, and whether IRF8 functions intrinsically or extrinsically in regulation of myeloid cell lineage differentiation is not fully understood. In this study, we report an intriguing finding that, although IRF8-deficient mice exhibit deregulated myeloid cell differentiation and resultant accumulation of CD11b(+)Gr1(+) MDSCs, surprisingly, mice with IRF8 deficiency only in myeloid cells exhibit no abnormal myeloid cell lineage differentiation. Instead, mice with IRF8 deficiency only in T cells exhibited deregulated myeloid cell differentiation and MDSC accumulation. We further demonstrated that IRF8-deficient T cells exhibit elevated GM-CSF expression and secretion. Treatment of mice with GM-CSF increased MDSC accumulation, and adoptive transfer of IRF8-deficient T cells, but not GM-CSF-deficient T cells, increased MDSC accumulation in the recipient chimeric mice. Moreover, overexpression of IRF8 decreased GM-CSF expression in T cells. Our data determine that, in addition to its intrinsic function as an apoptosis regulator in myeloid cells, IRF8 also acts extrinsically to repress GM-CSF expression in T cells to control myeloid cell lineage differentiation, revealing a novel mechanism that the adaptive immune component of the immune system regulates the innate immune cell myelopoiesis in vivo.

Grass carp SARM1 and its two splice variants negatively regulate IFN-I response and promote cell death upon GCRV infection at different subcellular locations

Sterile alpha and Toll/IL-1R motif containing 1 (SARM1) negatively regulates TRIF-dependent TLR signaling in mammals. However, its immune function remains unclear in teleost. Here, a grass carp Ctenopharyngodon idella SARM1 (CiSARM1) gene and its two novel splice variants (CiSARM1s1 and CiSARM1s2) were identified. CiSARM1s1 and CiSARM1s2 are generated by intron retention mechanism, and they only retain N-terminal HEAT/armadillo motifs. In C. idella kidney (CIK) cells, CiSARM1 and CiSARM1s1 are located in mitochondria, whereas CiSARM1s2 distributes in the whole cell. All the three transcripts are ubiquitously expressed in 15 investigated tissues. They were responsive to GCRV in vivo and in vitro and to viral/bacterial PAMPs in vitro, implying they participate in both antiviral and antibacterial immune responses. By overexpression experiment, CiSARM1 and its two isoforms affected each other's expression in CIK cells. CiSARM1 inhibited GCRV-triggered IFN-I response by affecting the expressions of CiTRIF, CiMyD88, CiIPS-1, CiTRAF6, CiTBK1, CiIRF3 and CiIRF7 in TRIF-, MyD88- and IPS-1-dependent pathways; CiSARM1s1 and CiSARM1s2 inhibited GCRV-triggered IFN-I production through suppressing the expressions of CiMyD88, CiIPS-1, CiTRAF6, CiTBK1, CiIRF3 and CiIRF7 in MyD88- and IPS-1-dependent pathways. Moreover, antiviral activity assays indicated that all the three genes promote GCRV-induced cell death. These results were further verified by RNAi experiments. Thus, CiSARM1 and its two splice variants jointly prevent excessive activation of the host immune response. These findings uncover the regulatory mechanisms of SARM1 in teleost and lay a foundation for further functional and evolutionary researches on SARM1.

Association between upstream purine complexes of human caveolin-1 gene and schizophrenia in qazvin province of iran

Background:

Caveolin is a multifunctional and scaffolding membrane protein, which involves cholesterol trafficking to plasma lipid microdomain. It organizes and targets synaptic parts of the neurotransmitter and neurotrophic receptor signaling pathways. Caveolins are encoded by CAV-1, 2 and 3 genes. Disruption of the CAV1 would likely ruin the neuronal signaling, which leads to symptoms of schizophrenia in predisposed individuals.

Objectives:

The upper area of CAV-1 gene is highly conserved and can have a regulatory role in neurodegenerative diseases. This study was designed to find out the possible association of polymorphisms of this area and schizophrenia.

Patients and Methods:

In a case-control study, 254 blood samples were obtained from 127 patients with schizophrenia and 127 well matched controls referred to 22 Bahman Hospital of Qazvin University of Medical Sciences (QUMS) in Qazvin province, Iran, using simple random sampling method. After extracting DNA, the upper region of the human CAV1- gene was amplified by PCR in all collected samples. The products were visualized by silver staining in 10% polyacrylamide gel and then sequenced.

Results:

We detected nine homozygotes in patients and 15 in control subjects. Homozygosity was 7.08% and 11.8% in cases and control, respectively. Nine types homozygote haplotype were detected in upper region of the CAV1 gene in cases and controls. Three haplotypes were common in cases and controls; four haplotypes were seen in controls only and two in cases.

Conclusions:

Our findings implied a significant correlation between some haplotypes of upper region of CAV1 gene and schizophrenia. Existence of some haplotypes and lack of another in CAV1 upstream can suggest a significant correlation between schizophrenia and some haplotypes.

The transcription factors IRF8 and PU.1 negatively regulate plasma cell differentiation

Activated B cells undergo immunoglobulin class-switch recombination (CSR) and differentiate into antibody-secreting plasma cells. The distinct transcriptomes of B cells and plasma cells are maintained by the antagonistic influences of two groups of transcription factors: those that maintain the B cell program, including BCL6 and PAX5, and plasma cell-promoting factors, such as IRF4 and BLIMP-1. We show that the complex of IRF8 and PU.1 controls the propensity of B cells to undergo CSR and plasma cell differentiation by concurrently promoting the expression of BCL6 and PAX5 and repressing AID and BLIMP-1. As the PU.1-IRF8 complex functions in a reciprocal manner to IRF4, we propose that concentration-dependent competition between these factors controls B cell terminal differentiation.

STAT1 as a central mediator of IFNγ and TLR4 signal integration in vascular dysfunction

Atherosclerosis is characterized by early endothelial dysfunction and altered vascular smooth muscle cells (VSMCs) contractility. The forming atheroma is a site of excessive production of cytokines and inflammatory ligands by various cell types that mediate inflammation and immune responses. Key factors contributing to early stages of plaque development are IFNγ and TLR4. This review provides insight in the differential STAT1-dependent signal integration between IFNγ and TLR4 signals in vascular cells and atheroma interacting immune cells. This results in increased leukocyte attraction and adhesion and VSMC proliferation and migration, which are important characteristics of EC dysfunction and early triggers of atherosclerosis.

The functional consequences of variation in transcription factor binding

One goal of human genetics is to understand how the information for precise and dynamic gene expression programs is encoded in the genome. The interactions of transcription factors (TFs) with DNA regulatory elements clearly play an important role in determining gene expression outputs, yet the regulatory logic underlying functional transcription factor binding is poorly understood. Many studies have focused on characterizing the genomic locations of TF binding, yet it is unclear to what extent TF binding at any specific locus has functional consequences with respect to gene expression output. To evaluate the context of functional TF binding we knocked down 59 TFs and chromatin modifiers in one HapMap lymphoblastoid cell line. We then identified genes whose expression was affected by the knockdowns. We intersected the gene expression data with transcription factor binding data (based on ChIP-seq and DNase-seq) within 10 kb of the transcription start sites of expressed genes. This combination of data allowed us to infer functional TF binding. Using this approach, we found that only a small subset of genes bound by a factor were differentially expressed following the knockdown of that factor, suggesting that most interactions between TF and chromatin do not result in measurable changes in gene expression levels of putative target genes. We found that functional TF binding is enriched in regulatory elements that harbor a large number of TF binding sites, at sites with predicted higher binding affinity, and at sites that are enriched in genomic regions annotated as “active enhancers.”

An important question in genomics is to understand how a class of proteins called “transcription factors” controls the expression level of other genes in the genome in a cell-type-specific manner – a process that is essential to human development. One major approach to this problem is to study where these transcription factors bind in the genome, but this does not tell us about the effect of that binding on gene expression levels and it is generally accepted that much of the binding does not strongly influence gene expression. To address this issue, we artificially reduced the concentration of 59 different transcription factors in the cell and then examined which genes were impacted by the reduced transcription factor level. Our results implicate some attributes that might influence what binding is functional, but they also suggest that a simple model of functional vs. non-functional binding may not suffice.

Modulation of epidermal transcription circuits in psoriasis: new links between inflammation and hyperproliferation

Background

Whole-genome expression profiling has been used to characterize molecular-level differences between psoriasis lesions and normal skin. Pathway analysis, however, is complicated by the fact that expression profiles have been derived from bulk skin biopsies with RNA derived from multiple cell types.

Results

We analyzed gene expression across a large sample of psoriatic (PP) and uninvolved/normal (PN) skin biopsies (n = 215 patients). We identified 1975 differentially expressed genes, including 8 associated with psoriasis susceptibility loci. To facilitate pathway analysis, PP versus PN differences in gene expression were analyzed with respect to 235 gene modules, each containing genes with a similar expression pattern in keratinocytes and epidermis. We identified 30 differentially expressed modules (DEMs) biased towards PP-increased or PP-decreased expression. These DEMs were associated with regulatory axes involving cytokines (e.g., IFN-γ, IL-17A, TNF-α), transcription factors (e.g., STAT1, NF-κB, E2F, RUNX1) and chromatin modifiers (SETDB1). We identified an interferon-induced DEM with genes encoding anti-viral proteins (designated “STAT1-57”), which was activated in psoriatic epidermis but repressed following biologic therapy. Genes within this DEM shared a motif near the transcription start site resembling the interferon-stimulated response element (ISRE).

Conclusions

We analyzed a large patient cohort and developed a new approach for delineating epidermis-specific pathways and regulatory mechanisms that underlie altered gene expression in psoriasis. Our findings highlight previously unrecognized “transcription circuits” that can provide targets for development of non-systemic therapies.

Human T-cell leukemia/lymphoma virus type 1 p30, but not p12/p8, counteracts toll-like receptor 3 (TLR3) and TLR4 signaling in human monocytes and dendritic cells

The human T-cell leukemia/lymphoma virus type 1 (HTLV-1) p30 protein, essential for virus infectivity in vivo, is required for efficient infection of human dendritic cells (DCs) but not B and T cells in vitro. We used a human monocytic cell line, THP-1, and dendritic cells to study the mechanism of p30 and p12/p8 requirements in these cell types. p30 inhibited the expression of interferon (IFN)-responsive genes (ISG) following stimulation by lipopolysaccharide (LPS) of Toll-like receptor 4 (TLR4) and by poly(I·C) of TLR3 but not of TLR7/8 with imiquimod. Results with THP-1 mirrored those for ex vivo human primary monocytes and monocyte-derived dendritic cells (Mo-mDC). The effect of p30 on TLR signaling was also demonstrated by ablating its expression within a molecular clone of HTLV-1. HTLV-1 infection of monocytes inhibited TLR3- and TLR4-induced ISG expression by 50 to 90% depending on the genes, whereas the isogenic clone p30 knockout virus was less effective at inhibiting TLR3 and TRL4 signaling and displayed lower infectivity. Viral expression and inhibition of ISG transcription was, however, rescued by restoration of p30 expression. A chromatin immunoprecipitation assay demonstrated that p30 inhibits initiation and elongation of PU.1-dependent transcription of IFN-α1, IFN-β, and TLR4 genes upon TLR stimulation. In contrast, experiments conducted with p12/p8 did not demonstrate an effect on ISG expression. These results provide a mechanistic explanation of the requirement of p30 for HTLV-1 infectivity in vivo, suggest that dampening interferon responses in monocytes and DCs is specific for p30, and represent an essential early step for permissive HTLV-1 infection and persistence.

Identification and functional characterizations of a novel TRIF gene from grass carp (Ctenopharyngodon idella)

Toll/interleukin-1 receptor (TIR) domain containing adapter inducing interferon-β (TRIF) is an adapter in responding to activation of some toll-like receptors (TLRs), which provides early clearance of viral and bacterial pathogens. Here we identified and characterized a full-length genomic sequence of TRIF gene from grass carp Ctenopharyngodon idella (designated as CiTRIF). CiTRIF genomic sequence consists of 3534 base pairs (bp), containing 5' flank sequence (496 bp) and unique intron (815 bp). The full-length cDNA sequence is 2241 bp, including 5' untranslated region (UTR) of 352 bp, 3' UTR of 209 bp, and an open reading frame of 1680 bp encoding a polypeptide of 559 amino acids with an estimated molecular weight of 62.643 kDa and a predicted isoelectric point of 5.71. The deduced amino acid sequence just contains TIR domain, and is most similar to the zebrafish (Danio rerio) TRIF sequence with an identity of 64%. CiTRIF exhibits sequence divergence from its orthologs. Promoter region was predicted and promoter activity was verified. mRNA expression of CiTRIF gene is widespread in 15 tissues investigated, highly in foregut and skin physiological immune barrier. The transcripts of CiTRIF were significantly and rapidly induced in spleen and head kidney tissues at early stage post grass carp reovirus (GCRV) challenge. The modulations are significant but mild in CIK (C. idella kidney) cells post GCRV infection or poly(I:C) stimulation. The over-expression vector was constructed and transfected into CIK cell line to get stably expressing recombinant proteins. In CiTRIF transfected cells, mRNA expressions of CiTRIF, CiRIG-I, CiIRF7 and CiIFN-I were up-regulated. After GCRV infection, the transcripts of CiTRIF, CiRIG-I, CiIRF7 and CiIFN-I fell a little bit after a rapidly and strongly rise. In CiTRIF over-expression cells, virus load and titer were significantly lower than those in controls post GCRV challenge, and virus replication was inhibited obviously. The results indicate that the novel TRIF gene from grass carp plays important roles in modulating antiviral innate immune responses, and serve the further functional studies on TRIF gene in teleosts and immune evolution.