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Chaudhry A, Chen Z, Gallavotti A. Hormonal influence on maize inflorescence development and reproduction. PLANT REPRODUCTION 2024:10.1007/s00497-024-00510-0. [PMID: 39367960 DOI: 10.1007/s00497-024-00510-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/10/2024] [Accepted: 09/04/2024] [Indexed: 10/07/2024]
Abstract
KEY MESSAGE Different plant hormones contribute to maize reproductive success. Maize is a major crop species and significantly contributes directly and indirectly to human calorie uptake. Its success can be mainly attributed to its unisexual inflorescences, the tassel and the ear, whose formation is regulated by complex genetic and hormonal networks, and is influenced by environmental cues such as temperature, and nutrient and water availability. Traditional genetic analysis of classic developmental mutants, together with new molecular approaches, have shed light on many crucial aspects of maize reproductive development including the influence that phytohormones exert on key developmental steps leading to successful reproduction and seed yield. Here we will review both historical and recent findings concerning the main roles that phytohormones play in maize reproductive development, from the commitment to reproductive development to sexual reproduction.
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Affiliation(s)
- Amina Chaudhry
- Waksman Institute of Microbiology, Rutgers University, Piscataway, NJ, 08854-8020, USA
- Department of Plant Biology, Rutgers University, New Brunswick, NJ, 08901, USA
| | - Zongliang Chen
- Waksman Institute of Microbiology, Rutgers University, Piscataway, NJ, 08854-8020, USA
| | - Andrea Gallavotti
- Waksman Institute of Microbiology, Rutgers University, Piscataway, NJ, 08854-8020, USA.
- Department of Plant Biology, Rutgers University, New Brunswick, NJ, 08901, USA.
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2
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Ma B, Zhang L, He Z. Understanding the regulation of cereal grain filling: The way forward. JOURNAL OF INTEGRATIVE PLANT BIOLOGY 2023; 65:526-547. [PMID: 36648157 DOI: 10.1111/jipb.13456] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/30/2022] [Accepted: 01/17/2023] [Indexed: 06/17/2023]
Abstract
During grain filling, starch and other nutrients accumulate in the endosperm; this directly determines grain yield and grain quality in crops such as rice (Oryza sativa), maize (Zea mays), and wheat (Triticum aestivum). Grain filling is a complex trait affected by both intrinsic and environmental factors, making it difficult to explore the underlying genetics, molecular regulation, and the application of these genes for breeding. With the development of powerful genetic and molecular techniques, much has been learned about the genes and molecular networks related to grain filling over the past decades. In this review, we highlight the key factors affecting grain filling, including both biological and abiotic factors. We then summarize the key genes controlling grain filling and their roles in this event, including regulators of sugar translocation and starch biosynthesis, phytohormone-related regulators, and other factors. Finally, we discuss how the current knowledge of valuable grain filling genes could be integrated with strategies for breeding cereal varieties with improved grain yield and quality.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bin Ma
- National Key Laboratory of Plant Molecular Genetics, CAS Center for Excellence in Molecular Plant Sciences, Institute of Plant Physiology & Ecology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shanghai, 200032, China
| | - Lin Zhang
- Joint International Research Laboratory of Agriculture and Agri-Product Safety of the Ministry of Education, Yangzhou University, Yangzhou, 225009, China
- Jiangsu Co-Innovation Center for Modern Production Technology of Grain Crops, Yangzhou University, Yangzhou, 225009, China
| | - Zuhua He
- National Key Laboratory of Plant Molecular Genetics, CAS Center for Excellence in Molecular Plant Sciences, Institute of Plant Physiology & Ecology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shanghai, 200032, China
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3
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Consonni G, Castorina G, Varotto S. The Italian Research on the Molecular Characterization of Maize Kernel Development. Int J Mol Sci 2022; 23:11383. [PMID: 36232684 PMCID: PMC9570349 DOI: 10.3390/ijms231911383] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/31/2022] [Revised: 09/22/2022] [Accepted: 09/23/2022] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
The study of the genetic control of maize seed development and seed-related pathways has been one of the most important themes approached by the Italian scientific community. Maize has always attracted the interest of the Italian community of agricultural genetics since its beginning, as some of its founders based their research projects on and developed their "schools" by adopting maize as a reference species. Some of them spent periods in the United States, where maize was already becoming a model system, to receive their training. In this manuscript we illustrate the research work carried out in Italy by different groups that studied maize kernels and underline their contributions in elucidating fundamental aspects of caryopsis development through the characterization of maize mutants. Since the 1980s, most of the research projects aimed at the comprehension of the genetic control of seed development and the regulation of storage products' biosyntheses and accumulation, and have been based on forward genetics approaches. We also document that for some decades, Italian groups, mainly based in Northern Italy, have contributed to improve the knowledge of maize genomics, and were both fundamental for further international studies focused on the correct differentiation and patterning of maize kernel compartments and strongly contributed to recent advances in maize research.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gabriella Consonni
- Dipartimento di Scienze Agrarie e Ambientali (DiSAA), Università degli Studi di Milano, Via Celoria 2, 20133 Milano, Italy
| | - Giulia Castorina
- Dipartimento di Scienze Agrarie e Ambientali (DiSAA), Università degli Studi di Milano, Via Celoria 2, 20133 Milano, Italy
| | - Serena Varotto
- Department of Agronomy, Food, Natural Resources, Animals and Environment (DAFNAE), Università degli Studi di Padova, Viale dell'Università 16, 35020 Legnaro, Italy
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4
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Das AK, Hao L. Functional characterization of ZmbHLH121, a bHLH transcription factor, focusing on Zea mays kernel development. GENE REPORTS 2022. [DOI: 10.1016/j.genrep.2022.101645] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/22/2023]
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5
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Wang Y, Xu J, Yu J, Zhu D, Zhao Q. Maize GSK3-like kinase ZmSK2 is involved in embryonic development. PLANT SCIENCE : AN INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF EXPERIMENTAL PLANT BIOLOGY 2022; 318:111221. [PMID: 35351312 DOI: 10.1016/j.plantsci.2022.111221] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/23/2021] [Revised: 02/09/2022] [Accepted: 02/11/2022] [Indexed: 05/28/2023]
Abstract
Grain size and weight are closely related to the yield of cereal crops. Abnormal development of the embryo, an important part of the grain, not only affects crop yield but also impacts next-generation survival. Here, we found that maize GSK3-like kinase ZmSK2, a homolog of BIN2 in Arabidopsis, is involved in embryonic development. ZmSK2 overexpression resulted in severe BR defective phenotypes and arrested embryonic development at the transition stage, while the zmsk2 knockout lines showed enlarged embryos. ZmSK2 interacts with Aux/IAA-transcription factor 28 (ZmIAA28), a negative regulator of auxin signaling, and the interaction region is the auxin degron "GWPPV" motif of ZmIAA28 domain II. Coexpression of ZmSK2 with ZmIAA28 increased the accumulation of ZmIAA28 in maize protoplasts, which may have been due to phosphorylation by ZmSK2. In conclusion, this study reveals the function of ZmSK2 in maize embryonic development and proposes that ZmSK2-ZmIAA28 may be another link in the signaling pathway that integrates BR and auxin.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yan Wang
- State Key Laboratory of Agrobiotechnology, College of Biological Sciences, China Agricultural University, 100193, Beijing, China
| | - Jianghai Xu
- State Key Laboratory of Agrobiotechnology, College of Biological Sciences, China Agricultural University, 100193, Beijing, China
| | - Jingjuan Yu
- State Key Laboratory of Agrobiotechnology, College of Biological Sciences, China Agricultural University, 100193, Beijing, China
| | - Dengyun Zhu
- State Key Laboratory of Agrobiotechnology, College of Biological Sciences, China Agricultural University, 100193, Beijing, China
| | - Qian Zhao
- State Key Laboratory of Agrobiotechnology, College of Biological Sciences, China Agricultural University, 100193, Beijing, China.
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6
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Fan W, Zheng H, Wang G. Proteomic analysis of ubiquitinated proteins in maize immature kernels. J Proteomics 2021; 243:104261. [PMID: 33984506 DOI: 10.1016/j.jprot.2021.104261] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/08/2021] [Revised: 04/27/2021] [Accepted: 05/01/2021] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
Protein ubiquitination is a dynamic post-translational modification involved in various biological processes in eukaryotes. To understand the function of ubiquitinated proteins in maize kernels, we used the specific K-GG antibody coupled with high-resolution LC-MS/MS to identify the ubiquitinated proteins in maize immature kernels. A total of 1999 lysine ubiquitination sites in 881 proteins were identified in maize kernels. Eight conserved ubiquitination motifs included KubD, GKub, EKub, KubXXXE, AKub, NXKub, KubXXXXXN, and KKub were found in ubiquitinated peptides. The ubiquitinated lysine neighborhoods are more frequently presented in ordered structures. Go and KEGG analysis showed the proteins involved in carbohydrate metabolism and protein processing were identified to be the targets of lysine ubiquitination. Other proteins, which related to RNA transport, spliceosome, endocytosis, ubiquitin-mediated proteolysis, proteasome, and MAPK signaling, were also found to be ubiquitinated. Protein-protein interaction network and KEGG analysis indicated that protein ubiquitination plays a major role in regulating many cellular processes and modulating diverse interactions in maize kernel development. The identification of the 881 ubiquitinated proteins in maize kernels provides a foundation for understanding the physiological roles of these ubiquitinated proteins. Our finding also provides a new insight view into the function of ubiquitinated proteins involved in maize kernel development. SIGNIFICANCE: We reported here the comprehensive proteomic analysis of the ubiquitin-modified proteome in maize kernel. We found that there are some new characteristics of them in ubiquitome of maize immature kernels. The results suggested that protein ubiquitination, as a post-translation modification, plays an essential role in regulating many cellular processes in maize kernel development. This study expands our knowledge on the regulatory roles and mechanisms of protein ubiquitination in maize. and other plants.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wei Fan
- School of Agriculture and Biology, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, 800 Dongchuan Road, Minhang District, Shanghai 201100, China
| | - Hongjian Zheng
- Crop Breeding and Cultivation Research Institute, Shanghai Academy of Agricultural Sciences/CIMMYT-China Specialty Maize Research Center, Shanghai 201100, China
| | - Gang Wang
- School of Agriculture and Biology, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, 800 Dongchuan Road, Minhang District, Shanghai 201100, China.
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7
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Díaz-Pontones DM, Corona-Carrillo JI, Herrera-Miranda C, González S. Excess Zinc Alters Cell Wall Class III Peroxidase Activity and Flavonoid Content in the Maize Scutellum. PLANTS (BASEL, SWITZERLAND) 2021; 10:197. [PMID: 33494250 PMCID: PMC7909774 DOI: 10.3390/plants10020197] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/04/2020] [Revised: 01/17/2021] [Accepted: 01/18/2021] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
Maize is one of the most important cereal crop species due to its uses for human and cattle nourishment, as well as its industrial use as a raw material. The yield and grain quality of maize depend on plant establishment, which starts with germination. Germination is dependent on embryo vigor and the stored reserves in the scutellum and endosperm. During germination, the scutellum epidermis changes and secretes enzymes and hormones into the endosperm. As a result, the hydrolysis products of the reserves and the different soluble nutrients are translocated to the scutellum through epithelial cells. Then, the reserves are directed to the embryo axis to sustain its growth. Therefore, the microenvironment surrounding the scutellum modulates its function. Zinc (Zn) is a micronutrient stored in the maize scutellum and endosperm; during imbibition, Zn from the endosperm is solubilized and mobilized towards the scutellum. During this process, Zn first becomes concentrated and interacts with cell wall charges, after which excess Zn is internalized in the vacuole. Currently, the effect of high Zn concentrations on the scutellum function and germinative processes are not known. In this paper, we show that, as a function of the concentration and time of exposure, Zn causes decreases in the radicle and plumule lengths and promotes the accumulation of reactive oxygen species (ROS) and flavonoids as well as changes in the activity of the cell wall Class III peroxidase (POD), which was quantified with guaiacol or catechin in the presence of H2O2. The relationship between the activity index or proportion of POD activity in the scutellum and the changes in the flavonoid concentration is proposed as a marker of stress and the state of vigor of the embryo.
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Affiliation(s)
- David Manuel Díaz-Pontones
- Laboratory for Tissue Biochemistry, Department of Health Sciences, Division of Biological and Health Sciences, Universidad Autónoma Metropolitana-Iztapalapa, Avenida San Rafael Atlixco No 186, Col Vicentina Iztapalapa, Ciudad de México CP 09340, Mexico; (J.I.C.-C.); (C.H.-M.); (S.G.)
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8
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Dai D, Ma Z, Song R. Maize kernel development. MOLECULAR BREEDING : NEW STRATEGIES IN PLANT IMPROVEMENT 2021; 41:2. [PMID: 37309525 PMCID: PMC10231577 DOI: 10.1007/s11032-020-01195-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/28/2020] [Accepted: 12/03/2020] [Indexed: 06/14/2023]
Abstract
Maize (Zea mays) is a leading cereal crop in the world. The maize kernel is the storage organ and the harvest portion of this crop and is closely related to its yield and quality. The development of maize kernel is initiated by the double fertilization event, leading to the formation of a diploid embryo and a triploid endosperm. The embryo and endosperm are then undergone independent developmental programs, resulting in a mature maize kernel which is comprised of a persistent endosperm, a large embryo, and a maternal pericarp. Due to the well-characterized morphogenesis and powerful genetics, maize kernel has long been an excellent model for the study of cereal kernel development. In recent years, with the release of the maize reference genome and the development of new genomic technologies, there has been an explosive expansion of new knowledge for maize kernel development. In this review, we overviewed recent progress in the study of maize kernel development, with an emphasis on genetic mapping of kernel traits, transcriptome analysis during kernel development, functional gene cloning of kernel mutants, and genetic engineering of kernel traits.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dawei Dai
- State Key Laboratory of Plant Physiology and Biochemistry, National Maize Improvement Center, Beijing Key Laboratory of Crop Genetic Improvement, Joint International Research Laboratory of Crop Molecular Breeding, College of Agronomy and Biotechnology, China Agricultural University, Beijing, 100193 China
- Shanghai Key Laboratory of Bio-Energy Crops, Plant Science Center, School of Life Sciences, Shanghai University, Shanghai, 200444 China
| | - Zeyang Ma
- State Key Laboratory of Plant Physiology and Biochemistry, National Maize Improvement Center, Beijing Key Laboratory of Crop Genetic Improvement, Joint International Research Laboratory of Crop Molecular Breeding, College of Agronomy and Biotechnology, China Agricultural University, Beijing, 100193 China
| | - Rentao Song
- State Key Laboratory of Plant Physiology and Biochemistry, National Maize Improvement Center, Beijing Key Laboratory of Crop Genetic Improvement, Joint International Research Laboratory of Crop Molecular Breeding, College of Agronomy and Biotechnology, China Agricultural University, Beijing, 100193 China
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9
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Sethi M, Kumar S, Singh A, Chaudhary DP. Temporal profiling of essential amino acids in developing maize kernel of normal, opaque- 2 and QPM germplasm. PHYSIOLOGY AND MOLECULAR BIOLOGY OF PLANTS : AN INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF FUNCTIONAL PLANT BIOLOGY 2020; 26:341-351. [PMID: 32158139 PMCID: PMC7036386 DOI: 10.1007/s12298-019-00724-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/16/2019] [Revised: 09/27/2019] [Accepted: 10/16/2019] [Indexed: 06/01/2023]
Abstract
Maize, an important cereal crop, has a poor quality of endosperm protein due to the deficiency of essential amino acids, especially lysine and tryptophan. Discovery of mutants such as opaque-2 led to the development of nutritionally improved maize with a higher concentration of lysine and tryptophan. However, the pleiotropic effects associated with opaque-2 mutants necessitated the development of nutritionally improved hard kernel genotype, the present-day quality protein maize (QPM). The aim of present study was to analyze and compare the temporal profile of lysine and tryptophan in the developing maize kernel of normal, opaque-2 and QPM lines. A declining trend in protein along with tryptophan and lysine content was observed with increasing kernel maturity in the experimental genotypes. However, opaque-2 retained the maximum concentration of lysine (3.43) and tryptophan (1.09) at maturity as compared to QPM (lysine-3.05, tryptophan-0.99) and normal (lysine-1.99, tryptophan-0.45) lines. Opaque-2 mutation affects protein quality but has no effect on protein quantity. All maize types are nutritionally rich at early stages of kernel development indicating that early harvest for cattle feed would ensure a higher intake of lysine and tryptophan. Two promising lines (CML44 and HKI 1105) can be used for breeding high value corn for cattle feed or human food in order to fill the protein inadequacy gap. Variation in lysine and tryptophan content within QPM lines revealed that differential expression of endosperm modifiers with varying genetic background significantly affects nutritional quality, indicating that identification of alleles affecting amino acid composition can further facilitate QPM breeding program.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mehak Sethi
- Department of Biochemistry, College of Basic Sciences and Humanities, Punjab Agricultural University, Ludhiana, Punjab 141004 India
| | - Sanjeev Kumar
- Department of Biochemistry, College of Basic Sciences and Humanities, Punjab Agricultural University, Ludhiana, Punjab 141004 India
| | - Alla Singh
- ICAR-Indian Institute of Maize Research, Ludhiana, Punjab 141004 India
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10
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Niu L, Ding H, Zhang J, Wang W. Proteomic Analysis of Starch Biosynthesis in Maize Seeds. STARCH-STARKE 2019. [DOI: 10.1002/star.201800294] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/29/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Liangjie Niu
- State Key Laboratory of Wheat & Maize Crop ScienceCollege of Life SciencesHenan Agricultural UniversityZhengzhouP. R. China
| | - Huiying Ding
- State Key Laboratory of Wheat & Maize Crop ScienceCollege of Life SciencesHenan Agricultural UniversityZhengzhouP. R. China
| | - Jinghua Zhang
- State Key Laboratory of Wheat & Maize Crop ScienceCollege of Life SciencesHenan Agricultural UniversityZhengzhouP. R. China
| | - Wei Wang
- State Key Laboratory of Wheat & Maize Crop ScienceCollege of Life SciencesHenan Agricultural UniversityZhengzhouP. R. China
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11
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Yang L, Fountain JC, Ji P, Ni X, Chen S, Lee RD, Kemerait RC, Guo B. Deciphering drought-induced metabolic responses and regulation in developing maize kernels. PLANT BIOTECHNOLOGY JOURNAL 2018; 16:1616-1628. [PMID: 29431900 PMCID: PMC6097124 DOI: 10.1111/pbi.12899] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/16/2017] [Revised: 01/31/2018] [Accepted: 02/03/2018] [Indexed: 05/07/2023]
Abstract
Drought stress conditions decrease maize growth and yield, and aggravate preharvest aflatoxin contamination. While several studies have been performed on mature kernels responding to drought stress, the metabolic profiles of developing kernels are not as well characterized, particularly in germplasm with contrasting resistance to both drought and mycotoxin contamination. Here, following screening for drought tolerance, a drought-sensitive line, B73, and a drought-tolerant line, Lo964, were selected and stressed beginning at 14 days after pollination. Developing kernels were sampled 7 and 14 days after drought induction (DAI) from both stressed and irrigated plants. Comparative biochemical and metabolomic analyses profiled 409 differentially accumulated metabolites. Multivariate statistics and pathway analyses showed that drought stress induced an accumulation of simple sugars and polyunsaturated fatty acids and a decrease in amines, polyamines and dipeptides in B73. Conversely, sphingolipid, sterol, phenylpropanoid and dipeptide metabolites accumulated in Lo964 under drought stress. Drought stress also resulted in the greater accumulation of reactive oxygen species (ROS) and aflatoxin in kernels of B73 in comparison with Lo964 implying a correlation in their production. Overall, field drought treatments disordered a cascade of normal metabolic programming during development of maize kernels and subsequently caused oxidative stress. The glutathione and urea cycles along with the metabolism of carbohydrates and lipids for osmoprotection, membrane maintenance and antioxidant protection were central among the drought stress responses observed in developing kernels. These results also provide novel targets to enhance host drought tolerance and disease resistance through the use of biotechnologies such as transgenics and genome editing.
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Affiliation(s)
- Liming Yang
- USDA‐ARS, Crop Protection and Management Research UnitTiftonGAUSA
- Department of Plant PathologyUniversity of GeorgiaTiftonGAUSA
- College of Biology and the EnvironmentNanjing Forestry UniversityNanjingJiangsuChina
| | - Jake C. Fountain
- USDA‐ARS, Crop Protection and Management Research UnitTiftonGAUSA
- Department of Plant PathologyUniversity of GeorgiaTiftonGAUSA
| | - Pingsheng Ji
- Department of Plant PathologyUniversity of GeorgiaTiftonGAUSA
| | - Xinzhi Ni
- USDA‐ARS, Crop Genetics and Breeding Research UnitTiftonGAUSA
| | - Sixue Chen
- Department of Biology, Genetics Institute, and Plant Molecular & Cellular Biology ProgramUniversity of FloridaGainesvilleFLUSA
| | - Robert D. Lee
- Department of Crop and Soil SciencesUniversity of GeorgiaTiftonGAUSA
| | | | - Baozhu Guo
- USDA‐ARS, Crop Protection and Management Research UnitTiftonGAUSA
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12
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Yang M, Chen L, Wu X, Gao X, Li C, Song Y, Zhang D, Shi Y, Li Y, Li YX, Wang T. Characterization and fine mapping of qkc7.03: a major locus for kernel cracking in maize. TAG. THEORETICAL AND APPLIED GENETICS. THEORETISCHE UND ANGEWANDTE GENETIK 2018; 131:437-448. [PMID: 29143067 DOI: 10.1007/s00122-017-3012-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/01/2017] [Accepted: 10/26/2017] [Indexed: 05/20/2023]
Abstract
A major locus conferring kernel cracking in maize was characterized and fine mapped to an interval of 416.27 kb. Meanwhile, combining the results of transcriptomic analysis, the candidate gene was inferred. Seed development requires a proper structural and physiological balance between the maternal tissues and the internal structures of the seeds. In maize, kernel cracking is a disorder in this balance that seriously limits quality and yield and is characterized by a cracked pericarp at the kernel top and endosperm everting. This study elucidated the genetic basis and characterization of kernel cracking. Primarily, a near isogenic line (NIL) with a B73 background exhibited steady kernel cracking across environments. Therefore, deprived mapping populations were developed from this NIL and its recurrent parent B73. A major locus on chromosome 7, qkc7.03, was identified to be associated with the cracking performance. According to a progeny test of recombination events, qkc7.03 was fine mapped to a physical interval of 416.27 kb. In addition, obvious differences were observed in embryo development and starch granule arrangement within the endosperm between the NIL and its recurrent parent upon the occurrence of kernel cracking. Moreover, compared to its recurrent parent, the transcriptome of the NIL showed a significantly down-regulated expression of genes related to zeins, carbohydrate synthesis and MADS-domain transcription factors. The transcriptomic analysis revealed ten annotated genes within the target region of qkc7.03, and only GRMZM5G899476 was differently expressed between the NIL and its recurrent parent, indicating that this gene might be a candidate gene for kernel cracking. The results of this study facilitate the understanding of the potential mechanism underlying kernel cracking in maize.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mingtao Yang
- Institute of Crop Sciences, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences/National Key Facility for Crop Gene Resources and Genetic Improvement, Beijing, 100081, China
| | - Lin Chen
- Institute of Crop Sciences, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences/National Key Facility for Crop Gene Resources and Genetic Improvement, Beijing, 100081, China
| | - Xun Wu
- Institute of Crop Sciences, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences/National Key Facility for Crop Gene Resources and Genetic Improvement, Beijing, 100081, China
| | - Xing Gao
- Institute of Crop Sciences, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences/National Key Facility for Crop Gene Resources and Genetic Improvement, Beijing, 100081, China
| | - Chunhui Li
- Institute of Crop Sciences, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences/National Key Facility for Crop Gene Resources and Genetic Improvement, Beijing, 100081, China
| | - Yanchun Song
- Institute of Crop Sciences, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences/National Key Facility for Crop Gene Resources and Genetic Improvement, Beijing, 100081, China
| | - Dengfeng Zhang
- Institute of Crop Sciences, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences/National Key Facility for Crop Gene Resources and Genetic Improvement, Beijing, 100081, China
| | - Yunsu Shi
- Institute of Crop Sciences, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences/National Key Facility for Crop Gene Resources and Genetic Improvement, Beijing, 100081, China
| | - Yu Li
- Institute of Crop Sciences, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences/National Key Facility for Crop Gene Resources and Genetic Improvement, Beijing, 100081, China
| | - Yong-Xiang Li
- Institute of Crop Sciences, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences/National Key Facility for Crop Gene Resources and Genetic Improvement, Beijing, 100081, China.
| | - Tianyu Wang
- Institute of Crop Sciences, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences/National Key Facility for Crop Gene Resources and Genetic Improvement, Beijing, 100081, China.
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13
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Xing L, Zhu M, Zhang M, Li W, Jiang H, Zou J, Wang L, Xu M. High-Throughput Sequencing of Small RNA Transcriptomes in Maize Kernel Identifies miRNAs Involved in Embryo and Endosperm Development. Genes (Basel) 2017; 8:genes8120385. [PMID: 29240690 PMCID: PMC5748703 DOI: 10.3390/genes8120385] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/02/2017] [Revised: 12/07/2017] [Accepted: 12/07/2017] [Indexed: 12/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Maize kernel development is a complex biological process that involves the temporal and spatial expression of many genes and fine gene regulation at a transcriptional and post-transcriptional level, and microRNAs (miRNAs) play vital roles during this process. To gain insight into miRNA-mediated regulation of maize kernel development, a deep-sequencing technique was used to investigate the dynamic expression of miRNAs in the embryo and endosperm at three developmental stages in B73. By miRNA transcriptomic analysis, we characterized 132 known miRNAs and six novel miRNAs in developing maize kernel, among which, 15 and 14 miRNAs were commonly differentially expressed between the embryo and endosperm at 9 days after pollination (DAP), 15 DAP and 20 DAP respectively. Conserved miRNA families such as miR159, miR160, miR166, miR390, miR319, miR528 and miR529 were highly expressed in developing embryos; miR164, miR171, miR393 and miR2118 were highly expressed in developing endosperm. Genes targeted by those highly expressed miRNAs were found to be largely related to a regulation category, including the transcription, macromolecule biosynthetic and metabolic process in the embryo as well as the vitamin biosynthetic and metabolic process in the endosperm. Quantitative reverse transcription-PCR (qRT-PCR) analysis showed that these miRNAs displayed a negative correlation with the levels of their corresponding target genes. Importantly, our findings revealed that members of the miR169 family were highly and dynamically expressed in the developing kernel, which will help to exploit new players functioning in maize kernel development.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lijuan Xing
- Biotechnology Research Institute, The National Key Facility for Crop Gene Resources and Genetic Improvement, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Beijing 100081, China.
| | - Ming Zhu
- Biotechnology Research Institute, The National Key Facility for Crop Gene Resources and Genetic Improvement, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Beijing 100081, China.
- School of Life Sciences, Anhui Agricultural University, Hefei 230036, China.
| | - Min Zhang
- Biotechnology Research Institute, The National Key Facility for Crop Gene Resources and Genetic Improvement, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Beijing 100081, China.
| | - Wenzong Li
- Biotechnology Research Institute, The National Key Facility for Crop Gene Resources and Genetic Improvement, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Beijing 100081, China.
| | - Haiyang Jiang
- School of Life Sciences, Anhui Agricultural University, Hefei 230036, China.
| | - Junjie Zou
- Biotechnology Research Institute, The National Key Facility for Crop Gene Resources and Genetic Improvement, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Beijing 100081, China.
| | - Lei Wang
- Biotechnology Research Institute, The National Key Facility for Crop Gene Resources and Genetic Improvement, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Beijing 100081, China.
| | - Miaoyun Xu
- Biotechnology Research Institute, The National Key Facility for Crop Gene Resources and Genetic Improvement, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Beijing 100081, China.
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14
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Doll NM, Depège-Fargeix N, Rogowsky PM, Widiez T. Signaling in Early Maize Kernel Development. MOLECULAR PLANT 2017; 10:375-388. [PMID: 28267956 DOI: 10.1016/j.molp.2017.01.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 66] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/30/2016] [Revised: 01/18/2017] [Accepted: 01/19/2017] [Indexed: 05/26/2023]
Abstract
Developing the next plant generation within the seed requires the coordination of complex programs driving pattern formation, growth, and differentiation of the three main seed compartments: the embryo (future plant), the endosperm (storage compartment), representing the two filial tissues, and the surrounding maternal tissues. This review focuses on the signaling pathways and molecular players involved in early maize kernel development. In the 2 weeks following pollination, functional tissues are shaped from single cells, readying the kernel for filling with storage compounds. Although the overall picture of the signaling pathways regulating embryo and endosperm development remains fragmentary, several types of molecular actors, such as hormones, sugars, or peptides, have been shown to be involved in particular aspects of these developmental processes. These molecular actors are likely to be components of signaling pathways that lead to transcriptional programming mediated by transcriptional factors. Through the integrated action of these components, multiple types of information received by cells or tissues lead to the correct differentiation and patterning of kernel compartments. In this review, recent advances regarding the four types of molecular actors (hormones, sugars, peptides/receptors, and transcription factors) involved in early maize development are presented.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nicolas M Doll
- Laboratoire Reproduction et Développement des Plantes, Univ Lyon, ENS de Lyon, UCB Lyon 1, CNRS, INRA, 69342 Lyon, France
| | - Nathalie Depège-Fargeix
- Laboratoire Reproduction et Développement des Plantes, Univ Lyon, ENS de Lyon, UCB Lyon 1, CNRS, INRA, 69342 Lyon, France
| | - Peter M Rogowsky
- Laboratoire Reproduction et Développement des Plantes, Univ Lyon, ENS de Lyon, UCB Lyon 1, CNRS, INRA, 69342 Lyon, France
| | - Thomas Widiez
- Laboratoire Reproduction et Développement des Plantes, Univ Lyon, ENS de Lyon, UCB Lyon 1, CNRS, INRA, 69342 Lyon, France.
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15
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Li D, Liu Z, Gao L, Wang L, Gao M, Jiao Z, Qiao H, Yang J, Chen M, Yao L, Liu R, Kan Y. Genome-Wide Identification and Characterization of microRNAs in Developing Grains of Zea mays L. PLoS One 2016; 11:e0153168. [PMID: 27082634 PMCID: PMC4833412 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0153168] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/09/2015] [Accepted: 03/24/2016] [Indexed: 11/23/2022] Open
Abstract
The development and maturation of maize kernel involves meticulous and fine gene regulation at transcriptional and post-transcriptional levels, and miRNAs play important roles during this process. Although a number of miRNAs have been identified in maize seed, the ones involved in the early development of grains and in different lines of maize have not been well studied. Here, we profiled four small RNA libraries, each constructed from groups of immature grains of Zea mays inbred line Chang 7–2 collected 4–6, 7–9, 12–14, and 18–23 days after pollination (DAP). A total of 40 known (containing 111 unique miRNAs) and 162 novel (containing 196 unique miRNA candidates) miRNA families were identified. For conserved and novel miRNAs with over 100 total reads, 44% had higher accumulation before the 9th DAP, especially miR166 family members. 42% of miRNAs had highest accumulation during 12–14 DAP (which is the transition stage from embryogenesis to nutrient storage). Only 14% of miRNAs had higher expression 18–23 DAP. Prediction of potential targets of all miRNAs showed that 165 miRNA families had 377 target genes. For miR164 and miR166, we showed that the transcriptional levels of their target genes were significantly decreased when co-expressed with their cognate miRNA precursors in vivo. Further analysis shows miR159, miR164, miR166, miR171, miR390, miR399, and miR529 families have putative roles in the embryogenesis of maize grain development by participating in transcriptional regulation and morphogenesis, while miR167 and miR528 families participate in metabolism process and stress response during nutrient storage. Our study is the first to present an integrated dynamic expression pattern of miRNAs during maize kernel formation and maturation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dandan Li
- China-UK-NYNU-RRes Joint Libratory of insect biology, Nanyang Normal University, Nanyang, Henan, China
| | - Zongcai Liu
- China-UK-NYNU-RRes Joint Libratory of insect biology, Nanyang Normal University, Nanyang, Henan, China
| | - Lei Gao
- Department of Botany and Plant Sciences, University of California, Riverside, California, United States of America
| | - Lifang Wang
- China-UK-NYNU-RRes Joint Libratory of insect biology, Nanyang Normal University, Nanyang, Henan, China
| | - Meijuan Gao
- China-UK-NYNU-RRes Joint Libratory of insect biology, Nanyang Normal University, Nanyang, Henan, China
| | - Zhujin Jiao
- China-UK-NYNU-RRes Joint Libratory of insect biology, Nanyang Normal University, Nanyang, Henan, China
| | - Huili Qiao
- China-UK-NYNU-RRes Joint Libratory of insect biology, Nanyang Normal University, Nanyang, Henan, China
| | - Jianwei Yang
- China-UK-NYNU-RRes Joint Libratory of insect biology, Nanyang Normal University, Nanyang, Henan, China
| | - Min Chen
- China-UK-NYNU-RRes Joint Libratory of insect biology, Nanyang Normal University, Nanyang, Henan, China
| | - Lunguang Yao
- China-UK-NYNU-RRes Joint Libratory of insect biology, Nanyang Normal University, Nanyang, Henan, China
| | - Renyi Liu
- Department of Botany and Plant Sciences, University of California, Riverside, California, United States of America
- * E-mail: (RYL); (YCK)
| | - Yunchao Kan
- China-UK-NYNU-RRes Joint Libratory of insect biology, Nanyang Normal University, Nanyang, Henan, China
- * E-mail: (RYL); (YCK)
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16
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Grimault A, Gendrot G, Chamot S, Widiez T, Rabillé H, Gérentes MF, Creff A, Thévenin J, Dubreucq B, Ingram GC, Rogowsky PM, Depège-Fargeix N. ZmZHOUPI, an endosperm-specific basic helix-loop-helix transcription factor involved in maize seed development. THE PLANT JOURNAL : FOR CELL AND MOLECULAR BIOLOGY 2015; 84:574-86. [PMID: 26361885 DOI: 10.1111/tpj.13024] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/07/2015] [Revised: 08/28/2015] [Accepted: 09/03/2015] [Indexed: 05/05/2023]
Abstract
In angiosperm seeds the embryo is embedded within the endosperm, which is in turn enveloped by the seed coat, making inter-compartmental communication essential for coordinated seed growth. In this context the basic helix-loop-helix domain transcription factor AtZHOUPI (AtZOU) fulfils a key role in both the lysis of the transient endosperm and in embryo cuticle formation in Arabidopsis thaliana. In maize (Zea mays), a cereal with a persistent endosperm, a single gene, ZmZOU, falls into the same phylogenetic clade as AtZOU. Its expression is limited to the endosperm where it peaks during the filling stage. In ZmZOU-RNA interference knock-down lines embryo size is slightly reduced and the embryonic suspensor and the adjacent embryo surrounding region show retarded breakdown. Ectopic expression of ZmZOU reduces stomatal number, possibly due to inappropriate protein interactions. ZmZOU forms functional heterodimers with AtICE/AtSCREAM and the closely related maize proteins ZmICEb and ZmICEc, but its interaction is more efficient with the ZmICEa protein, which shows sequence divergence and only has close homologues in other monocotyledonous species. Consistent with the observation that these complexes can trans-activate target gene promoters from Arabidopsis, ZmZOU partially complements the Atzou-4 mutant. However, structural, trans-activation and gene expression data support the hypothesis that ZmZOU and ZmICEa may have coevolved to form a functional complex unique to monocot seeds. This divergence may explain the reduced functionality of ZmZOU in Arabidopsis, and reflect functional specificities which are unique to the monocotyledon lineage.
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Affiliation(s)
- Aurélie Grimault
- Université de Lyon, Ecole Normale Supérieure de Lyon, Université Lyon 1, Unité Reproduction et Développement des Plantes, F-69364, Lyon, France
- INRA, UMR879 Reproduction et Développement des Plantes, F-69364, Lyon, France
- CNRS, UMR5667 Reproduction et Développement des Plantes, F-69364, Lyon, France
| | - Ghislaine Gendrot
- Université de Lyon, Ecole Normale Supérieure de Lyon, Université Lyon 1, Unité Reproduction et Développement des Plantes, F-69364, Lyon, France
- INRA, UMR879 Reproduction et Développement des Plantes, F-69364, Lyon, France
- CNRS, UMR5667 Reproduction et Développement des Plantes, F-69364, Lyon, France
| | - Sophy Chamot
- Université de Lyon, Ecole Normale Supérieure de Lyon, Université Lyon 1, Unité Reproduction et Développement des Plantes, F-69364, Lyon, France
- INRA, UMR879 Reproduction et Développement des Plantes, F-69364, Lyon, France
- CNRS, UMR5667 Reproduction et Développement des Plantes, F-69364, Lyon, France
| | - Thomas Widiez
- Université de Lyon, Ecole Normale Supérieure de Lyon, Université Lyon 1, Unité Reproduction et Développement des Plantes, F-69364, Lyon, France
- INRA, UMR879 Reproduction et Développement des Plantes, F-69364, Lyon, France
- CNRS, UMR5667 Reproduction et Développement des Plantes, F-69364, Lyon, France
| | - Hervé Rabillé
- Université de Lyon, Ecole Normale Supérieure de Lyon, Université Lyon 1, Unité Reproduction et Développement des Plantes, F-69364, Lyon, France
- INRA, UMR879 Reproduction et Développement des Plantes, F-69364, Lyon, France
- CNRS, UMR5667 Reproduction et Développement des Plantes, F-69364, Lyon, France
| | - Marie-France Gérentes
- Université de Lyon, Ecole Normale Supérieure de Lyon, Université Lyon 1, Unité Reproduction et Développement des Plantes, F-69364, Lyon, France
- INRA, UMR879 Reproduction et Développement des Plantes, F-69364, Lyon, France
- CNRS, UMR5667 Reproduction et Développement des Plantes, F-69364, Lyon, France
| | - Audrey Creff
- Université de Lyon, Ecole Normale Supérieure de Lyon, Université Lyon 1, Unité Reproduction et Développement des Plantes, F-69364, Lyon, France
- INRA, UMR879 Reproduction et Développement des Plantes, F-69364, Lyon, France
- CNRS, UMR5667 Reproduction et Développement des Plantes, F-69364, Lyon, France
| | - Johanne Thévenin
- INRA, UMR1318, Institut Jean-Pierre Bourgin, Saclay Plant Sciences, Versailles, France
- AgroParisTech, Institut Jean-Pierre Bourgin, Saclay Plant Sciences, Versailles, France
| | - Bertrand Dubreucq
- INRA, UMR1318, Institut Jean-Pierre Bourgin, Saclay Plant Sciences, Versailles, France
- AgroParisTech, Institut Jean-Pierre Bourgin, Saclay Plant Sciences, Versailles, France
| | - Gwyneth C Ingram
- Université de Lyon, Ecole Normale Supérieure de Lyon, Université Lyon 1, Unité Reproduction et Développement des Plantes, F-69364, Lyon, France
- INRA, UMR879 Reproduction et Développement des Plantes, F-69364, Lyon, France
- CNRS, UMR5667 Reproduction et Développement des Plantes, F-69364, Lyon, France
| | - Peter M Rogowsky
- Université de Lyon, Ecole Normale Supérieure de Lyon, Université Lyon 1, Unité Reproduction et Développement des Plantes, F-69364, Lyon, France
- INRA, UMR879 Reproduction et Développement des Plantes, F-69364, Lyon, France
- CNRS, UMR5667 Reproduction et Développement des Plantes, F-69364, Lyon, France
| | - Nathalie Depège-Fargeix
- Université de Lyon, Ecole Normale Supérieure de Lyon, Université Lyon 1, Unité Reproduction et Développement des Plantes, F-69364, Lyon, France
- INRA, UMR879 Reproduction et Développement des Plantes, F-69364, Lyon, France
- CNRS, UMR5667 Reproduction et Développement des Plantes, F-69364, Lyon, France
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17
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Peroxidase activity in scutella of maize in association with anatomical changes during germination and grain storage. SPRINGERPLUS 2014; 3:399. [PMID: 25120948 PMCID: PMC4128954 DOI: 10.1186/2193-1801-3-399] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/11/2014] [Accepted: 07/29/2014] [Indexed: 02/03/2023]
Abstract
The embryo of the maize grain (Zea mays L.) is separated from the starchy endosperm by a fibrous structure, which is called the fibrous layer (FL). Using histochemical staining, it was determined that the FL is composed of collapsed cellular layers that contain phenols, neutral lipids, and 1,3-β-glucan. Due to its composition, the FL prevents free diffusion and separates the embryo from the endosperm during germination. Twenty-four hours after imbibition, the scutellum epidermis initiated a series of asynchronous spatial modifications, including cell growth, the perforation of cell walls, increased peroxidase activity in the apoplastic space, and elevated levels of superoxide, phenols, and other components that interact with the fibrous layer, enabling its transformation in addition to the free flow between compartments. During storage at high relative humidity levels, which leads to fast or slow deterioration depending on the temperature, the activity of phenol peroxidase in the scutellum was associated with a loss of vigor and reduced germination capacity when compared with low temperature and low relative humidity conditions. Such deterioration is associated with alterations in autofluorescent emissions from endogenous compounds in the scutellum, indicating changes in the microenvironment or in the differential proportions of epidermal and FL components.
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18
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Fu J, Cheng Y, Linghu J, Yang X, Kang L, Zhang Z, Zhang J, He C, Du X, Peng Z, Wang B, Zhai L, Dai C, Xu J, Wang W, Li X, Zheng J, Chen L, Luo L, Liu J, Qian X, Yan J, Wang J, Wang G. RNA sequencing reveals the complex regulatory network in the maize kernel. Nat Commun 2014; 4:2832. [PMID: 24343161 DOI: 10.1038/ncomms3832] [Citation(s) in RCA: 186] [Impact Index Per Article: 18.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/23/2013] [Accepted: 10/29/2013] [Indexed: 01/19/2023] Open
Abstract
RNA sequencing can simultaneously identify exonic polymorphisms and quantitate gene expression. Here we report RNA sequencing of developing maize kernels from 368 inbred lines producing 25.8 billion reads and 3.6 million single-nucleotide polymorphisms. Both the MaizeSNP50 BeadChip and the Sequenom MassArray iPLEX platforms confirm a subset of high-quality SNPs. Of these SNPs, we have mapped 931,484 to gene regions with a mean density of 40.3 SNPs per gene. The genome-wide association study identifies 16,408 expression quantitative trait loci. A two-step approach defines 95.1% of the eQTLs to a 10-kb region, and 67.7% of them include a single gene. The establishment of relationships between eQTLs and their targets reveals a large-scale gene regulatory network, which include the regulation of 31 zein and 16 key kernel genes. These results contribute to our understanding of kernel development and to the improvement of maize yield and nutritional quality.
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Affiliation(s)
- Junjie Fu
- Institute of Crop Science, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Beijing 100081, China
| | | | - Jingjing Linghu
- National Maize Improvement Center of China, Beijing Key Laboratory of Crop Genetic Improvement, China Agricultural University, Beijing 100193, China
| | - Xiaohong Yang
- National Maize Improvement Center of China, Beijing Key Laboratory of Crop Genetic Improvement, China Agricultural University, Beijing 100193, China
| | - Lin Kang
- Beijing Genomics Institute, Shenzhen 518083, China
| | - Zuxin Zhang
- National Key Laboratory of Crop Genetic Improvement, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan 430070, China
| | - Jie Zhang
- National Maize Improvement Center of China, Beijing Key Laboratory of Crop Genetic Improvement, China Agricultural University, Beijing 100193, China
| | - Cheng He
- National Maize Improvement Center of China, Beijing Key Laboratory of Crop Genetic Improvement, China Agricultural University, Beijing 100193, China
| | - Xuemei Du
- National Maize Improvement Center of China, Beijing Key Laboratory of Crop Genetic Improvement, China Agricultural University, Beijing 100193, China
| | - Zhiyu Peng
- Beijing Genomics Institute, Shenzhen 518083, China
| | - Bo Wang
- National Maize Improvement Center of China, Beijing Key Laboratory of Crop Genetic Improvement, China Agricultural University, Beijing 100193, China
| | - Lihong Zhai
- National Key Laboratory of Crop Genetic Improvement, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan 430070, China
| | - Changmin Dai
- Beijing Genomics Institute, Shenzhen 518083, China
| | - Jiabao Xu
- Beijing Genomics Institute, Shenzhen 518083, China
| | - Weidong Wang
- National Maize Improvement Center of China, Beijing Key Laboratory of Crop Genetic Improvement, China Agricultural University, Beijing 100193, China
| | - Xiangru Li
- Beijing Genomics Institute, Shenzhen 518083, China
| | - Jun Zheng
- Institute of Crop Science, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Beijing 100081, China
| | - Li Chen
- Beijing Genomics Institute, Shenzhen 518083, China
| | - Longhai Luo
- Beijing Genomics Institute, Shenzhen 518083, China
| | - Junjie Liu
- Beijing Genomics Institute, Shenzhen 518083, China
| | - Xiaoju Qian
- Beijing Genomics Institute, Shenzhen 518083, China
| | - Jianbing Yan
- National Key Laboratory of Crop Genetic Improvement, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan 430070, China
| | - Jun Wang
- Beijing Genomics Institute, Shenzhen 518083, China
| | - Guoying Wang
- Institute of Crop Science, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Beijing 100081, China
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19
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Muñiz LM, Gómez E, Guyon V, López M, Khbaya B, Sellam O, Peréz P, Hueros G. A PCR-based forward genetics screening, using expression domain-specific markers, identifies mutants in endosperm transfer cell development. FRONTIERS IN PLANT SCIENCE 2014; 5:158. [PMID: 24808899 PMCID: PMC4009440 DOI: 10.3389/fpls.2014.00158] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/12/2014] [Accepted: 04/06/2014] [Indexed: 05/07/2023]
Abstract
Mutant collections are an invaluable source of material on which forward genetic approaches allow the identification of genes affecting a wide variety of biological processes. However, some particular developmental stages and morphological structures may resist analysis due to their physical inaccessibility or to deleterious effects associated to their modification. Furthermore, lethal mutations acting early in development may escape detection. We have approached the characterization of 101 maize seed mutants, selected from a collection of 27,500 visually screened Mu-insertion lines, using a molecular marker approach based on a set of genes previously ascribed to different tissue compartments within the early developing kernel. A streamlined combination of qRT-PCR assays has allowed us to preliminary pinpoint the affected compartment, establish developmental comparisons to WT siblings and select mutant lines with alterations in the different compartments. Furthermore, clusters of markers co-affected by the underlying mutation were identified. We have analyzed more extensively a set of lines presenting significant variation in transfer cell-associated expression markers, and have performed morphological observations, and immunolocalization experiments to confirm the results, validating this approach as an efficient mutant description tool.
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Affiliation(s)
- Luis M. Muñiz
- Departamento Biomedicina and Biotecnología (Genética), Universidad de AlcaláAlcalá de Henares, Spain
| | - Elisa Gómez
- Departamento Biomedicina and Biotecnología (Genética), Universidad de AlcaláAlcalá de Henares, Spain
| | - Virginie Guyon
- GM Trait Discovery, Biogemma, Centre de Recherche de ChappesChappes, France
| | - Maribel López
- Departamento Biomedicina and Biotecnología (Genética), Universidad de AlcaláAlcalá de Henares, Spain
| | - Bouchaib Khbaya
- GM Trait Discovery, Biogemma, Centre de Recherche de ChappesChappes, France
| | - Olivier Sellam
- GM Trait Discovery, Biogemma, Centre de Recherche de ChappesChappes, France
| | - Pascual Peréz
- GM Trait Discovery, Biogemma, Centre de Recherche de ChappesChappes, France
| | - Gregorio Hueros
- Departamento Biomedicina and Biotecnología (Genética), Universidad de AlcaláAlcalá de Henares, Spain
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20
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Reconstruction of protein networks from an atlas of maize seed proteotypes. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2013; 110:E4808-17. [PMID: 24248366 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.1319113110] [Citation(s) in RCA: 94] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/11/2023] Open
Abstract
A comprehensive knowledge of proteomic states is essential for understanding biological systems. Using mass spectrometry, we mapped an atlas of developing maize seed proteotypes comprising 14,165 proteins and 18,405 phosphopeptides (from 4,511 proteins), quantified across eight tissues. We found that many of the most abundant proteins are not associated with detectable levels of their mRNAs, and we provide evidence for three potential explanations: transport of proteins between tissues; diurnal, out-of-phase accumulation of mRNAs and cognate proteins; and differential lifetimes of mRNAs compared with proteins. Likewise, many of the most abundant mRNAs were not associated with detectable levels of their proteins. Across the entire dataset, protein abundance was poorly correlated with mRNA levels and was largely independent of phosphorylation status. Comparisons between proteotypes revealed the quantitative contribution of specific proteins and phosphorylation events to the spatially and temporally regulated starch and oil biosynthetic pathways. Reconstruction of signaling networks established associations of proteins and phosphoproteins with distinct biological processes acting during seed development. Additionally, a protein kinase substrate network was reconstructed, enabling the identification of 762 potential substrates of specific protein kinases. Finally, examination of 694 transcription factors revealed remarkable constraints on patterns of expression and phosphorylation within transcription factor families. These results provide a resource for understanding seed development in a crop that is the foundation of modern agriculture.
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21
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Sreenivasulu N, Wobus U. Seed-development programs: a systems biology-based comparison between dicots and monocots. ANNUAL REVIEW OF PLANT BIOLOGY 2013; 64:189-217. [PMID: 23451786 DOI: 10.1146/annurev-arplant-050312-120215] [Citation(s) in RCA: 143] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/18/2023]
Abstract
Seeds develop differently in dicots and monocots, especially with respect to the major storage organs. High-resolution transcriptome data have provided the first insights into the molecular networks and pathway interactions that function during the development of individual seed compartments. Here, we review mainly recent data obtained by systems biology-based approaches, which have allowed researchers to construct and model complex metabolic networks and fluxes and identify key limiting steps in seed development. Comparative coexpression network analyses define evolutionarily conservative (FUS3/ABI3/LEC1) and divergent (LEC2) networks in dicots and monocots. Finally, we discuss the determination of seed size--an important yield-related characteristic--as mediated by a number of processes (maternal and epigenetic factors, fine-tuned regulation of cell death in distinct seed compartments, and endosperm growth) and underlying genes defined through mutant analyses. Altogether, systems approaches can make important contributions toward a more complete and holistic knowledge of seed biology and thus support strategies for knowledge-based molecular breeding.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nese Sreenivasulu
- Leibniz Institute of Plant Genetics and Crop Plant Research (IPK), D-06466 Gatersleben, Germany.
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22
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Luo M, Liu J, Lee RD, Scully BT, Guo B. Monitoring the expression of maize genes in developing kernels under drought stress using oligo-microarray. JOURNAL OF INTEGRATIVE PLANT BIOLOGY 2010; 52:1059-74. [PMID: 21106005 DOI: 10.1111/j.1744-7909.2010.01000.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/20/2023]
Abstract
Preharvest aflatoxin contamination of grain grown on the US southeastern Coast Plain is provoked and aggravated by abiotic stress. The primary abiotic stress is drought along with high temperatures. The objectives of the present study were to monitor gene expression in developing kernels in response to drought stress and to identify drought-responsive genes for possible use in germplasm assessment. The maize breeding line Tex6 was used, and gene expression profiles were analyzed in developing kernels under drought stress verses well-watered conditions at the stages of 25, 30, 35, 40, 45 d after pollination (DAP) using the 70 mer maize oligo-arrays. A total of 9 573 positive array spots were detected with unique gene IDs, and 7 988 were common in both stressed and well-watered samples. Expression patterns of some genes in several stress response-associated pathways, including abscisic acid, jasmonic acid and phenylalanine ammonia-lyase, were examined, and these specific genes were responsive to drought stress positively. Real-time quantitative polymerase chain reaction validated microarray expression data. The comparison between Tex6 and B73 revealed that there were significant differences in specific gene expression, patterns and levels. Several defense-related genes had been downregulated, even though some defense-related or drought responsive genes were upregulated at the later stages.
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Affiliation(s)
- Meng Luo
- The University of Georgia, Department of Crop and Soil Sciences, Tifton, GA 31793, USA
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23
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Martin F, Dailey S, Settles AM. Distributed simple sequence repeat markers for efficient mapping from maize public mutagenesis populations. TAG. THEORETICAL AND APPLIED GENETICS. THEORETISCHE UND ANGEWANDTE GENETIK 2010; 121:697-704. [PMID: 20401644 DOI: 10.1007/s00122-010-1341-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/22/2009] [Accepted: 04/03/2010] [Indexed: 05/29/2023]
Abstract
The genome sequence of the B73 maize inbred enables map-based cloning of genetic variants underlying phenotypes. In parallel to sequencing efforts, multiple public mutagenesis resources are being developed predominantly in the W22 and B73 inbreds. Efficient platforms to map mutants in these genetic backgrounds would aid molecular genetic analysis of the public resources. We screened 505 simple sequence repeat markers for polymorphisms between the B73, Mo17, and W22 inbreds. Using common thermocycling conditions, 47.1% of the markers showed co-dominant polymorphisms in at least one pair of inbreds. Based on these results, we identified 85 distributed markers for mapping in all three inbred pairs. For each inbred pair, the distributed set has 64-71 polymorphic markers with a mean distance of 27-29 cM between markers. The distributed markers give nearly complete coverage of the genetic map for each inbred pair. We demonstrate the utility of the marker set for efficient placement of mutants on the maize genetic map with an example mapping experiment of a seed mutant from the UniformMu mutagenesis resource. We conclude that these distributed molecular markers enable rapid mapping of phenotypic variants from public mutagenesis populations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Federico Martin
- Horticultural Sciences Department, Plant Molecular and Cellular Biology Program, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL 32611-0690, USA
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24
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Liu YY, Li JZ, Li YL, Wei MG, Cui QX, Wang QL. Identification of differentially expressed genes at two key endosperm development stages using two maize inbreds with large and small grain and integration with detected QTL for grain weight. TAG. THEORETICAL AND APPLIED GENETICS. THEORETISCHE UND ANGEWANDTE GENETIK 2010; 121:433-47. [PMID: 20364377 DOI: 10.1007/s00122-010-1321-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/01/2009] [Accepted: 03/05/2010] [Indexed: 05/24/2023]
Abstract
Maize endosperm accounts for more than 80% of the grain weight. Cell division and grain filling are the two key stages for endosperm development. Previous studies showed that gene expression during differential stages in endosperm development is greatly different. However, information on systematic identification and characterization of the differentially expressed genes between the two stages are limited. In this study, suppression subtractive hybridization (SSH) was used to generate four subtracted cDNA libraries for the two stages using two maize inbreds with large and small grain. Totally, 4,784 differentially expressed sequence tags (ESTs) were sequenced and 902 were non-redundant, which consisted of 344 unique ESTs. Among them 192 had high sequence similarity to the GenBank entries and represent diverse of functional categories, such as metabolism, cell growth/division, transcription, signal transduction, protein destination/storage, protein synthesis and others. The expression patterns of 75.7% SSH-derived cDNAs were confirmed by reverse Northern blot and semi-quantitative reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction, and exhibited the similar results (75.0%). Genes differentially expressed between two key stages for the two inbreds were involved in diverse physiological process pathway, which might be responsible for the formation of grain weight. 43.8% (70 of the 160 unique ESTs) of the identified ESTs were assigned to 39 chromosome bins distributed over all ten maize chromosomes. Eleven ESTs were found to co-localize with previous detected QTLs for grain weight, which might be considered as the candidate genes of grain weight for further study.
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Affiliation(s)
- Y Y Liu
- College of Agriculture, Henan Agricultural University, 95 Wenhua Rd, Zhengzhou, China
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Kalamajka R, Finnie C, Grasser KD. Onset of grain filling is associated with a change in properties of linker histone variants in maize kernels. PLANTA 2010; 231:1127-35. [PMID: 20179963 DOI: 10.1007/s00425-010-1119-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/08/2010] [Accepted: 02/03/2010] [Indexed: 05/13/2023]
Abstract
In maize kernel development, the onset of grain-filling represents a major developmental switch that correlates with a massive reprogramming of gene expression. We have isolated chromosomal linker histones from developing maize kernels before (11 days after pollination, dap) and after (16 dap) initiation of storage synthesis. Six linker histone gene products were identified by MALDI-TOF mass spectrometry. A marked shift of around 4 pH units was observed for the linker histone spot pattern after 2D-gel electrophoresis when comparing the proteins of 11 and 16 dap kernels. The shift from acidic to more basic protein forms suggests a reduction in the level of post-translational modifications of linker histones during kernel development. Analysis of their DNA-binding affinity revealed that the different linker histone gene products bind double-stranded DNA with similar affinity. Interestingly, the linker histones isolated from 16 dap kernels consistently displayed a lower affinity for DNA than the proteins isolated from 11 dap kernels. These findings suggest that the affinity for DNA of the linker histones may be regulated by post-translational modification and that the reduction in DNA affinity could be involved in a more open chromatin during storage synthesis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rainer Kalamajka
- Department of Life Sciences, Aalborg University, Aalborg, Denmark
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Prioul JL, Méchin V, Damerval C. Molecular and biochemical mechanisms in maize endosperm development: The role of pyruvate-Pi-dikinase and Opaque-2 in the control of C/N ratio. C R Biol 2008; 331:772-9. [DOI: 10.1016/j.crvi.2008.07.019] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
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Jestin L, Ravel C, Auroy S, Laubin B, Perretant MR, Pont C, Charmet G. Inheritance of the number and thickness of cell layers in barley aleurone tissue (Hordeum vulgare L.): an approach using F2-F3 progeny. TAG. THEORETICAL AND APPLIED GENETICS. THEORETISCHE UND ANGEWANDTE GENETIK 2008; 116:991-1002. [PMID: 18309472 DOI: 10.1007/s00122-008-0730-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/22/2007] [Accepted: 02/09/2008] [Indexed: 05/09/2023]
Abstract
The aleurone tissue of cereal grains, nutritionally rich in minerals and vitamins, is an important target for the improvement of cereals. Inheritance of the thickness and the number of cell layers in barley aleurone was studied on the F2-F3 progeny of an Erhard Frederichen x Criolla Negra cross in which the parental lines have three or two aleurone layers, respectively. F3 grain was sampled from each F2 plant and 96.8% of the entire F3 grain population was classified as being either the 2- or 3-layer type. Using microsatellite, single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) and morphological markers on 190 F2 plants, a linkage map was built. Three quantitative trait loci (QTLs) affecting aleurone traits were revealed on chromosome 5H (max. LOD = 5.83) and chromosome 7H (max. LOD = 4.45) by interval mapping, and on chromosome 2H by marker analysis with an unmapped marker. These QTLs were consistent with genetic sub-models involving either 2-cell type dominance for 7H and 2H, or putative partial dominance for 5H where 2-cell-layer dominance and additivity gave similar LODs. The number of aleurone cell layers and aleurone thickness were strongly correlated and QTL results for these traits were alike. An SNP marker of sal1, an orthologue of the maize multilayer aleurone gene was mapped to the 7HL chromosome arm. However, the 7H QTL did not co-locate with the barley sal1 SNP, suggesting that an additional gene is involved in determining aleurone traits. These new mapping data allow comparisons to be made with related studies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Louis Jestin
- INRA, UMR1095, Amélioration et Santé des Plantes, 234 avenue du Brézet, 63100 Clermont-Ferrand, France.
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Genome-wide analysis of gene expression profiles during the kernel development of maize (Zea mays L.). Genomics 2008; 91:378-87. [PMID: 18280698 DOI: 10.1016/j.ygeno.2007.12.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 55] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/16/2007] [Revised: 10/26/2007] [Accepted: 12/05/2007] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
Abstract
Maize kernel is an important source of food, feed, and industrial raw materials. The elucidation of the molecular mechanisms of maize kernel development will be helpful for the manipulation of maize improvements. A microarray with approximately 58,000 probes was used to study dynamic gene expression during kernel development from fertilization to physiological maturity. By comparing six consecutive time points, 3445 differentially expressed genes were identified. These genes were then grouped into 10 clusters showing specific expression patterns using a K-means clustering algorithm. An investigation of function and expression patterns of genes elucidate the regulation mechanism underlying the important developmental processes cell division and kernel filling. The differential expression of genes involved in plant hormone signaling pathways suggested that phytohormone might play a critical role in the kernel developmental process. Moreover, regulation of some transcription factors and protein kinases might be involved in the whole developmental process.
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LeClere S, Schmelz EA, Chourey PS. Cell wall invertase-deficient miniature1 kernels have altered phytohormone levels. PHYTOCHEMISTRY 2008; 69:692-9. [PMID: 17964617 DOI: 10.1016/j.phytochem.2007.09.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/01/2007] [Revised: 08/28/2007] [Accepted: 09/12/2007] [Indexed: 05/08/2023]
Abstract
The Zea mays (maize) miniature1 (Mn1) locus encodes the cell wall invertase INCW2, which is localized predominantly in the basal endosperm transfer layer (BETL) of developing kernels and catalyzes conversion of sucrose into glucose and fructose. Mutations in Mn1 result in numerous changes that include a small kernel phenotype resulting from both decreased cell size and number. To explore the pleiotropic effects of this mutation, we investigated the levels of indole-3-acetic acid (IAA), abscisic acid (ABA), salicylic acid (SA), and jasmonic acid (JA) in basal regions, upper regions, and embryos of developing kernels in the inbred line W22. We measured phytohormones from 6 to 28 days after pollination (DAP) in wild type (WT) and two alleles of mn1, mn1-1 and mn1-89. IAA was the predominant hormone in kernels, with WT levels of free IAA accumulating over time to more than 2microg/g of fresh weight. Kernels of mn1-1 accumulated up to 10-fold less IAA than WT, and levels of IAA sugar conjugates were similarly reduced. Although less abundant, differences were also observed in levels of ABA, JA, and SA between WT and the mn1 alleles. SA levels were increased by as much as 10-fold in mn1-1, and mn1-89 displayed intermediate SA levels at most timepoints. These findings indicate that invertase-mediated sucrose cleavage directly or indirectly regulates the levels of key plant hormones during seed development.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sherry LeClere
- USDA-ARS1, Center for Medical and Veterinary Entomology, Chemistry Unit, 1700 SW 23rd Drive, Gainesville, FL 32608-1069, USA.
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Vaughan DA, Balázs E, Heslop-Harrison JS. From crop domestication to super-domestication. ANNALS OF BOTANY 2007; 100:893-901. [PMID: 17940074 PMCID: PMC2759215 DOI: 10.1093/aob/mcm224] [Citation(s) in RCA: 69] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/03/2007] [Revised: 08/15/2007] [Accepted: 08/20/2007] [Indexed: 05/18/2023]
Abstract
Research related to crop domestication has been transformed by technologies and discoveries in the genome sciences as well as information-related sciences that are providing new tools for bioinformatics and systems' biology. Rapid progress in archaeobotany and ethnobotany are also contributing new knowledge to understanding crop domestication. This sense of rapid progress is encapsulated in this Special Issue, which contains 18 papers by scientists in botanical, crop sciences and related disciplines on the topic of crop domestication. One paper focuses on current themes in the genetics of crop domestication across crops, whereas other papers have a crop or geographic focus. One feature of progress in the sciences related to crop domestication is the availability of well-characterized germplasm resources in the global network of genetic resources centres (genebanks). Germplasm in genebanks is providing research materials for understanding domestication as well as for plant breeding. In this review, we highlight current genetic themes related to crop domestication. Impressive progress in this field in recent years is transforming plant breeding into crop engineering to meet the human need for increased crop yield with the minimum environmental impact - we consider this to be 'super-domestication'. While the time scale of domestication of 10 000 years or less is a very short evolutionary time span, the details emerging of what has happened and what is happening provide a window to see where domestication might - and can - advance in the future.
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Affiliation(s)
- D A Vaughan
- National Institute of Agrobiological Sciences, Kannondai 2-1-2, Tsukuba 305-8602, Ibaraki, Japan.
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Méchin V, Thévenot C, Le Guilloux M, Prioul JL, Damerval C. Developmental analysis of maize endosperm proteome suggests a pivotal role for pyruvate orthophosphate dikinase. PLANT PHYSIOLOGY 2007; 143:1203-19. [PMID: 17237188 PMCID: PMC1820922 DOI: 10.1104/pp.106.092148] [Citation(s) in RCA: 73] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/07/2006] [Accepted: 01/09/2007] [Indexed: 05/13/2023]
Abstract
Although the morphological steps of maize (Zea mays) endosperm development are well described, very little is known concerning the coordinated accumulation of the numerous proteins involved. Here, we present a proteomic study of maize endosperm development. The accumulation pattern of 409 proteins at seven developmental stages was examined. Hierarchical clustering analysis allowed four main developmental profiles to be recognized. Comprehensive investigation of the functions associated with clusters resulted in a consistent picture of the developmental coordination of cellular processes. Early stages, devoted to cellularization, cell division, and cell wall deposition, corresponded to maximal expression of actin, tubulins, and cell organization proteins, of respiration metabolism (glycolysis and tricarboxylic acid cycle), and of protection against reactive oxygen species. An important protein turnover, which is likely associated with the switch from growth and differentiation to storage, was also suggested from the high amount of proteases. A relative increase of abundance of the glycolytic enzymes compared to tricarboxylic acid enzymes is consistent with the recent demonstration of anoxic conditions during starch accumulation in the endosperm. The specific late-stage accumulation of the pyruvate orthophosphate dikinase may suggest a critical role of this enzyme in the starch-protein balance through inorganic pyrophosphate-dependent restriction of ADP-glucose synthesis in addition to its usually reported influence on the alanine-aromatic amino acid synthesis balance.
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Affiliation(s)
- Valérie Méchin
- Unité Mixte de Recherche 206, Chimie Biologique, Institut National de la Recherche Agronomique, Institut National Agronomique Paris-Grignon, F-78850 Thiverval Grignon, France.
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